Chapter 1. Cultural and historical childhood phenomenon.

§ 1. Childhood as a special phenomenon of the social world.

§ 2. Evolution of childhood culture in the historical process.

Chapter II Nature and diversity of manifestations of a children's subculture.

§ 1. Picture of the child's world as building relationships in a children's subculture.

§ 2. Screen and transformation of the picture of the world of a modern child.

The dissertation (part of the author's abstract) on the topic "Phenomenon of childhood culture in the XX century"

Humanity entered the third millennium. The current stage of development characterizes the global transformation of society and man. In a single generalcyvizable space, states and peoples are involved having substantially differing levels of development. In modern public consciousness, the idea is approved that humanity is on the fracture, it is worthwhile to solve qualitatively new tasks of economic, political, social and cultural nature. Under these conditions, attention is sharpened to the anthropological problem. Each philosophical or cultural flow, the doctrine is determined by a certain idea of \u200b\u200ba person, man. The fact that the phenomenon of childhood at the beginning of the 21st century is determined by one of the priority objects of general immunitarian research.

Childhood as a certain period of human development, the age-related socio-psychological features of the child and its position in society are due to the generalistic factors: a social system and the level of cultural development. These problems require cultural reflection. Therefore, the dissertation study is aimed at a thorough analysis of the culture of childhood: to determine the conceptual apparatus covering this phenomenon to the historical and cultural formation of childhood, the status of childhood in modern society, as well as the results of understanding the designated problems in philosophy and cultural studies.

The relevance of the study of the childhood phenomenon in culture is determined by the need to develop the cultural concept of childhood, identifying new approaches to the comprehension of this phenomenon.

According to many modern researchers, at the present stage of development, as a result of a civilization crisis, including: deterioration of the physical and mental health of people (drug addiction, alcoholism, AIDS) on the one hand, and reorganization in the regions of a public organization, the actualization of the relationship between ethnic groups, layers and various population groups - on the other, there is a search for a new type of relationship between people, new social structures, the new status of a person in the world around him. The entry into the civilization space, subject to the preservation of its own individuality, is possible only through the recognition of the significance of other people. In this regard, one of the universal and concrete topics nominated to the fore, is the problem of future humanity, distinguished in the phenomenon of childhood1.

In modern humanitarian knowledge, childhood is considered as a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, which is mediated by many socio-cultural factors. The opinion according to which childhood is a stage of human formation preceding adults characterized by the development of mental functions is currently ambiguous and insufficient. With a variety of research approaches and in our time, childhood remains poorly understood, and in a certain sense, even mysterious phenomenon. Children are a completely special "population." It is very well to imagine those adults who are engaged in the study of social problems of children and are directly experiencing fears, anxiety and hopes of a modern child. Nevertheless, it should be noted that in the main mass

1 See scrap: Feldstep D.I. Childhood phenomenon and a hundred times in the development of modern society // World of Psychology. 2002, №1 (29). Pp. 9 - 20; Chistyakov V.V. Modern childhood as anthropol-methodo! Ilic problem // ibid. P. 20 - 25. Adults do not quite clearly realize the complexity and contradiction of childhood phenomenon as such.

As a result of numerous studies in the field of ethnology and anthropology, childhood received the status of a socio-historical, cultural phenomenon. Combined human essence, reassuring to culture, the child absorbs, comprehends and assigns culture, and later this is becoming a subject of cultural creativity. In the process of socialization, the adjacent person is attended by a system of values: all needs, installations, the manifestations of the child are the gift of culture and even those due to biological nature, in the process of socialization are "processed" culture1.

Thus, it is obvious that the culture of childhood is a special cultural phenomenon, the theoretical understanding of which is relevant and necessary in the modern world for modern science.

Objectives and objectives of the study. The purpose of the dissertation work is to understand and analyze the content of the concept of "culture of childhood".

In accordance with this purpose, the following tasks are allocated in the study:

Understanding the concept of "childhood" in interdisciplinary humanitarian studies;

Identifying the stages of the formation and development of childhood phenomenon in the cultural and historical process;

Consideration of the subculture of childhood as a special space of child self-realization;

Determination of the influence of an on-screen culture on a picture of the child's world in the XX century;

1 See about "scrap: Kuruleulenko EL. Historical evolution of childhood. Socio-cultural aspect // Sociology. 1998, №!. P. 21 - 35.

Analysis of the children's drawing as a method for self-realization of the creative potency of the child.

The object of the study is the culture of the 20th century, within which the formation of a phenomenon of childhood culture is becoming.

As the subject matter of the dissertation research, the formation and essence of the culture of childhood is becoming.

Hypothesis dissertation research. In the modern world, children grow rapidly, childhood phenomenon rapidly acquires all the qualities of autonomy, independence, independence, which is determined mainly by high dynamism social Development, informational changes and achievements.

Research and analysis of childhood phenomenon in a cultural and historical context allows you to put forward a suggestion according to which the essence of childhood is enclosed in its creative activity. Study of a sufficient number of sources dedicated to the topic Childhood, their analysis, classification and systematization showed that creative activity, and especially the artistic and creative side, is more realized during childhood.

The degree of scientific developing the topic of dissertation research. IN scientific literature Research in the field of history, pedagogy, childhood psychology, in which they are focused mainly, memories of him. About family, upbringing, childhood and manifestations of "childishness", as the characteristics of the spiritual world of an adult, wrote many scientists of past years. The mature generation for a long time was assessed by childhood on the basis of "adults" ideas about him.

Reflections on the meaning of childhood, its essence, status in society are contained in the writings of ancient authors - Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, Augustine Averaliy, E.Orotterdamsky, was raised this topic, in the Renaissance Epoch - L.B. Alberti, M. De Moch, etc. German philosophers G.V.F. Gegel, I.Kant, K. Marks, L. Fiherbach, I.-G. Fihte, F. Shelling also reflected on the topics of creative activity as the source and the foundations of human maturation, family and education. The concept of "childhood" as a total phase of development for the first time is formulated in the family pedagogy of the Epoch of Enlightenment, namely in the writings of K.A. Gelvetia, D. Didro, Ya.a.Komensky, I. Korchaka, J. Kka, I.G. Pestalotski , J.-Zh.Russo, in Russian pedagogy - K.D. Shushinsky, V.A.Somholylinsky, etc.

The cultural significance of human and childhood development are generally represented by the provisions of the specifically historical and philosophical approach, in particular such authors as: F. Aaries, P. Bühner, V.Vundt, K.Groos, L. Domoz, M. Dyubu-Reonmon, M . Klyain, L. Levi-Bruhl, K. Law-Stros, M.Mid, J. Piazhe, Z. Freud, E.Fromm, Y. Hayzing, V.Stern, I.Abel-Eibesfeld, E. Erickson, to . -Nung, K.Jaspers, etc.

Domestic specialists also developed this problem. In the field of history, psychology, ethnography of childhood, referring to the origins of European culture, historiography and methodology of humanitarian knowledge. These researchers include: R.G. Apresan, O. Yu.Artemova, V.G.BSROVGOV, A.A. Belik, L.S.Vugotsky, A.Ya.Gurevich, S.N. Iconnikova, G.A. Zvereva, V.V. Zenkovsky, I.S.Kon, V.T. Kudryavtsev, E.A. Kurulenko, A.R. Luria, M.V. Zorina, D.I.Feldstein, F.I.Smit, G.Shpet, and others.

Theoretical basis of dissertation research

Increasing interest in the phenomenon of childhood, indicates that this phenomenon in the modern world acquires a significant status, in contrast to the continued formation of relations to the younger generation throughout the entire historical development. A generalizing material revealing a fully culture of childhood is not yet in Russia or abroad. There is no one about the time of the appearance of a special concept of "culture of childhood" in society. Studies of the world of childhood in various fields of knowledge are subject matter of interdisciplinary nature. Among the dissertation sources, the author uses data and information from monographs, journal articles, materials of scientific conferences. In particular, the phenomenon of childhood and its place in the development of modern society in their work analyzes Feldstein D.I.; Modern childhood, as the anthropol-methodological problem, considers Chistyakov V.V., the historical evolution of childhood in a sociocultural aspect is analyzing Kuruleulenko E.A.; Cultural and historical status of childhood considers Kudryavtsev V.T. and etc.

The methodological basis of the dissertation study is:

An axiological method, justifying the role and place of culture of childhood in the modern world;

The reconstruction method tracing the development of the history of childhood throughout the various era;

Method of interpretation, contributing to the disclosure of the essence of the culture of childhood;

Method comparative analysisallowing to show the diversity of manifestations of such a phenomenon as a culture of childhood.

The work also uses methods of generalizations, empirical descriptive analyzes, which, in turn, make it possible to identify the characteristic features of the subject under study, namely, the culture of childhood in the XX century. "

Scientific novelty dissertation research

For the first time, new research priorities are identified: analysis of the historical, sociocultural and psychological and pedagogical features of the modern image of childhood, which is primarily a cultural analysis, because The concept of culture depends on the combination of these definitions.

Appeal to the problem of the phenomenon of childhood culture determines the expansion of the spectrum of the existing results of scientific research, namely, the developed methodology of polydisciplinary analysis of childhood, based on which, in the future, will be possible to conduct specific studies,

In this dissertation study, in contrast to the previous works, the focus is on the circumstance that, over time, formed independently in its development the image of childhood, given in the metaphysical aspect of the established relationship of the world of adults to the world of children, to nature, between children, etc. .

A sociocultural aspect remains poorly and extremely important, namely, the attitude of the childhood world to culture in general and to itself. In this aspect, another image of childhood can be revealed, first of all - preschool, which has devices developed harmonious integrity.

The signs of the scientific novelty of the dissertation study should include a copyright look at the picture of the world of childhood, where the central is the visual image of the world, which is a system of graphic and color values \u200b\u200brecorded in children's drawings, whose semantics are culturally due to a certain extent archetypich.

As part of the information and sign essence of the children's picture of the world, the emergence of a section - media education, which is the integral concepts of foreign and domestic researchers who set themselves the following objectives: teaching visual forms of communications and the development of "immune" personal qualities against manipulation by means of mass media.

In the dissertation study, the author proves that the modern civilization "presented" to the child a screen as a means of entertainment and learning. The child turned out to be more capable than teachers who have to eliminate "MediaBesurity". The screen as an invention of civilization generates an aggressive information environment, where the boundaries of the real and virtual world are blurred, as well as the "clip consciousness", which gives a person from contemplation and reflections, which is particularly detrimental for domestic culture, since these components are characteristic of Russian mentality. .

The practical significance of the dissertation study is determined by the author's desire to submit the generalized experience of the "past and present" as a basis for further research of the phenomenon of childhood culture.

Materials and conclusions of work can be used in the development and reading of special courses on the theory and history of culture, psychology, sociology of cultural culture, cultural anthropology, ethnography, in the preparation of relevant training programs. Published articles and theses on the topic of dissertation research will help practical activities teachers and students of universities.

Protection

1. Childhood is represented as a special phenomenon of the social world, as the necessary state of the dynamic content of society, the state of ripening the growing organism and preparation for the reproduction of the future generation. Socialization as the child grows has a determining specificity in its formation and content of the development of individuality, which is confirmed by monodisciplinary studies in the regions of philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology.

2. In the history of the culture, certain stages of the formation and formation of the concept of "childhood" were revealed, and numerous estate, class, regional, family and other variations clearly can be traced in them. Namely: the archaic society realized the relic level of pedagogical culture; Medieval consciousness did not consider childhood as a special state of a person; Renaissance Thinkers emphasized all significantness family relationships, reflecting on the debt of adults towards children; The concept of childhood as a common phase of human development was first formulated by pedagogy of the Epoch of Enlightenment. In the XIX century Childhood has become the subject of close attention of researchers, due to the emergence of scientific pediatrics. XX century It is characterized by interest in the phenomenon of childhood by various sciences. As part of the interdisciplinary approach, the phenomenon "Childhood culture" was formed, which made the subject of our study.

3. Children's subculture is characterized by special ideas of a child about the world, values \u200b\u200bthat develop in culture and the joint efforts of children and adults. In comprehending and analyzing the phenomenon of childhood in the cultural and historical context, an assumption was put forward, according to which the childhood peculiarity is determined by the existence of creative activation in it. The visual picture of the world of the child is expressed primarily in graphic and color images; Children's "philosophizing" is often due to his doubts and alarms. Within common problem The cultural understanding of the culture of childhood was carried out by an analysis of the subculture of childhood, the meaning of which to develop the child is that it is a special psychological space. Thanks to him, the child acquires "social competence" in the circle of his peers; It protects it from adverse effects of culture of adults; It also provides him with an "experimental platform" for "testing" itself and clarify the borders of its capabilities.

4. There are many specific methods of generalizing and systematizing the ideas of a child about the world around. Creativity of a child, in particular, artistic and visual - one forms of reproduction of what is his worldview, carried out in fantasies, games, dance, songs, modeling and other types of individual creative activities.

5. In modern society, audio and video and video products have a significant impact on the subculture of childhood mass media. The unlimited domination of the screen (as television, gas and computer) invaded the scope of human existence. The screen for a modern child is not so much an informant and a source of building a picture of the world as its designer. Screen culture through optical effects, "Clearness" and others transforms the traditional children's picture of the world in another (visual) reality, immersing the child into special, altered states of consciousness.

Approbation of dissertation research results

Separate provisions were discussed at seminars of the Department of Cultural Studies of the Institute of Retraining and Advanced MSU's skills. MV Lomonosov, on methodological seminars of the Department of Theory and History of Culture of the Nizhnevartovsky State pedagogical Institute. With reports on research, the author acted at conferences of various levels: at the second Russian philosophical congress: Yekaterinburg, 1999; At the district scientific and practical conference "Humanization of culture and education in the KhMAO on the threshold of the Third Millennium": Nizhnevartovsk, 2000; At the All-Russian Scientific Conference "Culture. Society. Creative ": Omsk, 2002; In the Regional Scientific and Practical Conference "Art Culture as a Phenomenon": Tyumen, 2002.

The dissertation structure is determined by the logic of the study of the theme and the sequence of resolution of the tasks. The dissertation work consists of the introduction, two chapters, conclusion and bibliography. The total volume of dissertation study 154 p.

Conclusion of dissertation on the topic "Theory and History of Culture", Savitskaya, Valeria Viktorovna

Conclusion

Summing up the study, it should be noted that the main goal of the dissertation work is to understand and analyze the modern content of the concept "culture of childhood" achieved.

Thesis confirmed the provision on the increase in the relevance of the phenomenon of childhood culture as the rapidly acquired qualities of autonomy accumulate, independence, independence, which is mainly determined by the latest information achievements.

During the analysis of the problem in the phenomenological aspect, an empirical approach and sources were used, in which identification methods were reflected, fixing individual and socialized childhood culture vectors, features of communication and constructing models of behavior and self-determination of a phenomenon of childhood culture in the 20th century.

The universal definition of childhood is the stage of the formation of a person, on which primary socialization is implemented. The understanding of the concept of "childhood" in humanitarian studies is the subject of the interdisciplinary field of knowledge. The rod factors of studying the phenomenon of childhood are concluded in such areas of knowledge as: ethnography (I.S.Konkon), Anthropology (R. Benteditik, M.Mid, I. Eibesfeld, etc.), History (F. Arices, L. Domoz , I.S.C.Kon), Psychology (L.S.Vugotsky, J. Piazhe, D.B. Elconin), Psychological Anthropology (R. Benteditik, M.Mid, etc.).

Childhood is a physiological, psychological, pedagogical, sociocultural phenomenon, having historical origin and nature, where the child "animates" the exciting world and reorganizes it in his imagination (V.Vundt, L.S.Vigotsky, H. Oortga and Gasset, J. Hayyshaga). The artistic amateurness of children is carried out under the influence of fruits. artistic creativity Adults created specifically for children or inherited from childhood of mankind fairy tales, songs, dances. Thus, the child is developing and developing at the same time and in the interaction of the two main necessary people of assimilation and creation.

In the modern world, childhood is estimated in various degrees, cultures, forms, types, types of its comprehension.

Childhood is the historical conquest of humanity, having its own development structure. In the cultural and historical process, researchers identify certain stages of formation of childhood as a phenomenon, with characteristic levels of personality characteristic and defining its originality. The definition of chronicles of childhood development in a cultural and historical context confirms the hypothesis, according to which the childhood feature is determined by the existence of creative activation in it.

Appeal to the problem of the formation of subculture of childhood in the modern world is due to the search for resources of the optimal interaction of the child and society. When considering and analyzing the subculture of childhood, the existence of a special system of signs, values, ideas, child relations to environment, other people and yourself. Thus, this is a holistic picture of the world, folding through the interiorization mechanism in the process of interaction between the child with objects and joint activities with adults and peers.

The visual picture of the world was recorded in a children's figure representing the "perceptual statement" of a child about the world and reflects to a large extent the image itself (V.Vundt).

In the development of children's drawing, every figure is considered as a sign built and compared with reality according to the rules established during the development of human culture. Analysis of the children's drawing as a method of self-realization of the creative potency of the child showed that the semantics of images carries the universal, national and regional features of the picture of the world.

The effect of the screen on the transformation of the children's picture of the world is especially relief manifested in children's drawings, in which often independent of the given theme protruding tele-screen images. The screen actively carries out "teleexed socialization", modifies the children's picture of the world, gradually ousting the traditional forms and institutions of socialization of the modern child, awakening quasi-indue, instead of humane relations to the world.

This dissertation study and problems declared in it do not claim to be fully and comprehensive the disclosure of the topic, and require, of course, according to the author, further developing in line with cultural analysis.

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Arms even with surface analysis of the childhood phenomenon, difficulties and contradictions are primarily associated with the fact that childhood is a historical category. We can only speak about the child's child who lives in this era, in these social conditions, although there are general features with other generations.

The most famous concept of childhood is the "psychogenic theory of history" (psychoism) L. Domoz. Psychoistoria, by L. Domoz, is an independent branch of knowledge that does not describe individual historical periods and facts, but establishes general laws and causes of historical development, rooted in the relationship between children and parents. In accordance with his ideas, L. Domoz divides the entire history of childhood for six periods, each of which corresponds to a certain style of upbringing and the form of relationship between parents and

1. Infanticidal style (from antiquity to IV century. AD) is characterized by massive confusion, and those children who survived often became victims of violence. The symbol of this style is the image of the cop.

2. Thrown style (IV - XIII centuries). As soon as the culture recognizes the presence of a child of the Child, infanticide is reduced, but the child remains for parents as an object of projections, reactive formations, etc. The main tool is the disposal of them - leaving the child, the desire to sell it from the hands. The baby is sold to the cormalie, or give to the monastery or to raise in someone else's family, or hold the abandoned and oppressed in his own home. The symbol of this style can serve as Grizeld, leaving his children for the sake of evidence of love for her husband.

3. Ambivalent style (XIV - XVII centuries) is characterized by the fact that the child is already allowed to enter the emotional life of the parents and they begin to surround their attention, but he is still denied an independent spiritual existence. A typical pedagogical image of this era is a "modeling" of character, as if the child was made of soft wax or clay. If he resists, it is mercilessly beaten, "happily" to the peculiarity of the evil origin.

4. Intrusive style (XVII century). The child is no longer considered a dangerous being or a simple object of physical care, parents become much closer to it. However, this is accompanied by an obsessive desire to fully monitor not only the behavior, but also the inner world, the thoughts and the will of the child. This strengthens the conflicts of fathers and children.

5. Socializing style (XIX - middle of the XX century) makes the goal of education not so much conquest and subordination of the child, how much to train his will, prepare for future independent life. The child thinks rather than the subject of socialization.

6. Helping style (from the middle of the XX century) assumes that the child is better than parents know what he needs at every stage of life. Therefore, parents strive not so much to discipline or "form" his personality, how much to help individual development. From here - the desire for emotional intimacy with children, I understand, empathy, etc.

Although the general "psychogenic theory of history" taken as a whole is very unilateral, it contributed to the revitalization of studies of childhood history.

Attitude towards a child, childhood in a historical context, according to V.V.Ambermenkova, has undergone significant changes: "The path from the child, like a slave, which could be sold to a child as a patriarchal marriage; From the child - a small adult - to the child as an independent valuable personality. "

Interest in childhood and the very concept of childhood was practically absent up to the 18th century. As Argos wrote: "This does not mean that children nevertheless nevertheless were neglected and did not care about them. The concept of childhood should not be mixed with love for children: it means awareness of the specific nature of childhood, what is distinguished by a child from an adult. " Humanity, like every biological species, always attached great importance continuation of the kind. Many religions consider infertility of the most terrible divine carray. Childness is almost everywhere drawn up by special sacred rituals. Here's how, for example, M.Mid (American Researcher, Children's Ethnographer) describes the child's birthday ceremony on Samoa Islands (Papua - New Guinea): "You do not give birthday to Samoa. But the appearance of a child's light, as such, in the family of high rank involves a big holiday. Within a few months before childbirth, the relatives of the Father bring as a gift to the future mother of food, at the same time relatives with the motherboard, cotton over devotional newborn. Childbirth themselves is not an intimate matter. The decency requires that the feminine does not pierce from pain, did not scream, did not object to the presence of 20 - 30 people in the house, which, if necessary, will sit near her for days, laugh, joke, having fun. If the baby is a girl, then the umbilical cord is buried under the silk, so that the girl was a good mistress. If the baby is a boy, then the Pupovina rushes into the sea so that it becomes a skilled fisherman or agriculture. Then guests diverge down home, the mother rises from bed and starts up with its usual affairs, and the child ceases to cause great interest to anyone. The day and the month of his birth is forgotten. "

As for infanticide in primitive society, most researchers associate its prevalence, first of all, with a low level of material production. People standing at the lowest stage of historical development, living in collecting, physically can not feed a big offspring. The murder of newborn babies was here the same natural norm as the murder of old people. Kon gives example: "Bushmen's mother feeds the baby to the breast to 3 - 4 years, when it can be found suitable food for it ... Often the second or even a few children are born when the mother still feeds the first. But Mother's Milk lacks on all children, and more than one child, she could not wear long distances that goes in search of food. Therefore, often the last newborn is killed immediately after the appearance of the light. "

For primitive society (and for subsequent - antique and medieval), there was a twoness in relation to children. Baby, at the same time, personification of innocence and the embodiment of natural evil. And most importantly - he's as if misunderstanding, the creature, devoid of mind. For example, in Uganda, women and small children do not have the status of persons, perceived as things or as a cross between a person and a thing. In ancient Japan, newborns recognized full-fledged people after committing special rites. The killing of the baby was not considered a grave crime, it was thought to "send back", "return" to the world of perfume. But in the Philippines, a five-month-to-one was considered, in a certain sense, a person, and in case of miscarriage, he was buried in compliance with all rites. At the same time, to have children were considered honorable, and all community members are usually affectionate and attentive to children.

Based on the study of ethnographic materials, D. B. Elkonin showed that in the earliest stages of the development of human society, when the main method of producing food was gathering using primitive guns, the child became very early to the work of adults, almost absorbing the methods of extracting food and the use of primitive guns . An illustration may be a description of the meeting with the aborigines of Gibson desert (Western Australia)

Douglas Lockwood (1957). The lifestyle of these people is concentrated on the search for food and water at the level of the Stone Age. Pintubey tribe women, strong and hardy, could go through the desert with a heavy fuel load on the head. Children they gave birth to lying on the sand, helping and sympathizing with each other. They did not have ideas about hygiene, did not even know the reasons for childbearing. D. Blouwood writes that the girl is 2 - 3 years old during a meal shoved himself in her mouth then huge pieces of cakes, then pieces of meat of tiny guana, which she herself baked in hot sand. Her younger sister was sitting nearby in the mud and straightened with a jar of stew (from an expedition reserves), pulling meat with fingers. A little girl who is not more skilled as you should walk, arranged for myself a separate bonfire. Tilting his head, she inflated coals so that the fire spread over the branches and warmed it. She was without clothes and, for sure, suffered from the cold, and still not crying. There were three young children in the camp, but no one had ever heard their crying.

Under such conditions there was no need, nor the time for the preparation of children to future employment. As D. B. Elconin emphasized, childhood occurs when the child can not be directly included in the social production system.

The transition to the producing economy changes significantly. Children already at an early age can be used to weep the fields or for care for livestock. A settling lifestyle and a more reliable food base also objectively contributes to the survival of children. From now on, the infanticide ceases to be a tough economic necessity and is not practiced so widely, mainly in quality, and not on quantitative reasons.

For memoirs of ancient and medieval authors, childhood was not from the lungs in those distant times: "Who would not be horrified with the thought of the need to repeat my childhood and would not prefer to die better?" - exclaims Augustine. Medicine Father Hippocrates and the Investigator of Gynecology Soron Efesse Delvito discuss the question of which newborns deserve that they are grown. Aristotle believes quite fair that not a single cripping-child should be fed. Cicero wrote that the death of a child should be transferred to "with a calm soul", and Seneca considered it reasonable to turn the weak and ugly babies. Little children do not cause an antique authors feeling of death, they, mostly, just do not notice. A child is considered as a lower creature, he, in the literal sense, belongs to parents as other property.

The right to fully manage the life and death of children was selected from the fathers only at the end of the IV century AD. Infanticide began to be considered a crime only under the emperor Konstantine in 318, and he was equal to human-bias only in 374.

The forbiddenness of thetonicism has not yet been recognized for the child the right to love and, especially, an autonomous existence. The Bible contains about two thousand mentions of children. Among them, numerous scenes bringing children to sacrifice, breaking them with stones, just beating; The requirement of love and obedience of children is repeatedly emphasized, but there is not a single hint of sympathy for children and the understanding of children's experiences.

In the Middle Ages as soon as the child could do without constant care of his mother, nanniki or cormilits, he belongs to the adult society. The word "child" did not have in the language of his current sense, which is attached to him now. So, for example, in medieval Germany, the word "child" was synonymous with the concept of "fool". Childhood was considered a period quickly passing and low-value.

One more characteristic feature The Middle Ages was that the children were discriminious and funeral rite. In France, young siblings, Kononi had been buried on the cemetery (as poor), only at the end of the 17th century they will find a place in the family crypts, next to their parents. Many theologians considered unnecessary to serve the funeral masses on children who died to the family age.

The indifference towards childhood, according to F. Ariaz, was a direct consequence of the demographic situation of the time distinguished by a high birth rate and great child mortality. Noble people magnificently celebrated the birth of children, but quite calmly worried about their loss. Montae wrote: "I myself lost two or three children, however, in infancy, if not without some regret, but, in any case, without Ropot." This does not mean that children did not like. Medieval chronicles, the lives of saints and documents of the 16th - 17th centuries reported to us many touching stories about selfless and affectionate mothers and attentive caregivers.

Historians argued many years, whether the upbringing of children in Europe was to the 16th and 17th century more tolerant and liberal than in the Middle Ages, or, on the contrary, more stringent, harsh and repressive. As L.Tone notes, in some areas of life, children in the Middle Ages and Revival used significantly greater autonomy than in the subsequent period. It concerned the power mode, hygienic culture, childhood sexuality, which corresponded to the general "non-serious" look at the child up to 7 years. Some other sides of child behavior, on the contrary, were controlled very severely. The physical mobility of the baby was strictly limited. Officially tight swaddling of the first 4 months was due to concern for the safety of the kid, which was thought, can sparkle his gentle limbs, tear his ears, to buy eyes, etc. But, at the same time, it saved adults from many worries, fighting the activity of the child, forcing him to sleep longer and allowing it to move it as a simple package. Freed from diapers, the boys acquired relative freedom, but the girls were immediately placed in rigid corsets.

Physical limitations were complemented by a spiritual oppression. At the beginning of the new time, pedagogy, as well as medieval, persistently proves the need to suppress and break the will of the child, seeing the source of all and all the defects in children's timewise. According to the famous Puritan preacher D. Terobinson, "Children should not know if it can be hidden from them that they have their own will."

In the 17th century, training and raising children were constantly compared with the training of horses, cute birds and hunting dogs, and all this was based on the principle of subordination of the will. Body punishment, cruel spanking was widely used both in the family and at school, including the university. IN english universities Public spanking was subjected to 18-year-old boys. It was believed that another way of learning does not exist.

No less severe than study, the social activity of the child was controlled. Children, even adults, could not choose the language of classes, did not have a decisive, and often even a deliberative voice in the choice of marriage partners.

This is how the relationship between children and parents in the Russian family describes the 16th centuries of Kostomarov: "The spirit of slavery dominated between parents and children, covered by the false holiness of patriarchal relations. The humility of the children was more slave than the children's, and the power of parents over them passed in blind despotism without moral strength. The polenisha was the parent, the harsh applied to children, for the church concepts were prescribed to him as much as possible. Words were worshiped insufficient, as if convincing them were. Domostroy prohibits even laugh and play with the child. "

According to the cessation of 1649, the children did not have the right to complain about their parents, the murder of the son or daughter was punished with only a one-year imprisonment, when as children who have made to the life of parents, the law prescribed to execute "without any mercy." This inequality was eliminated only in 1716, and Peter I personally attributed to the word "child" adding "in infant", thereby fencing the life of newborns and infants.

At the end of the 17th - early 18th centuries, the morals gradually began to soften. Under the influence of several generations of humanistic propaganda (Hvariano, E.Orotterdamsky, T.Eliot, Ya.Komensky, etc.), corporal punishments become less likely, some refuse them at all. The concept of the human dignity of the child appears, and later, about his right to a more or less independent choice of life path.

In each society and at any stage of its development, different styles and methods of upbringing are coexist, in which numerous estate, class, regional, family and other variations are clearly traced. According to I.S. Kona: "All the nations are careful in their own way, they love and grow offspring. But from the instinctive need for the continuation of the kind to individual love for the child whose well-being becomes the meaning and axis of its own existence of the parents, is a distance of a huge size. "

Childhood - a period ongoing from newborn to full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of the human society.

L. S. Vygotsky noted that it is impossible to talk about childhood "in general." The history of childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon correlates with the history of society.

Childhood is a complex sociocultural phenomenon that has historical origins and nature. In classical studies of the French historian F. Arjes, it was shown how the concept of childhood was evolved throughout the historical development of humanity and what it was different in different epochs. F. Arjes analyzed the works of painting, literary works, letters of people of past times. He came to the conclusion that the development of social life, the emergence of new social institutions leads to a change in the periodization of human life. So, inside the family, an early childhood period is born, associated with the "balding" and the "tenderness" of the baby. In the future, the obligation of regular training for children to adulthood accepts another Social Institute - School. Thus, Arjes sought to show the historical tendency of childhood lengthening due to the extension of a new period over already existing.

F. Ajes, exploring the solution to the problem of childhood in the visual art, came to the conclusion that until the XIII century. Art did not apply to children, artists did not even try to portray them. Most likely, no one believed that the child concludes a human person. If the children appeared in the works of art and appeared, they were depicted as reduced adults.

F. Ajes writes that the initial concept of "childhood" was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200bdependence: "Childhood ended when it ended or a smaller dependence was becoming." Childhood was considered a period quickly passing and low-value. The indifference towards childhood, in his opinion, was a direct consequence of the demographic situation of that time distinguished by a high birth rate and great child mortality.

The image of real children was absent for a long time in painting. Overcoming indifference to children occurs, judging by painting, not earlier than the XVII century, when portrait images of real children begin to appear on the canvases of artists. As a rule, these were portraits of children of influential persons and regime in childhood. Thus, according to F. Arjes, the discovery of childhood began in the XIII century, its development can be traced in the history of painting of the XIV-XVI centuries, but the evidence of this discovery is most fully manifested at the end of the XVI and during the entire XVII century.

The differentiation of ages of human life, including childhood, according to F. Arjes, is formed under the influence of social institutions, i.e. New forms of social life generated by the development of society. So, early childhood for the first time appears inside the family, where it is associated with a specific communication - the "tender" and "balding" of a small child. A child for parents is just a pretty, funny kid with whom you can have fun, gladly play and learn it and raise it. Such is the primary, "family" concept of childhood.

Considering the subsequent concepts of childhood L. F. Obukhov notes that the development of society led to a further change in attitudes towards children. There was a new concept of childhood. For teachers of the XVII century. Love for children was no longer in baltings and passionate them, but in psychological interest in education and learning, which was clearly reflected in the pedagogical works of Ya. A. Komensesky. In the XVIII century In Western Europe, a concept of rational education based on strict discipline appears and penetrates family life in the XVIII century. Parents' attention begins to attract all sides of children's life. But the function of organized training for children to adulthood is not a family, but a special public institution - a school designed to educate qualified workers and exemplary citizens. It is the school, according to Arjes, brought childhood beyond the first 2-4 years of maternal, parental education in the family, and the concept of childhood and adolescence is already beginning to communicate with the school as the social structure that was created by society to give him necessary training for social Life and professional activities.

In the XIX century In the humanities, the tendency to consider childhood not only to prepare for adulthood, and a period in the life of a child who has self-relief for him, the period of its self-realization in society and culture.

A great contribution to the study of childhood as a cultural and historical phenomenon was submitted by D. B. Elkonin, which noted that the peculiarity of human childhood is that the baby is born a completely helpless creature, which, unlike animals, there is no instinctive ways to satisfy even innate Organic needs. All human behavior becomes acquired. Therefore, he needs a very long childhood, which is lengthened on the Merc of the development of society that puts forward an increasingly high demands on the knowledge and skills of its members. The higher the living being in a row of animals, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth.

After analyzing the research of Elkonin on the problems of childhood, noted the historical nature and historical origin of its individual periods, I. V. Shapovalenko in generalized form summed up that the pattern of development of childhood as a sociocultural phenomenon is not a simple elongation, but a qualitative change but structure and content. With the complication of the life of society, the position of the child in it (i.e. social status, the range of rights and duties inherent in this period of life, the set of types of types and forms of activity) is significantly changed. In the early stages of social development, there was a direct inclusion of a child in production processes (gathering, digging) and the practical development of methods of producing food, functions of labor instruments, goals and tasks general activity. At a certain historical period, such a complication of labor instruments occurred, in which children could no longer be directly involved in adult labor, therefore special items are created specifically for the younger generation - toys, reduced and modified tools of labor. When the reduced copies of the guns do not allow realistic reproductive activity, the game appears. Acting with toys, children, on the one hand, reproduced the general meaning of adults, on the other hand, they developed some general abilities necessary for them to master in subsequent various real implements (visual-motor coordination, dexterity, etc.).

The top of the evolution of gaming activity is the story or role-playing game, which arises in the course of the historical development of society as a result of changing the place of the child in the system of public relations. It, therefore, is socially in its origin, by its nature. Its occurrence is due not to the action of any Internal, congenital instinctive forces, and with well-defined social conditions for the child's life in society. Together with the emergence of the role-playing game, there is a new period in the development of a child, which can be called a period of role-playing games and which in modern children's psychology and pedagogy is called the name of preschool Development period.

The period of the game "shifts" the period of mastering the instruments of labor up, on the later chronological age.

When a new period occurs, stage age DevelopmentDownstairs also do not remain unchanged. The emergence of school learning fills the preceding preschool period. In turn, the school period is, on the one hand, the preparation for work, and on the other, has intrinsicness in human life.

Based on the scheme planned by Elkonin, a modern psychologist V. T. Kudryavtsev shows the further historical development of ideas about childhood and highlights three historical types of childhood:

• 1. QuasseyTech - In the early stages of human history, when the children's community is not allocated, and directly incorporated into collaborative work and ritual practices (primitive childhood).
• 2. Undeveloped childhood - The world of childhood is highlighted, and before children there is a new social task - integration into the adult community. The function of overcoming the inter-flow break takes over the role-playing game, speaking as a way of modeling semantic bases of adults. Socialization occurs as the child develops already existing models of adults at the reproduction level. An example is childhood in the Middle Ages and in the New Time.
• 3. Genuine or developed childhood (according to the terminology of V. V. Davydov) develops when the child is trying to comprehend the motives of adult activity, believing critically to the world (modern childhood). The image of the adult, which is offered to the teenager, does not suit him. The ideal, created in the presentation of the child, is often different from the samples existing in society, which the child rejects. And he must freely and creatively "self-sharing in culture." Modern developed childhood involves creative development of culture as an open multidimensional system. The productive, creative nature of the mental development of a modern child is already being implemented in the early stages in the form of phenomena of a children's subculture, which becomes one of the mechanisms of the socialization of the child.

Indicated historical formations of childhood can be correlated with the relevant types of children's and adult relations: a) children's adult communities; b) joint activities of the child and adult; c) the dominant genetic prospects of the child, as well as models (methods) of cultural in ontogenesis.

In this context, the formation of quassetrics corresponds to a simple, undifferentiated, self-identical children's and adult community. In the depths of the latter, the reproductive type of joint activity of the child and an adult is. This type of compatibility is built on the likelihood of a child's actions by the outer-subject form of an adult cultural sample. The cultural model is a limited choice of cash socially fixed methods (activity schemes).

The formation of undeveloped childhood is inherent in a complex, organic, developing type of children's and adult community. Under these conditions, the type of compatibility is based on the imitation modeling of the adult and the child's creative search for the inner form of the sample. The cultural model is a symbolic substitution of cash alternatives (subjects and methods of action with them), which are set in a wide social choice space.

The formation of a developed childhood relationship with a harmonious, self-suspended type of children-adult community, which is a specific embodiment of which is a developing type of assistance - an equal joint search for a child and adult inner form of the sample, its problematization and reconstruction in the act of cooperation. The cultural model is an initiative overcoming of cash situations, decorated in the structure of those tasks that the adult community directly puts in front of children, an additional problemation of these tasks, a significant reconstruction of socially developed solutions. The presence of cultural activities acts as the leading criterion of modern developed childhood.

Culture acts for a child not as a combination of socially displayed zunov (knowledge, skills, skills), and as an open multidimensional system of problematic creative tasks. The development of the child's psyche is an increasingly deep immersion in the historically developing problem of culture. According to the logic of such a "dive" can be modeled (theoretically, experimentally and practically) any form of child activity. Therefore, the process of cultural severity, but, it became, and the process of mental development with the historical necessity acquires the traits of the creative process.

S. Hall, revealing the general cultural meaning of the essence of human childhood, specifically emphasizes that "children are not small adults with all developing abilities, but only in a reduced scale, but one of its kind and very different creatures."

The duration of childhood in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages or these days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are as subject to change, like thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws defining its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.

In the textbook "Pedology" π. P. Blonsky writes: "Childhood - age of development. What is the development of the animal, the longest time in the total time of its development and the time is faster than the pace of this development. Have a short childhood, it means to have little time for development, but to have more and slow pace of development, it means to develop slowly and short time. A person develops longer and faster than any animal. A modern man with favorable social development conditions develops longer and faster than man of previous historical eras ... Childhood is not an eternal constant phenomenon. : It is different at a different stage of development of the animal world, it is different and at every stage of the historical development of humanity. "

In the study of A. V. Tolstoy, a change in the duration of the childhood period in our country throughout the 20th century, due to changes in socially historical situations in the country and enshrined institutionalization:

• - from birth to 12 - the duration of childhood is associated with the introduction of compulsory primary education for all children - 1930;
• - from birth to 15 - the duration of childhood increased due to the adoption of a new law on incomplete high school - 1959;
• - from birth to 17 - the duration of childhood is currently, which is characterized by the representation of all children's ages and their clear differentiation.

In the "Convention on the Rights of the Child", adopted by UNESCO in 1989 and aimed at ensuring full development The identity of the child in all countries of the world, it says that the child is every human being until 18 years of age.

There are several periodizations of the psychic development of the child (Erikson, J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky, etc.). Below are the periodization proposed by D. B. Elkonin, which shares the age of children to the following stages and periods:

• 1. The stage of early childhood, which includes: a) infancy (up to year); b) Early age (1-3 years).
• 2. The stage of childhood, including: a) preschool age (3-7 years); b) Junior school age (7-11 years).
• 3. Stage of adolescence, where include: a) adolescent age (11-15 years old); b) Early youth (15-17 years).

An important contribution to the study of the problem of childhood at the present stage was submitted by D. I. Feldstein, who wrote: "As a special phenomenon of the social world, childhood has its own specific characteristics. Functional - childhood will have to be as objectively the necessary state in dynamic system society, the state of the process of aging the younger generation and therefore preparations for the reproduction of the future society. In its meaningful definition, this is the process of constant physical growth, the accumulation of mental neoplasms, the development of social space, reflection on all relations in this space, determining itself, its own self-organization, which occurs in constantly expanding and complicating contacts of the child with adults and other children ( Younger, peers, senior), adult community as a whole. Especially childhood is the form of manifestation, a special state of social development, when biological patterns associated with the age-related changes of the child largely show their effect, "obeying", however, is increasingly regulating and defining social. "

IN modern conditions The qualitative complication of the entire system of multi-faceted human relations The problem of relations of adults and children has gained special sharpness and significance. We are talking about a broad sociocultural approach, which involves the transition of the relations of the world of adults by childhood not as a combination of children of different ages, which it is necessary to raise, educate, teach, but as a subject of interaction. At the same time, the position that adults occupy in relation to children as a whole is extremely important. This is the position of responsibility, which includes a wide range of components - from concern about the offspring to the desire to ensure the normal future of humanity. But in all cases, this is the position of the mediator in mastering the child of the social world, an intermediary, without which the transition of children into the world of adults is unthinkable, who speaks towards growing people and the goal, and the medium, and at the same time a mediator introducing the most complex relationships.

In the modern world, there is not just an active process of self-development of a child, his self-determination, but this process actually affects the installation of an adult world, its development, which should be considered adults when building relationships with children.

Introduction ........................................................................................ ... 3.
Chapter 1. Childhood as a subject of psychological research ..................... .. 4
1. 1. Historical analysis of the concept? Detacher? …………………………………….... four
1. 2. Childhood as a subject of science .......................................................................... .. 7
1. 3. Specificity of mental development I am a child ....................................... .. 9
1. 4. Strategies for the study of the psychic development of the child ..................... .. 11
Output ……………………………………………………………………………. ...... 13 Chapter 2. Development of mental processes in the younger school age ...... 14 2. 1. Psychological features of the younger schoolboy .................................................................................................................................... ... 20 CONCLUSION .................................................................................... .. 21 literature ....................................... ............................................. ... 22.

Introduction Childhood originated in the animal world at a certain stage of phylogenesis, and the higher the level of animal development of a species or another, the longer the childhood was. Intelligent forms of behavior are embedded above its instinctive forms. Intellectual behavior of animals dropped out and replaced by acquired forms of behavior. In the course of the development of the animal world, constant neoplasms arose in behavior, where instinctive forms of behavior were supplanted, and childhood was supplanted.
In the process of human occurrence, biological evolution ceases. When moving from a monkey to a person, instinctive forms of behavior disappear, all human behavior becomes acquired.
The human baby is born a helpless creature, and this helplessness is the greatest acquisition of the human race. The formation of a helpless creature in the subject of diverse human activity is just a subject of child psychology.
Children's psychology arises from a simple description of the symptoms of the emergence and further development of various mental processes in children.
Children's psychology is one of the fundamental psychological disciplines, since it explores the emergence, the formation and main stages of the development of activities, consciousness and personality in a children's life period, and they are known to be the main components of the human psyche.
The object of the study is children's psychology.
The subject of the study is the concept of "childhood" as a subject of psychological research.
The purpose of the study is to explore the concept of "childhood" as a subject of psychological research.
To implement this purpose, the following tasks must be solved:
- to produce a historical analysis of the concept of "childhood";
- consider the concept of "childhood" as the subject of science;
- analyze the specifics of the psychic development of the child;
- Examine strategies for researching the psychic development of the child.
The development of the topic of research in domestic and foreign psychological literature is large enough. On this problem, you can find the works of such authors as: GSABramova, L.S.Vugotsky, P.Galperin, D.I. Feldstein, etc.

Chapter 1. Childhood as a subject of psychological research

1. 1. Historical analysis of the concept of "childhood"

Today, any educated person on the question of what childhood will answer that childhood is a period of reinforced development, change and training. But only scientists understand that this period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which it is impossible to imagine the development process. V. Stern, J. Piaget, I. A. Sokoliang and many others wrote about the paradoxes of children's development. D. B. Elkonin said that paradoxes in children's psychology are mysteries of the development that scientists have yet to solve. His lectures at Moscow University D. B. Elkonin invariably began with the characteristics of the two main paradoxes of children's development, which enclose the need for a historical approach to understanding childhood. Consider them.
Man appearing on the light, endowed with only the most elementary mechanisms for maintaining life. By physical structure, organizations nervous system, by activity types and methods for its regulation, the most perfect creature in nature. However, as of birth in the evolutionary series, the fall of perfection is noticeable - the child has any ready-made forms of behavior. As a rule, the higher the living being in a number of animals is, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth. This is one of the paradoxes of nature, which predetermines the history of childhood.
In the course of history, the enrichment of the material and spiritual culture of mankind continuously increased. For the millennium, human experience has increased many thousands of times. But during the same time, the newborn baby practically has not changed. Relying on the data of anthropologists about the anatomy-morphological similarity of therigonian and modern Europeans, it can be assumed that the newborn modern man There is no significant difference from the newborn, who has lived tens of thousands of years ago.
How it turns out that under similar natural prerequisites, the level of mental development, which the child reaches at each historical stage of the development of society, is not the same? Childhood is a period ongoing from newborn to a full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of the human society. At the same time, childhood duration in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages or these days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are as subject to change, like thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws defining its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.
Theoretically, the question of historical origin of childhood periods was developed in the works of P.P. Blond, L.S. Vigotsky, D. B. Elkonina. The course of the psychic development of the child, according to L.S. Vigotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of ripening the body. The course of child development in the class society, he believed, "has a completely definite class meaning." That is why he emphasized that there is no childhood, but there is only historically childish. So, B. xIX literature The century is numerous evidence of the lack of childhood in proletarian children.
It is believed that the status of the childhood of the proletarian child is formed only in the XIX-XX centuries, when child labor began to be prohibited using legislation on childhood protection. Of course, this does not mean that adopted legal laws are able to provide childhood for the working people of the lower layers of society. Children in this environment and, above all, girls today fulfill the work necessary for public reproduction (care for babies, homework, some agricultural work). Thus, although in our time there is a ban on child labor, it is impossible to talk about the status of childhood, without taking into account the positions of parents in the social structure of society. The "Convention on the Rights of the Child", adopted by UNESCO in 1989 and ratified by the majority of the countries of the world, aimed at ensuring the full development of the child's personality in every corner of the Earth.
Historically, the concept of childhood is not associated with the biological state of immaturity, but with a certain social status, with a range of rights and obligations inherent in this period of life, with a set of types available for it and forms of activity. Many interesting facts was collected to confirm this idea by the French demographer and historian Philipp Aryes. Thanks to his work, interest in the history of childhood in foreign psychology has increased significantly, and the studies of the F. Ariaz themselves are recognized as classical.
F. Ariaz interested, as in the course of history in the minds of artists, writers and scientists there was a concept of childhood and what was different in various historical epochs. His research in the field of visual art led him to the conclusion that, until the XIII century, art did not apply to children, the artists did not even try to depict them. Children's images in the painting of the XIII century are found only in religious and allegorical plots. Childhood was considered a period quickly passing and low-value. The indifference towards childhood, according to F. Ariaz, was a direct consequence of the demographic situation of the time distinguished by a high birth rate and great child mortality. A sign of overcoming indifference by childhood, as the French demographer believes, serves the appearance in the XVI century portraits of dead children. Their death, he writes, now I was worried as really wrong with the loss, and not as a natural event. Overcoming indifference to children is happening, judging by painting, not earlier than the XVII century, when the first portrait images of real children begin to appear on the canvases of artists. As a rule, these were portraits of children of influential persons and regime in childhood. Thus, according to F. Arises, the discovery of childhood began in the XIII century, its development can be traced in the history of painting of the XIV-XVI centuries, but the evidence of this discovery is most fully manifested at the end of the XVI and during the entire XVII century.
The discovery of childhood allowed to describe the full cycle of human life. For the characterization of age periods of life in the scientific essays of the XVI-XVII centuries, terminology was used, which is still used in scientific and colloquial speech: childhood, adolescence, youth, youth, maturity, old age, suspended (deep old age). But the current meaning of these words does not correspond to their initial meaning. In old days, the periods of life corrected with four times of the year, with the seven planets, with twelve signs of the zodiac. The coincidence of numbers was perceived as one of the indicators of the fundamental unity of nature.
A child for parents is just a pretty, funny kid with whom you can have fun, gladly play and learn it and raise it. Such is the primary, "family" concept of childhood. The desire to "dress up" children, "pamper" and "undead" they could only appear in the family. However, this approach to children as to "charming toys" could not remain unchanged for a long time.
The development of society led to a further change in attitudes towards children. There was a new concept of childhood. For teachers of the XVII century, love for children has been expressed no longer in baltings and their passion, but in psychological interest in education and training. In order to correct the behavior of the child, first of all it is necessary to understand it, and the scientific texts of the late XVI and XVII centuries are full of comments regarding child psychology. It should be noted that deep pedagogical ideas, tips and recommendations are also contained in the works of Russian authors of the XVI-XVII centuries.
The concept of rational education based on strict discipline penetrates family life in the XVIII century. Parents' attention begins to attract all sides of children's life. But the function of organized training for children to adulthood is not a family, but a special public institution - a school designed to educate qualified workers and exemplary citizens. The school, due to its regular, ordered structure, contributed to the further differentiation of the period of life, which is denoted by the general word "childhood". The universal measure defining the new marking of childhood, became the "class". The child enters the new age every year as soon as the class changes. In the past, the child's life and childhood were not subdivided into such thin layers. Therefore, the class has become a determining factor in the process of differentiation of ages within the childhood and adolescence.
Thus, according to the concept of F. Airiasis, the concept of childhood and adolescence is associated with the school and the classroom of the school as those special structures that were created by society in order to give children the necessary training for social life and professional activities.
The next age level is associated with a new form of social life - the Institute of Military Service and Mandatory Military Meament. This is teenage, or youthful age. The concept of a teenager led to further restructuring of training. Teachers began to attach great importance to the form of clothing and discipline, education of durability and masculinity, which previously neglected.
As noted, the question of the historical origin of childhood periods, about the relationship of childhood history with the history of society, about childhood history as a whole, without which it is impossible to compile a meaningful concept of childhood, was delivered in children's psychology at the end of the 20s of the 20th century and continues Develop so far. According to the views of Soviet psychologists, studying children's development is historically meaning to study the transition of a child from one age step to another, to study the change in his personality within each age period, which is happening in specific historical conditions. And although the history of childhood has not yet been studied sufficiently, the formulation of this issue in the psychology of the XX century is important. And if, according to D. B. Elconin, there is no answer to many questions of the theory of psychic development of the child, then the solution path can already be represented. And he sees in the light of the historical study of childhood.

1. 2. Childhood as a subject of science

The science of the psychic development of the child - children's psychology - originated as a branch of comparative psychology at the end of the XIX century. The book of German scientist-Darwinist Wilhelm Prime "Soul of the Child" is served for systematic research of psychology of the child. In it, V.Preier describes the results of daily observations of the development of his own son, paying attention to the development of the organs of feelings, motility, will, reason and language. Despite the fact that the observations of the child's development were led long before the appearance of the book of V.Preira, his undisputed priority is determined by appealing to the study of the earliest years of the child's life and the introduction of an objective observation method into the children's psychology developed by analogy with the methods of natural sciences. The views of V.Preira from a modern point of view are perceived as naive, limited to the level of development of the XIX century science. He, for example, considered the mental development of the child as a private variant of biological (although, strictly speaking, and now there are hidden, and obvious supporters of this idea). However, V. Pierre first carried out the transition from an introspective child's psyche study. Therefore, according to the unanimous recognition of psychologists, he is considered the founder of children's psychology.
The objective conditions for the formation of children's psychology, which have developed by the end of the XIX century, are associated with the intensive development of industry, with a new level of public life, which created the need for a modern school. Teachers were interested in the question: how to teach and educate children? Parents and teachers stopped considering physical punishments as an effective education method - more democratic families appeared. The task of understanding the child became in turn of the day. On the other hand, the desire to understand himself as an adult prompted researchers to treat childhood more carefully - only through the study of the psychology of the child lies the path to understanding that the psychology of an adult is.
What place is children's psychology in the light of other psychological knowledge? I.M. Schechenov wrote that psychology could not be any other, as a science on the origin and development of mental processes. It is known that the psychology of the idea of \u200b\u200bgenetic (from the word - "genesis") studies have penetrated a long time ago. Almost there is not a single outstanding psychologist engaged in problems general psychologywhich simultaneously did some other child psychology. In this area, such world-famous scientists, like J. Watson, V.Stern, K. Büler, K.Koffka, K. Lyubov, A. Rolon, Z. Freud, E.Shpranger, J. Piazhe, V.M. Bekhters, D.Muznadz, S.L. Rubinshtein, L.S.Vugotsky, A.R. Luria, A.N. Lyontiev, P.Ya. Galperin, etc.
Genesis (gr. Genesis) is the origin, the emergence, in a broad sense - the moment of the origin and the subsequent development process, leading to a certain state, appearance, subject, phenomenon.
However, exploring the same object - mental development - genetic and children's psychology are two different psychological sciences. Genetic psychology is interested in the problems of the emergence and development of mental processes. She answers questions: "How is this or other mental movement, manifested by feeling, feeling, representation, involuntary or arbitrary movement, how those processes occur, the result of which is thought." Genetic studies can be carried out on adults. A well-known example of a genetic study can be the study of the formation of sound hearing. In a specially organized experiment, in which the subjects had to adjust their voice to a given sound height, it was possible to observe the formation of the ability of sound differences.
Recreate, do, form a mental phenomenon - such is the main strategy of genetic psychology. The path of experimental formation of mental processes was first planned by L.S.Vigotsky. "The method we use," L.S.Vigotsky wrote, "can be called the experimental-genetic method in the sense that it artificially causes and creates a genetic process of mental development ... Attempt to such an experiment is to melt every frozen and petrified psychological form, turn it into a moving, current stream of individual moments replacing each other ... The task of such an analysis is reduced to experimentally present all higher shape behavior is not as a thing, but as a process, take it in motion, to go not from a thing to its parts, but from the process to its individual moments. "
Among many researchers in the development process, the most vivid representatives of genetic psychology - L.S.Vugotsky, J. Piazhe, P.Ya. Galperin. Their theories, developed on the basis of experiments with children, are fully and fully related to the general genetic psychology. The famous book of J. Piage "Psychology of Intellect" is a book not about the child, this is a book about intelligence. P.Galperin created the theory of the systematic and phased formation of mental actions as the basis for the formation of mental processes. Genetic psychology includes an experimental study of concepts carried out by L.S.Vigotsky.
Children's psychology is different from any other psychology that it deals with special analysis units is the age or period of development. It should be emphasized that age does not boil down to the sum of individual mental processes, this is not a calendar date. Age, by definition by L.S. Vigotsky, is a relatively closed cycle of child development, which has its own structure and dynamics. The duration of age is determined by its internal content: there are periods of development and in some cases "era", equal to one year, three, five years. Chronological and psychological age do not coincide. Chronological, or passport age - only the coordinate of the reference, the external grid, against the background of which the process of mental development of the child occurs, the formation of his personality.
Unlike genetic, children's psychology is the doctrine of child development periods, their shift and transitions from one age to another. Therefore, after L.S. Vigotsky about this field of psychology, it is more correct to say: children's, age psychology. Typically children's psychologists were L.S.Vugotsky, A. Vollon, A.Freid, D. B. Elkonin. The delimitation of genetic and child psychology indicates that the subject of child psychology itself has changed historically. Currently, the subject of children's psychology is the disclosure of the general patterns of mental development in ontogenesis, the establishment of age periods of this development and the reasons for the transition from one period to another. Promotion in solving theoretical problems of child psychology is expanding the possibilities and its practical implementation.

1. 3. The specifics of the psychic development of the child

What is the development? What is it characterized? What is the fundamental difference in development from any other object changes? As you know, the object may vary, but not develop. Growth, for example, is a quantitative change in this object, including the mental process. There are processes that range from "less - more". These are growth processes in their own and true sense of the word. Growth occurs in time and is measured in the coordinates of time. The main characteristic of growth is the process of quantitative changes without changes in the internal structure and the composition of individual elements included in it, without significant changes in the structure of individual processes. For example, measuring the physical growth of the child, we see quantitative increasing. L.S.Vugotsky emphasized that there are growth phenomena and mental processes. For example, the growth of the stock of words without changing the functions of speech. But other phenomena and processes may occur behind these processes of quantitative growth. Then growth processes become only the symptoms behind which there are significant changes in the system and the structure of the processes. At such periods there are jumps in the growth line, which indicate significant changes in the body itself. For example, ripen the gland of the internal secretion. In such cases, when significant changes occur in the structure and properties of the phenomenon, we are dealing with development.
The development is primarily characterized by qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X.Verner, L.S.Vigotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them: differentiation, dismemberment of a previously unified element; the emergence of new parties, new elements in the development itself; Rearrangement of connections between the parties of the object. As psychological examples, you can mention the differentiation of natural conditional reflex to the position under the breast and the revitalization complex; the appearance of a sign function in infancy; Change over the childhood of the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness. Each of these processes complies with the listed development criteria.
As shown by L.S. Vigotsky, there are many different types development. Therefore, it is important to correctly find the place that among them is occupied by the mental development of the child, that is, to determine the specifics of mental development among other development processes. L.S.Vugotsky distinguished: preformed and unformed development types. A preformed type is such a type when at the very beginning is given, fixed, fixed as those stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass and the end result that the phenomenon will reach. Everything is given here from the beginning. In psychology there was an attempt to present mental development on the principle of embryonic development. This is the concept of Art. Hall. It is based on the biogenetic law of Geckel: ontogenesis is a brief repetition of phylogenesis. Mental development was considered by Art. Hall as a brief repetition of the stages of the mental development of animals and ancestors of a modern man. An unformed development type is most common on our planet. It also includes the development of the galaxy, the development of the Earth, the process of biological evolution, the development of society. The process of mental development of the child also applies to this type of processes. The unforced direction of development is not predetermined in advance. Children of different eras develop differently and reach different levels of development. From the very beginning, from the moment of birth, the child is not given the stage through which he must pass, nor the result that he must achieve. Child development is an unformed type of development, but this is a completely special process - a process that is determined not from below, and from above, the form of practical and theoretical activity, which exists at this level of development of society. This is a feature of child development. Its finite forms are not given, not set. No development process, except ontogenetic, is not carried out by the already finished pattern. Human development occurs according to the sample that exists in society. According to L.S. Vigotsky, the process of mental development is the process of interaction between real and ideal forms. The task of a children's psychologist is to trace the logic of mastering the ideal forms. The child does not immediately master the spiritual and material wealth of mankind. But outside the process of mastering the ideal forms is not at all possible development. Therefore, inside the unformed type of development, the mental development of the child is a special process. The process of ontogenetic development is not similar to the process, the process is extremely peculiar, which takes place in the form of assimilation.

1. 4. Strategies for the study of the psychic development of the child

The level of the development of the theory determines the study strategy in science. This fully applies to child psychology, where the level of the theory forms the goals and objectives of this science. At first, the task of child psychology was to accumulate the facts and their location in the time sequence. This task corresponds to the observation strategy. Of course, even then the researchers tried to understand the driving forces of development, and every psychologist dreamed about it. But to solve this problem there was no objective possibilities ... The strategy for observing the real course of children's development under the conditions in which it is spontaneously developing, led to the accumulation of various facts that it was necessary to lead to the system, allocate stages and stages of development, to then identify The main trends and the general patterns of the development process itself, and, in the end, understand its reason. To solve these problems, psychologists used the strategy of a natural-scientific statement experiment, which allows you to establish the presence or absence of a studied phenomenon under certain controlled conditions, measure its quantitative characteristics and give a qualitative description. Both strategies - observation and stating experiment - are widespread in children's psychology. But their limitations are becoming increasingly obvious as it turns out that they do not lead to understanding the causes of human mental development. This is because neither observation nor a stateing experiment can actively influence the development process, and its study is only passive.
Currently, a new strategy of research is intensively developed - a strategy for the formation of mental processes, active interference, building a process with specified properties. It is precisely because the strategy for the formation of mental processes leads to the outlined result, one can judge its reason. Thus, the criterion for allocating the cause of development can be the success of the forming experiment.
Each of the named strategies has its own development history. As we have already spoken, children's psychology began with simple observation. A huge actual material about the development of the child at an early age was collected by parents - well-known psychologists as a result of observations of their own children. (V. Praier, V. Stern, J. Piaget, N. A. Rybnikov, N. A. Menchinskaya, A. N. Gvozdev, V. S. Mukhina, M. Kechki, etc.).
Currently, most psychologists for the observation method as a basic way to study children are skeptical. But, as D. B. Elconin said, "a sharp psychological eye is more important than a stupid experiment." The experimental method is wonderful that he "thinks" for the experimenter. The facts obtained by the method of observation are very valuable. V.Stern as a result of observations of the development of his daughters, prepared two volumes of research on the development of speech. At the beginning of the century, the first attempts of an experimental study of the mental development of children were made. The Ministry of Education of France ordered a well-known psychologist A.bin to develop a methodology for selecting children to special schools. And since 1908, the test examination of the child begins, measuring scales of mental development appear. A.bin created a method of standardized tasks for each age. A few later, American psychologist L.Terman proposed a formula for measuring the intellect ratio.
It seemed that children's psychology came out on new way Development - mental abilities using special tasks can be reproduced and measured. But these hopes were not justified. Soon it became clear that in the survey situation it is unknown, which of the mental abilities is studied using tests. In the 30s, the Soviet psychologist V.I.Asinn emphasized that the condition of the reliability of the psychological experiment is not the average level of solving the problem, but how the child takes the task, what kind of problem he decides. In addition, the intelligence coefficient debt
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Today, any educated person on the question of what childhood will answer that childhood is a period of reinforced development, change and training. But only scientists understand that this period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which it is impossible to imagine the development process. The Paradoxes of Children's Development wrote V. Stern, J. Piaget, I.A. Skolgyansky and many others. D.B. Elkonin said that paradoxes in children's psychology are the mysteries of the development that scientists still have to solve. He invariably began with the characteristics of the two main paradoxes of children's development, which make the need for a historical approach to the understanding of childhood. Consider them.

Man appearing on the light, endowed with only the most elementary mechanisms for maintaining life. According to the physical structure, the organization of the nervous system, by type of activity and methods of its regulation, the most perfect being in nature. However, as of birth in the evolutionary series, the fall of perfection is noticeable - the child has any ready-made forms of behavior. As a rule, the higher the living being in a number of animals is, the longer his childhood lasts, the nozzles of the birth at birth. This is one of the paradoxes of nature, which predetermines the history of childhood.

In the course of history, the enrichment of the material and spiritual culture of mankind continuously increased. For the millennium, human experience has increased many thousands of times. But during the same time, the newborn baby practically has not changed. Relying on the data of anthropologists about the anatomy-morphological similarity of therigonian and modern Europeans, it can be assumed that the newborn modern person does not differ from the newborn, who lived tens of thousands of years ago.

How it turns out that with similar natural premises, the level of mental development, which reaches a child at every historical stage of the development of society, is not the same?

Childhood is a period ongoing from newborn to a full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of becoming a child with a full-fledged member of human experience. At the same time, childhood duration in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Epoch of the Middle Ages or these days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are as subject to change, like thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws defining its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.

The problem of childhood history is one of the most difficult in modern children's psychology, because In this area it is impossible to carry out observation nor the experiment. Ethnographers are well known that cultural monuments relating to children are poor. Even in those not very frequent cases when toys are found in archaeological excavations, these are usually the objects of cult, which in antiquity put into the graves so that they serve the owner in the afterlime world. Miniature images of people and animals were also used for witchcraft purposes.

Theoretically, the question of historical origin of childhood periods was developed in the works of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin. The course of the psychic development of the child, according to L.S. Vygotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of the ripening of the body. That is why he emphasized that there is no eternal children, but there is only historically childish.

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