MM Cheerless, V.D. Sonykin, D.A. Farber

Age physiology: (Child's physiology)

Tutorial

For students of higher pedagogical educational institutions

Reviewers:

doctor of biological sciences, head. Department of Higher Nervous Activity and Psychophysiology of St. Petersburg University, Academician RAO, Professor A.S. Batuev;

doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor I.A. Cornienko

Preface

Clarification of the laws of the development of the child, the specifics of the functioning of physiological systems on different stages Ontogenesis and mechanisms, this specificity of determining, is a prerequisite for ensuring the normal physical and mental development of the younger generation.

The main questions that should arise from parents, teachers and psychologists in the process of education and child learning at home, in children's garden or at school, at the advisory reception or individual occupations- What is he, what is his features, what version of classes with him will be the most effective. It is not easy to answer these questions at all, for for this requires deep knowledge of the child, the laws of its development, age and individual characteristics. These knowledge is extremely important for the development of the psychophysiological foundations of the organization academic work, developing a child of adaptation mechanisms, determining the effect on it innovative technologies etc.

Perhaps, for the first time the importance of the integrated knowledge of physiology and psychology for the teacher and the educator allocated the famous Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky in his work "Man as a subject of upbringing" (1876). "The Art of Education," K.D. wrote. Ushinsky, - It has the feature that almost to all it seems to be a friend and understandable, but even something else, - and the more clear it is easier, it seems that less the person with him is theoretically familiar and practically. Almost everyone recognize that education requires patience; Some people think that for him you need innate ability and skill, i.e. skill; But very few came to the conviction that, in addition to patience, congenital ability and skill, special knowledge is also needed, although our numerous wandering and could convince everyone in this. " Female k.d. Ushinsky showed that physiology refers to the number of those sciences in which the facts and those factax ratios are merged and groups are accomplished and the facts of the formation of the formation of the formation are detected, etc. Human. Analyzing the physiological knowledge that were known, and it was the time of the formation of age physiology, k.d. Ushinsky emphasized: "From this source, just opening, the upbringing has not yet been screaming." Unfortunately, and now we cannot talk about the broad use of these age physiology in pedagogical science. Uniformity programs, methods, textbooks went to the past, but the teacher still takes into account age and individual characteristics Child in the learning process.

At the same time, the pedagogical efficacy of the learning process largely depends on how much shapes and methods pedagogical impact adequate to the age physiological and psychophysiological characteristics of schoolchildren, are the conditions of the organization educational process The possibilities of children and adolescents are taken into account by the psycho-physiological patterns of the formation of basic school skills - letters and readings, as well as major motor skills in the process of occupation.

The physiology and psychophysiology of the child is the necessary component of the knowledge of any specialist working with children - a psychologist, an educator, teacher, social teacher. "Education and training dealt with a holistic child, with his holistic activities, - considered the famous Russian psychologist and teacher V.V. Davydov. - This activity, considered as a special object of study, contains many aspects in its unity, including ... physiological "(V.V. Davydov" Problems of Developing Training. - M., 1986. - P. 167).

Age physiology - Science on the peculiarities of the body's livelihoods, the functions of its individual systems, processes, in them occurring, and the mechanisms of their regulation at different stages of individual development. Part of it is the study of the child's physiology in different age periods.

Training manual for age-related physiology for students pedagogical universities Contains knowledge of the development of a person at those stages when the most significant influence of one of the leading development factors - training.

The subject of age physiology (child development physiology) as an educational discipline is the features of the development of physiological functions, their formation and regulation, the livelihoods of the body and the mechanisms of its adaptation to the external environment at different stages of ontogenesis.

The basic concepts of age physiology:

Organism - the most complicated, hierarchically (cozenin) organized system of organs and structures providing life and interaction with environmental. The elementary unit of the body is cell . The combination of cells similar to origin, structure and function forms the cloth . Fabrics form organs that perform certain functions. Function - Specific activities of the body or system.

Physiological system - A combination of organs and tissues associated with the overall function.

Functional system - Dynamic association of various organs or their elements, whose activities are aimed at achieving a specific purpose (useful result).

As for the structure of the proposed tutorialIt is built so that students have a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe laws of the development of the body in the process of ontogenesis, about the peculiarities of each age stage.

We tried not to overload the presentation by anatomical data and at the same time considered it necessary to give the main ideas about the structure of organs and systems at different stages age DevelopmentWhat is necessary to understand the physiological patterns of the organization and regulation of physiological functions.

The book consists of four sections. In Section I - "Introduction to the Physiology of Development" - the subject of the development of the development of as an integral part of the age physiology is revealed, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe most important modern physiological theories of ontogenesis is given, basic concepts are introduced, without which it is impossible to understand the main content of the textbook. In the same section, the most common idea of \u200b\u200bthe human body and its functions is given.

Section II - "Organism and Wednesday" provides an idea of \u200b\u200bthe main stages and patterns of growth and development, on the most important functions of the body that ensures the interaction of the body with the environment and the adaptation of it to the changing conditions, about the age-related development of the organism and the characteristic features of the individual development stages.

Section III - "The body as a whole" is a description of the activities of systems that integrate the body into a single integer. First of all, this is a central nervous system, as well as a vegetative nervous system and a system of humoral regulation of functions. The main patterns of age-related brain development and its integrative activity are the key aspect of the content of this section.

Section IV - "Stages of the Development of the Child" - contains a morphophysiological description of the main stages of the development of a child from birth to adolescent age. This section is most important for practitioners directly working with the child for which it is important to know and understand the main morphofunctional age features of the child's body at each of the stages of its development. To understand the content of this section, it is necessary to master the entire material presented in the three previous ones. This section completes the chapter in which the influence of social factors for the development of the child is considered.

At the end of each chapter placed questions for independent work Students who allow us to refresh the main provisions of the material being studied, requiring special attention.

Introduction to age physiology

Chapter 1. Subject of age physiology (physiology of development)

Relationship of age physiology with other sciences

By the time of birth, the child's body is still very far from a mature state. Human young is born small, helpless, he cannot survive without the care and care of adults. It takes a lot of time so that it grows and become a full-fledged mature organism.

Theoretical foundations of age physiology (physiology of development) of the child

System principle of organizing physiological functions in ontogenesis

The importance of identifying the patterns of the development of the child's body and the features of the functioning of its physiological systems at different stages of ontogenesis to protect the health and development of adequate age of pedagogical technologies identified the search for optimal ways to study the physiology of the child and those mechanisms that ensure the adaptive adaptive nature of development at each stage of ontogenesis.

According to modern ideas, the beginning of which was still the works of A.N. Seversow in 1939, all the functions add up and undergo changes with the close interaction of the body and medium. In accordance with this presentation, the adaptive nature of the functioning of the body in various age periods is determined by two most important factors: the morphofunctional maturity of physiological systems and the adequacy of the influencing environmental factors with the functional possibilities of the body.

Traditional for domestic physiology (I.M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, N.A. Bernstein. P.K. Anokhin, etc.) is the system principle of organizing adaptive response to the factors of the external environment. This principle, considered as the basic mechanism of the body's life activity, implies that all types of adaptive activities of physiological systems and a holistic organism are carried out through hierarchically organized dynamic associations, including individual elements of one or different organs (physiological systems).

The most important contribution to the study of the principles of a dynamic system organization of adaptive actions of the body was made by research A.A. Ukhtomskiy, who put forward the dominant principle as a functional working body, determining the adequate response of the body to external influences. Dominanta, by A.A. Ukhtomsky, represents the combined unity of the constellation of nerve centers, the elements of which can be topographically quite removed from each other, and at the same time are approacted on a single rhythm of work. Touching the mechanism underlying Dominanti, A.A. Ukhtomsky paid attention to the fact that normal activity relies "not at times and forever a certain and phased functional statics of various focuss as carriers of individual functions, but on the undervertible intercentral dynamics of excitations at different levels: cortical, subcortic, medullar, spinal." Thus, the plasticity was emphasized, the significance of the spatio-temporal factor in the organization of functional associations, providing adaptive reactions of the body. Ideas A.A. Ukhtomskiy on functional and plastic systems of activity of activity received their development in the works of N.A. Bernstein. Studying the physiology of movements and mechanisms for the formation of motor skills, N.A. Bernstein paid attention not only to the agreed work of nerve centers, but also the phenomena taking place on the periphery of the body - in working points. This allowed him in 1935 to formulate the provision that the adaptive effect of action could be achieved only if there was a "models of the demand for the future" in the central nervous system in some kind of encoded form of the final result. In the process of sensory correction by feedback from working bodies, it is possible to compare information about the already implemented activities with this model.

Expressed by N.A. Bernstein Regulations on the value of feedback in the achievement of adaptive reactions were of paramount importance in the understanding mechanisms for regulating the adaptive functioning of the body and organization of behavior.

A classic idea of \u200b\u200ban open reflex arc gave way to a submission of a closed regulatory circuit. Very important position developed by N.A. Bernstein, is the high plasticity of the system installed by it - the ability to achieve the same result in accordance with the "model of a demanding future" with an ambiguous way to achieve this result, depending on the specific conditions.

Developing an idea of \u200b\u200bthe functional system as an association that provides an organization of adaptive response, P.K. Anokhin as a system-forming factor creating a certain ordered interaction of individual system elements, considered a useful result of action. "It is a useful result that makes the operative factor that contributes to the fact that the system ... can completely reorganize the location of its parts in space and in time, which ensures the adaptive result required in this situation" (ANOKHIN).

Of paramount importance for understanding the mechanisms that ensure the interaction of individual elements of the system has a position developed by N.P. Bekhtereva and its employees, about the presence of two link systems: hard (congenital) and flexible, plastic. The latter are most important to organize dynamic functional associations and ensure specific adaptive reactions in real conditions of activity.

One of the main characteristics of the systemic support of adaptive reactions is the hierarchy of their organization (Wiener). The hierarchy combines the principle of autonomy with the principle of coented. Along with flexibility and reliability for hierarchically organized systems, high energy structural and information efficiency is characterized. Separate levels may consist of blocks that carry out simple specialized operations and transmitting processed information to higher levels of the system that carry out more complex operations and at the same time have a regulating effect on lower levels.

The hierarchy of the organization based on the close interaction of elements both at the same level and at different levels of systems, determines the high stability and dynamism of the processes carried out.

During the evolution, the formation of hierarchically organized systems in ontogenesis is associated with progressive complication and laying on each other levels of regulation, ensuring the improvement of adaptation processes (Vasilevsky). It can be assumed that the same patterns also occur in ontogenesis.

The significance of the systemic approach to the study of the functional properties of the developing body, its ability to form optimal adaptive response, self-regulation, the ability to active expedient search for information, the formation of plans and programs of activity has been applied.

The patterns of ontogenetic development. The concept of age norm

The most important to understand how the functional systems are being formed and organized in the process of individual development, has formulated by A.N. Severstov, the principle of heterochronis of the development of organs and systems, designed by PK. Anocyne in the theory of system genesis. This theory is based on experimental studies of early ontogenesis that have revealed the gradual and uneven maturation of individual elements of each structure or organ that are consolidated with elements of other organs involved in the implementation of this function, and, integrating into a single functional system, the principle of "minimal support" of a holistic function . Different functional systems depending on their significance in ensuring vital functions ripen in different times of postnatal life - this is heterochrony of development. It provides high adaptability of the body at each stage of ontogenesis, reflecting the reliability of the functioning of biological systems. Reliability of the functioning of biological systems, according to the concept of A.A. Markosyan, is one of the general principles of individual development. It is based on such properties of a living system, as the redundancy of its elements, their duplication and interchangeability, the speed of return to relative constant and the dynamic of individual units of the system. Studies have shown (Farber) that during ontogenesis reliability of biological systems undergo certain stages of formation and formation. And if in the early stages of postnal life, it is provided with rigid, genetically deterministic interaction of individual elements of the functional system, which ensures the implementation of elementary reactions to external incentives, and the necessary vital functions (for example, sucking), the plastic bonds creating are becoming increasingly important. Conditions for the dynamic electoral organization of system components. On the example of the formation of the information perception system, the overall pattern of ensuring the reliability of the adaptive functioning of the system is established. Three functionally different stages of its organization are highlighted: the 1st stage (period of the newborn) - the functioning of the most early ripening unit of the system, providing the possibility of responding to the "Stimulus - Reaction" principle; The 2nd stage (the first years of life) is a generalized similar involvement of elements of a higher level of system, the reliability of the system is ensured by the duplication of its elements; The 3rd stage (observed from the pre-school age) - a hierarchically organized multi-level regulation system provides the ability to specialized involvement of elements of different levels in the processing of information and organization of activities. During ontogenesis, as the central mechanisms of regulation and control improves, the plasticity of the dynamic interaction of the elements of the system increases; Election functional constellations are formed in accordance with the specific situation and the task (Farber, Dubrovinskaya). This causes the improvement of adaptive reactions of the developing organism in the process of complicating its contacts with the external environment and the adaptive nature of the functioning at each stage of ontogenesis.

From the above, it is clear that the individual stages of development are characterized by both the peculiarities of the morphofunctional maturity of individual organs and systems and differences in the mechanisms that determine the specifics of the interaction of the body and the external environment.

The need for a specific characterization of certain stages of development, taking into account both of these factor, raises the question of being considered as an age norm for each of the stages.

For a long time, the age norm was considered as a set of average parameters characterizing the morphofunctional features of the body. Such an idea of \u200b\u200bthe norm goes to its roots in those times, when practical needs determined the need to allocate some of the average standards, allowing to identify development deviations. There is no doubt that at a certain stage of development of biology and medicine, such an approach has played a progressive role, allowing the average parameters of the morphofunctional features of the developing organism; Yes, and now it allows you to solve a number of practical problems (for example, when calculating the standards of physical development, the normalization of the impact of the factors of the external environment, etc.). However, such an idea of \u200b\u200bthe age norm absoluting the quantitative assessment of the morphofunctional maturity of the organism at different stages of ontogenesis does not reflect the essence of age transformations that determine the adaptive direction of the development of the body and its relationship with the external environment. It is clear that if the qualitative specificity of the functioning of physiological systems in certain stages of development remains unrecorded, then the concept of age norm loses its content, it ceases to reflect the real functionality of the body into certain age periods.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe adaptive nature of individual development led to the need to revise the concept of age norm as a set of average morphological and physiological parameters. A provision was expressed according to which the age standard should be considered as a biological optimum functioning of a living system, providing adaptive response to the factors of the external environment (Kozlov, Farber).

Age periodization

The differences in the presentation of the criteria of the age norm define and approaches to the periodization of age-related development. One of the most common approach is based on the evaluation analysis morphological signs (growth, shifts of teeth, increase body weight, etc.). The most complete age periodization based on morphological and anthropological signs was proposed by V.V. Bunac, according to which changes in the size of the body and the associated structural and functional signs reflect the transformations of the organism metabolism with age. According to this periodization, the following periods are allocated in postnatal ontogenesis: infant, covering the first year of child's life and includes the initial (1-3, 4-6 months), the average (7-9 months) and the final (10-12 months) cycles; of the first childhood (the initial cycle of 1-4 years, the final - 5-7 years); second childhood (initial cycle: 8-10 years old - boys, 8-9 years old - girls; end: 11-13 years old - boys, 10-12 years old - girls); Teenage (14-17 years old - boys, 13-16 years old - girls); Youth (18-21 years old - boys, 17-20 years old - girls); From 21-22 years old, an adult begins. This periodization is close to adopted in pediatric practice (tour, oils); Along with the morphological factors, it takes into account social. Infant age, according to this periodization, corresponds to the junior crime or chest age; The first childhood period unites senior yasel or pre-school age and preschool; The period of the second childhood corresponds to the younger school age and adolescent age - the older preschool. However, this classification of age-related periods, reflecting an existing system of upbringing and learning, cannot be considered acceptable, since, as is well known, the question of the start of systematic learning has not yet been resolved; The boundary between preschool and school age requires clarification, enough amorphous and the concept of younger and older school age.

According to age periodization, adopted at a special symposium in 1965, in the human life cycle until mature age, the following periods are distinguished: a newborn (1-10 days); chest age (10 days - 1 year); Early childhood (1-3 years); first childhood (4-7 years); second childhood (8-12 years old boys, 8-11 years old - girls); Teenage age (13-16 years old - boys, 12-15 years old - girls) and youthful age (17-21 years old - young people, 16-20 years old girls) (the problem of age periodization of a person). This periodization is somewhat different from the proposed V.V. Bunac due to the allocation of early childhood period, some displacement of the borders of the second childhood and adolescence. However, the problem of age periodization is finally solved first of all because all existing periodization, including the last generally accepted, are not physiologically reasonable. They do not take into account the adaptive-adaptive nature of the development and mechanisms that ensure the reliability of the functioning of physiological systems and a holistic organism at each stage of ontogenesis. This determines the need to choose the most informative criteria for age periodization.

In the process of individual development, the child's body changes as a whole. Its structural, functional and adaptation features are due to the interaction of all organs and systems at different levels of integration - from intracellular to intersystem. In accordance with this, the key task of age periodization is the need to take into account the specific features of the functioning of a holistic organism.

One of the attempts by the search for an integral criterion characterizing the vital activity of the body was proposed by the Rubner assessment of the body's energy capabilities, the so-called "energy rule of the surface", reflecting the relationship between the level of metabolism and the energy and the size of the body surface. This indicator characterizing the body's energy capabilities reflects the activities of physiological systems related to the metabolism: blood circulation, breathing, digestion, isolation and endocrine system. It was assumed that the ontogenetic features of the functioning of these systems should obey the "energy rule of the surface".

However, those discussed above theoretical provisions on the adaptive adaptive nature of development give reason to believe that there are not so many criteria as the basis of age periodization, reflecting the stationary features of the body's livelihoods already achieved to a certain moment of ripening, how many criteria for the interaction of the body with the medium.

The need for such an approach to finding the physiological criteria of age periodization was expressed by I.A. Arshavsky. According to its presentation, the basis of age periodization should be given criteria reflecting the specifics of the integral functioning of the body. As such a criterion, a leading function is proposed for each development phase.

In detail studied I.A. Arshavsky and his employees of early childhood in accordance with the nature of the nutrition and the peculiarities of motor acts were allocated periods: neonatal, during which brewing milk milk (8 days), lactotrophic forms of nutrition (5-6 months), lactotrophic feeding form with bait and The appearance of poses of standing (7-12 months), of the nursery (1-3 years) - the development of locomotor acts in the environment (walking, running). It should be noted that A. Arshavsky attached a special importance of motor activities as a leading factor of development. Criticizing the "energy rule of the surface", I.A. Arshavsky formulated an idea of \u200b\u200bthe "energy rule of skeletal muscles", in accordance with which the intensity of the life of the body, even at the level of individual tissues and organs, is determined by the peculiarities of the functioning of skeletal muscles, providing on each stage of development of the nature of the interaction of the body and medium.

However, it should be borne in mind that in the process of ontogenesis, the child's active attitude towards media factors increases, the role of higher sections of the CNS in ensuring adaptive reactions to the external factors, including those reactions that are implemented through motor activity.

Therefore, criteria reflecting the level of development and qualitative changes in adaptive mechanisms associated with the maturation of various brain departments, including regulatory structures, acquire a special role in age periodization. nervous systemcaused by the activities of all physiological systems and the behavior of the child.

It brings together physiological and psychological approaches to the problem of age periodization and creates a base for developing a unified concept of periodization of the child's development. L.S. Vygotsky as criteria for age periodization considered mental neoplasms characteristic of specific stages of development. Continuing this line, A.N. Leontiev and D.B. Elconin is of particular importance in age periodization "leading activity", determining the occurrence of mental neoplasms. At the same time, it was noted that the peculiarities of the mental, as well as the peculiarities of physiological development are defined both internal (morphofunctional) factors and external conditions for individual development.

One of the objectives of age periodization is to establish the boundaries of certain stages of development in accordance with the physiological norms of responding to the growing organism on the impact of environmental factors. The nature of the responses of the organism on the reasons rendered directly depends on the age characteristics of the functioning of various physiological systems. According to S.M. Humbach, when developing a problem of age periodization, it is necessary to take into account the degree of maturity and functional readiness of various organs and systems. If certain physiological systems at a certain stage of development and are not leading, they can ensure the optimal functioning of the leading system in various media conditions, and therefore the level of maturity of these physiological systems can not affect the functionality of the entire body as a whole.

For a judgment on which system is the leading for this stage of development and where the referees of the change of one leading system of another, it is necessary to assess the level of maturity and features of the functioning of various organs and physiological systems.

Thus, age periodization should be based on three levels of studying the physiology of the child:

1 - intrasystem;

2 - intersystem;

3 - a holistic organism in interaction with the environment.

The question of the periodization of development is inextricably linked with the choice of informative criteria, which must be put on its basis. This returns us to the presentation of the age norm. You can fully agree with the statement of P.N. Vasilevsky that "the optimal modes of activity of functional systems of the body are not average values, and continuous dynamic processes flowing over time in a complex network of coadapted regulatory mechanisms. " There is every reason to believe that the most informative criteria for age transformations, which characterize the state of physiological systems in the conditions of activity, as close as possible to the one with which the object of the study - the child is faced in his daily life, i.e., indicators reflecting the real adaptability to the conditions Environment and adequacy of response to external influences.

Based on the concept of a systemic organization of adaptive reactions, it can be assumed that they must first consider those that reflect not so much the maturity of individual structures as the possibility and specificity of their interaction with the environment. This refers to both indicators characterizing the age characteristics of each physiological system separately and the indicators of the integral functioning of the body. All of the above requires comprehensive approach to the analysis of age-related transformations on intrasystem and intersystem levels.

No less important in the development of problems of age-related periodization is the question of the boundaries of functionally different stages. In other words, physiologically reasonable periodization should be based on the allocation of the stages of the "relevant" physiological age.

The allocation of functionally different stages of development is possible only in the presence of data on the characteristics of the adaptive functioning of various physiological systems within each year of the child's life.

Perennial studies conducted at the Institute of Age Physiology of RAO made it possible to establish that, despite the heterochrony of the development of organs and systems, within periods considered as uniform, nodal moments were revealed for which significant high-quality morphofunctional transformations are characterized, leading to adaptive rearrangements of the body. IN preschool age This age from 3-4 to 5-6 years, in the younger school - from 7-8 to 9-10 years. In adolescence, the qualitative changes in the activities of physiological systems are confined not to a certain passport age, but to the degree of biological maturity (certain stages of puberty - II-III stages).

Sensitive and critical periods of development

The adaptive nature of the development of the body determines the need for consideration in age periodization not only by the peculiarities of the morphofunctional development of physiological systems of the body, but also of their specific sensitivity to various external influences. Physiological and psychological studies have shown that sensitivity to external influences is of electoral character at different stages of ontogenesis. This is based on the idea of sensitive periodsas periods of the greatest sensitivity to the effects of environmental factors.

The identification and accounting of sensitive periods of development of the body's functions is an indispensable condition for creating favorable adequate conditions for effective learning and preserving the health of the child. The high exposure of certain functions by the influence of environmental factors should be, on the one hand, used for effective targeted impact on these functions that contributes to their progressive development, and on the other hand, the influence of negative external factors should be monitored, because it can lead to a violation of the development of the body.

It should be emphasized that ontogenetic development combines the periods of evolutionary (gradual) morphofunctional maturation and periods of revolutionary, critical leaks of development, which can be associated both with internal (biological) and external (social) development factors.

Important and requiring special attention is the question of critical development periods . In evolutionary biology, it is considered as a critical period of early postnatal development, characterized by the intensity of morphofunctional maturation, when due to the lack of media effects, the function may not be formed. For example, in the absence of certain visual stimuli in the early ontogenesis, their perception is not formed in the future, the same refers to speech function.

In the process of further development, critical periods may arise as a result of a sharp change of socio-environmental factors and their interaction with the process of internal morphofunctional development. This period is the age of commencement of learning, when high-quality restructuring of the morphofunctional ripening of basic brain processes occurs on a period of sharp change of social conditions.

Publit period- The beginning of puberty - is characterized by a sharp increase in the activity of the central link of the endocrine system (hypothalamus), which leads to a sharp change in the interaction of subcortical structures and the bark of large hemispheres, which is a significant reduction in the efficiency of central regulatory mechanisms, including those defining arbitrary regulation and self-regulation. In addition, the social demands for adolescents increase, their self-esteem increases., This leads to the inconsistency of the socio-psychological factors and the functionality of the body, the consequence of the consequence of deviations in health and behavioral deadaption.

Thus, it can be assumed that the critical periods of development are due to both intense morphofunctional transformation of the main physiological systems and a holistic organism and the specifics of the complicating interaction of internal (biological) and socio-psychological factors of development.

When considering issues of age periodization, it is necessary to keep in mind that the boundaries of the development stages are very conditional. They depend on the specific ethnic, climatic, social and other factors. In addition, the "actual" physiological age often does not coincide with the calendar (passport) in connection with the differences in the pace of maturation and the conditions for the development of organisms of different people. It follows that when studying the functional and adaptive capabilities of children of different ages, it is necessary to pay attention to the assessment of individual indicators of maturity. Only with a combination of age and individual approach to studying the characteristics of the child functioning, adequate hygienic and pedagogical measures can be developed, ensuring the preservation of the health and progressive development of the body and the identity of the child.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about the system principle of organizing adaptive response.

2. What are the patterns of ontogenetic development? What is an age norm?

3. What is age periodization?

4. Tell us about the sensitive and critical periods of development.

Chapter 3. General Baby Boy Building

Before studying the study of the most important patterns of the age development of the body, it is necessary to understand what is the body, which principles are laid by nature in its general construction and how it interacts with the outside world.

Already almost 300 years ago it was proved that all living things consist of cells. Of the few billion of the smallest cells, the human body is also. These cells are far from the same in their species, according to their properties and functions. Basic cells are combined into fabrics. Fabric species in the body set, but they all relate only to 4 types: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous. Epithelialthe fabrics form the skin and mucous membranes, many internal organs - the liver, spleen, etc. In the epithelial tissues of the cells are located closely towards each other. Connectingthe fabric is characterized by very large intercellular intervals. So the bones are arranged, cartilage, the blood is also arranged - all this varieties of connective tissue. Muscularand nervousfabrics relate to excitable: they are able to perceive and conduct an excitation impulse. At the same time, for the nervous tissue, it is the main function, while muscle cells can still be reduced, changing significantly in size. This mechanical work can be transferred to the bones or fluids that are inside the muscle bags.

Fabrics in various combinations form anatomical organs. Each body consists of several tissues, and almost always along with the main, functional tissue, which determines the specifics of the organ, there are elements of nervous tissue, epithelium and connecting tissue. Muscular tissue may not be represented in the organ (for example, in kidneys, spleen, etc.).

Anatomical organs add up in anatomy-physiological systemswhich are combined by the unity of the main function they perform. So the musculoskeletal, nervous, coating, excretory, digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, sex, and endocrine systems and blood are formed. All these systems together and make up organismman.

The elementary unit of the living is the cell. The genetic apparatus is concentrated in cellular kernel, i.e. localized and protected from the surprises of the impact of a potentially aggressive environment. Each cell is isolated from the rest of the world due to the presence of a complex organized shell - membranes. This shell consists of three layers of chemically and functionally different molecules, which acting consistently ensure the implementation of the set of functions: a protective, contact, sensitive, absorbing and excreasing. The main work of the cell membrane is the organization of the flow of substance from the environment inside the cell, and from the cell - outward. The cell membrane is the basis of the entire vital activity of the cell, which during the destruction of the membrane dies. Any cell need food and energy for its livelihoods - after all, the functioning of the cell membrane is also largely associated with energy spending. To organize the energy flow through the cell there are special organelles that are responsible for energy production - mitochondria. It is believed that billions of years ago mitochondria were independent living organisms who have learned during evolution to use some chemical processes to generate energy. They then entered the symbiosis with other single-cell organisms, which thanks to this cohabitation received a reliable source of energy, and the ancestors of mitochondria are a reliable protection and a guarantee of reproduction.

Construction function in the cell perform ribosomes- Factories for the production of protein based on matrices copied from genetic material stored in the kernel. Acting through chemical incentives, the kernel manages all sides of the cell life. The transmission of information inside the cell is carried out due to the fact that it is filled with a jelly-shaped mass - cytoplasmain which many biochemical reactions occur, and substances having informational importance are able to easily penetrate into the most distant corners of the intracellular space due to diffusion.

Many cells have, in addition, a particular device for movement in the surrounding space. It may be flagellum(like a sperm), vile(like intestinal epithelium) or the ability to transfusion of the cytoplasm in the form pseudopodia(like lymphocytes).

Thus, the most important structural elements of the cells are its shell (membrane), a control body (core), a system of energy supply (mitochondria), a construction block (ribosome), a propulsion (cilia, pseudopodia, or a badge) and an internal environment (cytoplasm). Some unicellular organisms They also have an impressive calcined skeleton that protects them from enemies and accidents.

It is surprising, but after all, the human body consisting of many billion cells has, in fact, the same major structural blocks. A person is separated from the environment with its skin sheath. He has a propulsion (muscle), skeleton, controls (head and spinal cord and endocrine system), energy supply system (breathing and blood circulation), a block of primary food processing (gastrointestinal tract), as well as an internal environment (blood, lymph, Intercellular fluid). This scheme does not exhaust all the structural components of the human body, but allows you to conclude that any living being is built on a fundamentally unified plan.

Of course, the multicellular organism has a number of features and, apparently, advantages - otherwise the evolution process was not aimed at the appearance of multicellular organisms and the world would still be solely by those whom we call "simplest".

The main constructive difference between the unicellular and multicellular organism is that the organs of the multicellular organism are constructed from millions of individual cells, which, according to the principle of similarity and functional relations, are combined into tissues, while the orchangers are elements of a single cell.

What is the real advantage of a multicellular organism? In the ability to separate functions in space and in time, as well as in the specialization of individual tissue and cellular structures for performing strictly defined functions. In fact, these differences are similar to what the medieval natural economy and modern industrial production differs. A cell representing an independent organism is forced to solve all the problems that get up to it, due to its resources. The multicellular organism allocates for solving each of the functional problems a special population of cells or a complex of such populations (tissue, organ, functional system) maximally adapted to solve exactly this task. It is clear that the effectiveness of solving problems with a multicellular organism is much higher. More precisely, the multicellular body is much more chances to adapt to a wide range of situations with which he has to face. It follows the fundamental difference between the cell and the multicellular organism in the adaptation strategy: the first on any media influence reacts integrity and generalized, the second is capable of adapting to the living conditions due to the restructuring of the functions of only individual components of the tissues and organs.

It is important to emphasize that the tissues of the multicellular organism are very diverse and each well adapted to perform a small number of functions necessary for the vital activity and adaptation of the whole organism. At the same time, the cells of each of the tissues are able to implement only one-single function, and the entire variety of functionality of the body is provided by the variety of cells included in its composition. For example, nerve cells are capable only to produce and conduct an excitation impulse, but do not know how to change their dimensions or exercise toxic substances. Muscular cells are capable of carrying out the excitation impulse as well as nervous, but they themselves are reduced by providing the movement of body parts in space or changing the voltage (tone) of structures consisting of these cells. Hepatic cells are not capable of carrying out electrical pulses or shrink - but their biochemical power ensures the neutralization of a huge number of harmful and poisonous molecules falling into the blood in the course of the body's vital activity. Bone marrow cells are specifically designed for blood production and any other busies can not be. Such a "division of labor" is the characteristic property of any complex organized system, and social structures are also functioning on the same rules. This must be taken into account when predicting the results of any reorganization: no specialized subsystem is capable of changing the nature of its functioning, if its own structure does not change.

The occurrence of tissues with high-quality features in the process of ontogenesis - the process is relatively slow, and it does not occur due to the fact that the available cells acquire new functions: almost always new functions are provided with new generations of cellular structures formed under the control of the genetic apparatus and under the influence of the requirements of the external or internal environment.

Ontogenesis is a striking phenomenon, during which a single-cell organism (zygote) turns into a multicellular, preserving the integrity and viability at all stages of this wonderful transformation and gradually increasing the diversity and reliability of the functions performed.

Structurally functional and systems approachto the study of the body

Scientific physiology was born in one day with anatomy - it happened in the middle of the XVII century, when the Great English doctor William Geringahe received the resolution of the church and the king and produced the first after a thousand-year interruption to open the corpse of a criminal sentenced to death to scientificly study the internal structure of the human body. Of course, another ancient Egyptian priests, burning the bodies of their pharaohs, the device knew perfectly human body From the inside - but this knowledge was not scientific, it was empirical, and besides - secret: the disclosure of any information about this was considered holy and dealt with death. The great Aristotle, the teacher and mentor Alexander Macedonsky, who lived in 3 centuries BC, very vaguely imagined how the body was arranged and how he works, although it was encyclopedically educated and knew, it seems, everything that European civilization has been accumulated by that time. Ancient Roman doctors were more aware - students and followers of Galen (II century. Er), which laid the beginning of a descriptive anatomy. The medieval Arabic doctors took great fame, but even the greatest of them - Ali Abu Ibn Sina (in European transcription - Avicenna, XI century) - he treated the human spirit rather than the body. And here W. Garvey during a coercion of a huge number of people conducts the first in the history of European science research of the human body device. But Garvela most interested in how the body works. From ancient times, people knew that the heart beats each of us. Doctors at all times measured the pulse and according to its dynamics assessed the state of health and the prospects for combating various diseases. Until now, one of the most important techniques for diagnosing in the famous and mysterious Tibetan medicine is a long continuous observation of the patient's pulse: the doctor sits at his bed and keeps his hand on the pulse for hours, and then calls the diagnosis and prescribes treatment. Everyone was well known: the heart stopped - life stopped. However, the traditional Galenov school did not associate blood movement along vessels with heart activity.

But before the garvela's eyes - a heart with vessel tubes filled with blood. And Garvey understands: the heart is just a muscular bag that performs the role of the pump that shakes blood throughout the body, because the vessels that are becoming increasingly numerous and more subtle as they are removed from the pump. According to the same vessels, blood returns to the heart, making a complete turn and continuously leaving all organs to each cell, carrying nutrients with them. Nothing is not yet known about the role of oxygen, hemoglobin is not open, do not know how doctors distinguish between proteins, fats and carbohydrates - in general, knowledge of chemistry and physics is still extremely primitive. But a variety of technologies have already begun to develop, the engineering thought of mankind invented many devices that facilitate production or creating completely new, unprecedented technical capabilities. Garwa's contemporaries becomes clear: the body has certain mechanisms , whose structural base is separate organs, and each body is intended to perform a particular function. The heart is a pump that swings blood on "cores", just like those pumps that serve water from the plain lakes in the estate on the hillock and nourish the fountain-pleasing eyes. Lightweight - fur through which the air rolled up, how to make apprentice in the blacksmith, to stronger the iron and it was easier to joke. Muscles are ropes attached to the bones, and their tension makes these bones move, which ensures the movement of the whole body, - just like builders with telly raise huge stones on the top floors of the temple under construction.

It is also characteristic of a person to always compare the new phenomena discovered with the already famous, which are in use. A person always builds analogies in order to make it easier to understand, explain to himself the essence of what is happening. The high level of development of mechanics in the era, when Garvey conducted his research, inevitably led to the mechanical interpretation of numerous discoveries made by doctors - followers of Garvela. So born structural and functional physiology with its slogan: one body is one function.

However, as knowledge accumulates - and this is largely dependent on the development of physical and chemical SciencesSince they deliver the main methods for conducting scientific research in physiology, it became clear that many organs do not perform alone, but several functions. Let's say lungs - not only provide the exchange of gases between blood and the environment, but also participate in the regulation of body temperature. The skin performing primarily the protection function is both the thermoregulation organ and the allocation organ. The muscles are capable not only to act the skeletal levers, but also at the expense of their cuts to warm the blood flowing towards them, maintaining temperature homeostasis. Examples of this kind can be brought without end. The polyfunctionality of organs and physiological systems has become particularly obvious in late XIX. - early XX century. It is curious that at the same time a lot of various "universal" machines and tools that have a wide range of opportunities - sometimes appeared in the technique, to the detriment of simplicity and reliability. This is an illustration of the fact that the technical thought of mankind and the level of scientific understanding of the organization of environmental processes develop in the close interaction among themselves.

By the mid-30s of the XX century. It became clear that even the concept of polyfunctionality of organs and systems is no longer able to explain the coherence of the functions of the body in the process of adapting to changing conditions or in the dynamics of age-related development. A new understanding of the meaning of the processes occurring in a living organism, from which a systematic approach to the study of physiological processes was gradually formed. In the origin of this direction of physiological thought stood outstanding Russian scientists - A.A. Ukhtomsky, N.A. Bernstein and P.K. Anokhin.

The most fundamental difference in structural and functional and systemic approaches is to understand what is a physiological function. For structural and functional approach it is characteristic of the understanding of the physiological function as a certain process carried out by a certain (specific) set of organs and tissues, changing its activity in accordance with the influence of control structures. In such interpretation, physiological mechanisms are those physical and chemical processeswhich underlie the physiological function and ensure the reliability of its execution. The physiological process is that the object that is in the center of attention of the structural and functional approach.

Systems approach it is based on the idea of \u200b\u200bappropriateness, that is, under the function within the system approach, the process of achieving a certain purpose, result, is understood. At various stages of this process, the need to involve certain structures can vary very significantly, therefore the conservation (composition and nature of the interaction of elements) of the functional system is very mobile and corresponds to that particular task that is currently solved. Availability assumes that there is a certain system status model before and after reaching this goal, a program of action, and there is a feedback mechanism that allows the system to control its current state (intermediate result) compared to the simulated and on this basis, make adjustments to the action program For the sake of achievement of the final result.

From the standpoint of a structural and functional approach, the environment acts as a source of incentives for certain physiological reactions. There was a stimulus - in response, a response arose, which either fade as the stimulus gets off, or stops when the stimulus ceases to act. In this sense, a structural-functional approach is considering the body as a closed system, which has only certain information exchange channels with the environment.

The system approach considers the body as open system, the target function of which can be placed both inside and outside it. In accordance with this view, the body reacts to impact external world As a whole, rebuilding the strategy and tactics of this response, depending on the results achieved each time so that either faster or more reliable to achieve model target results. From this point of view, the reaction to the outer stimulus is fading when the target function formed under its effect turns out to be implemented. The stimulus can continue to act or, on the contrary, can stop its operation long before the completion of functional rearrangements, but once started, these restructuring must pass the entire programmed path, and the reaction will end only when the feedback mechanisms bring information about the full balance of the body with the environment At the new level of functional activity. A simple and illustrative illustration of this position can be a reaction to any physical activity: muscle contractions are activated for its implementation, which causes the need for appropriate activation of blood circulation and respiration, and even when the load has already been completed - physiological functions still have a long time retaining their increased activity, since They provide alignment of metabolic states and normalization of homoezed parameters. The functional system that ensures physical exercise includes not only the muscles and nervous structures that give the muscles to the order to reduce, but also the blood system, the respiratory system, endocrine glands and many other tissues and organs involved in this process associated with serious changes. Interior environment of the body.

The structural-functional view on the essence of physiological processes reflected a deterministic, mechanistic-materialistic approach, which was characteristic of all natural sciences of the XIX and early XX century. The peak of its development is likely to be considered the theory of conditional reflexes I.P. Pavlova, with the help of which the Great Russian physiologist tried to know the mechanisms of brain activity with the same techniques that he successfully explored the mechanisms of gastric secretion.

The systematic approach stands on stochastic, probabilistic positions and does not reject teleological (appropriate) approaches characteristic of physics and other natural sciences of the second half of the XX century. Already mentioned above that physiologists simultaneously with mathematicians precisely within the framework of this approach came to the formulation of the most common cybernetic patterns, which are subject to all living things. It is just as important to understand the physiological processes at the present level of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe thermodynamics of open systems, the development of which is associated with the names of outstanding physics of the XX century. Ilya Prigogin, Burtalanfy, etc.

Organism as a holistic system

A modern understanding of complex self-organizing systems includes the idea that there are clearly defined channels and methods of transmitting information. In this sense, a living organism is a completely typical self-organizing system.

Information on the state of the world and about the inner medium, the body receives with the help of receptor sensors using a wide variety of physical and chemical design principles. So, for a person, the most important is the visual information that we get with the help of our optical-chemical sensors - eyes, which are both a complex optical device with an original and accurate guidance system (adaptation and accommodation), as well as a physico-chemical photon energy converter in Electric impulse of optic nerves. Acoustic information enters us through a fancy and finely-tuned hearing mechanism that turns mechanical energy Air fluctuations in electrical hearing nerve impulses. No less finely arranged temperature sensors, tactile (tactile), gravitational (equilibrium feeling). The most evolutionarily ancients are the olfactory and taste receptors, which have a huge election sensitivity in relation to some molecules. All this information on the state of the external environment and its changes enters the central nervous system, which performs several roles at the same time - databases and knowledge, expert system, the central processor, as well as the functions of operational and long-term memory. There is also information from receptors located inside our body and transmitting information about the state of biochemical processes, about the voltage in the work of certain physiological systems, about the current needs of certain groups of cells and body tissues. In particular, there are sensors of pressure, carbon dioxide and oxygen content, the acidity of various biological fluids, the voltage of individual muscles and many others. Information from all of these receptors is also sent to the center. The sorting of the incoming information begins at the stage of its reception - after all, the nerve endings of various receptors reach the central nervous system at different levels, and, accordingly, information falls into various CNS departments. Nevertheless, it can be used in the decision-making process.

The decision must be taken when the situation for some reason has changed and requires relevant reactions at the system level. For example, a person was hungry - this is reported by the "Center" sensors registering the amplification of the mercury secretion of the gastric juice and peristals of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as sensors registering a decrease in blood glucose levels. In response, the peristalistic of the gastrointestinal tract is reinforced and the secretion of gastric juice increases. The stomach is ready for receiving a new portion of food. At the same time, optical sensors allow you to see the food on the table, and the mapping of these images stored in the duration of long-term memory models suggests that there is an opportunity to remarkably quench the hunger, having received pleasure from the type and taste of food consumed. In this case, the CNS is disposed of executive (effector) authorities to carry out the necessary actions that will ultimately lead to saturation and eliminating the initial cause of all these events. Thus, the goal of the system is to eliminate their actions the cause of perturbation. This goal is achieved in this case relatively easily: it is enough to stretch your hand to the table, take the products lying there and eat them. However, it is clear that on the same scheme it is possible to build an arbitrarily complex action scenario.

Hunger, love, family values, friendship, shelter, self-affirmation, tag for new and love for beauty - this short list is almost exhausted by the motives of action. Sometimes they fade by a huge number of attaching psychological and social difficulties, closely overwhelming among themselves, but in basal form all the same, forcing a person to accomplish actions whether during Apulua, Shakespeare or in our time.

Act - what does it mean from the point of view systems? This means that the central processor, obeying the program laid into it, given all possible circumstances, makes a decision, that is, builds a model of the demand for the future and produces an algorithm for achieving this future. Based on this algorithm, orders are given to individual effector (executive) structures, and there are almost always muscles in their composition, and in the process of performing the order of the Center, the body or its parts are carried out in space.

And once the movement is carried out, means physical work is performed in the earth's field, and therefore energy is consumed. Of course, the operation of the sensors and the processor also requires energy, but the energy flow increases repeatedly when muscle contractions are included. Therefore, the system should take care of an adequate supply of energy, for which it is necessary to strengthen the activity of blood circulation, respiration and some other functions, as well as mobilize available nutrient reserves.

Any increase in metabolic activity entails a violation of the constancy of the inner medium. It means that physiological mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis should be activated, which, too, by the way, need significant amounts of energy for their activities.

Being a system is difficult organized, the body has not one, but several regulation circuits. The nervous system is probably the main one, but not the only regulatory mechanism. Quite important role Endocrine bodies of internal secretion are performed, which chemically regulate the activities of almost all organs and tissues. Each cell of the body is, in addition, and its own internal system of self-regulation.

It should be emphasized that the body is an open system not only from a thermodynamic point of view, i.e. it exchanges with the environment not only with energy, but also a substance and information. We consume the substance mainly in the form of oxygen, food and water, but we allocate in the form of carbon dioxide, feces and sweat. As for information, each person is a source of visual (gestures, postures, movement), acoustic (speech, noise from moving), tactile (touch) and chemical (numerous odors that are beautifully distinguished by our pets) information.

Another major feature of the system is the limb of its size. The body is not smeared on the environment, but has a certain form and compact. The body is surrounded by the shell, the boundary separating the inner medium from the external. The skin performing this role in the human body - important element Its structures, since it is in it that many sensors that carry information on the state of the outside world are concentrated, as well as ducts to remove the products of the exchange and information molecules from the body. The presence of clearly defined boundaries turns a person to a person that felt its separateness from the world, its uniqueness and uniqueness. This is a psychological effect arising from anatomical and physiological device of the body.

The main structural and functional blocks, of which the body consists

Thus, the main structural and functional blocks from which the body consists, the following can be attributed (each unit includes several anatomical structures with a variety of functions):

sensors (receptors) carrying information on the state of the external and internal environment;

central processor and control unit, including nervous and humoral regulation;

effector organs (primarily a skeletal muscular system) that ensure the execution of the orders of the Center;

energy unit, providing effector and all other structural components necessary substrate and energy;

a homeostatic unit that supports the parameters of the internal environment on the level required for vital activity;

shell performing the functions of the border zone, exploration, protection and all types of exchange with the environment.

..

Age physiology

the section of human and animal physiology, which studies the patterns of the formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout the ontogenesis A - From the fertilization of an egg to the end of life. VF. Sets the features of the functioning of the body, its systems, organs and tissues at different age stages. The life cycle of all animals and humans is made up of certain stages or periods. Thus, the development of mammals takes place the following periods: intrauterine (including phases of embryonic and placental development), newbies, dairy, puberty, maturity and aging.

For a person, the following age periodization is offered (Moscow, 1967): 1. Newborn (from 1 to 10 days). 2. Breast age (from 10 days to 1 year). 3. Childhood: a) early (1-3 years), b) the first (4-7 years), c) second (8-12 years old boys, 8-11 years old girls). 4. Teenage age (13-16 years old boys, 12-15 years old girls). 5. Youth age (17-21 years of youth, 16-20 years old girls). 6. Mature age: 1st period (22-35 years old men, 21-35 years old women); 2nd period (36-60 years old men, 36-55 years old women). 7. Elderly age (61-74 years old men, 56-74 years old women). 8. Old age (75-90 years). 9. Long-livers (90 years and above).

The importance of studying physiological processes in the ontogenetic plan was indicated by I. M. Sechenov (1878). The first data on the peculiarities of the functioning of the nervous system in the early stages of ontogenesis were obtained in Laboratories I. R. Tarkhanov A (1879) and V. M. Bekhterev A (1886). Research in VF. conducted in other countries. German physiologist V. Prime (1885) studied blood circulation, breathing and other functions of developing mammals, birds, amphibians; Czech biologist E. Babak studied the ontogenesis of amphibians (1909). The release of the book N. P. Gundobin "Features of children's age" (1906) began the beginning of a systematic study of the morphology and physiology of the developing human body. Works in VF. Received a lot of scope from the 2nd quarter of the 20th century, mainly in the USSR. The structural and functional features of the age development of individual bodies and their systems are identified: the highest nervous activity (L. A. Orbeli, N. I. Krasnogorsky, A. G. Ivanov-Smolensky, A. A. Volokhov, N. I. Kasatkin, M . M. Koltsova, A. N. Kabanov), cerebral cortex, subcortical formations and their relationships (P. K. Anhin, I. A. Arshavsky, E. Sh. Ayrapetyanz, A. A. Markosyan, A. A. Volokhov et al.), Musculoskeletal system (V. G. Shtefko, V. S. Farfel, L. K. Semenova), of cardio-vascular system and breathing (F. I. Valkher, V. I. Puzik, N. V. Lauer, I. A. Arshavsky, V. V. Frolkis), blood systems (A. F. Tour, A. A. Markosyan). Successful problems of age-related neurophysiology and endocrinology, age-related changes in metabolism and energy, cellular and subcellular processes, as well as activation (see Acoperation) - Accelerating the development of the human body.

The concepts of ontogenesis and aging were formed: A. A. Bogomolets - On the role of the physiological system of connective tissue; A. V. Nagorno - On the meaning of the intensity of protein self-renewal (attempting curve); P. K. Anokhina - On systemgenesis, i.e., maturation in the ontogenesis of certain functional systems, providing one or another adaptive reaction; I. A. Arshavsky - about the meaning for the development of the body of motor activity (the energy rule of skeletal muscles); A. A. Markosyan - On the reliability of the biological system, ensuring the development and existence of the body under the changing environment of the medium.

In studies in V. f. Use methods used in physiology, as well as a comparative method, i.e., comparing the functioning of certain systems in different ages, including elderly and senile. VF. It is closely related to the adjacent sciences - morphology, biochemistry, biophysics, anthropology. It is a scientific and theoretical basis of such industries of medicine as pediatrics, hygiene children and adolescents, gerontology, geriathria, as well as pedagogy, psychology, physical education, etc. Therefore, V. F. is actively developing in the system of institutions related to children's health, which are organized in the USSR since 1918, and in the system of physiological institutions and laboratories of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, APN of the USSR, AMN of the USSR, etc. from 1970 Course VF. introduced as a mandatory object at all faculties pedagogical institutions. In coordination of research according to VF. The conferences on age morphology, physiology and biochemistry convened by the Institute of Age Physiology of the USSR of the USSR are playing a major role. The 9th Conference (Moscow, April 1969) united the work of 247 scientific and educational institutions of the Soviet Union.

LIT: Kasatkin N. I., early conditional reflexes in the ontogenesis of man, M., 1948; Krasnogorsky N. I., works on the study of the highest nervous activity of man and animals, t. 1, M., 1954; Parhon K.I., Age Biology, Bucharest, 1959; Peyper A., \u200b\u200bFeatures of the Baby Brain, Per. with him., L., 1962; Nagorno A. V., Bulaneckin I. N., Nikitin V. N., Problem of aging and longevity, M., 1963; Essays on the physiology of the fetus and a newborn, ed. V.I. Bodyazhina, M., 1966; Arshavsky I. A., Essays on age physiology, M., 1967; Koltsova M.M., Generalization as a function of the brain, L., 1967; Chebotarev D. F., Frolkis V. V., Cardiovascular system for aging, L., 1967; Volokhov A. A., Essays on the physiology of the nervous system in early ontogenesis, L., 1968; Ontogenesis of blood coagulation system, ed. A. A. Markosyan, L., 1968; Farber D. A., Functional maturation of the brain in Early Ontogenesis, M., 1969; Basics of morphology and physiology of the body of children and adolescents, ed. A. A. Markosyan, M., 1969.

A. A. Markosyan.

Big soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Watch what is "age physiology" in other dictionaries:

Age physiology - Science, which studies the characteristics of the body's vital activity at different stages of ontogenesis. Tasks V.F.: Studying the features of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole; Identification of exogenous and endogenous factors defining ... ... Pedagogical Terminology Dictionary

Age physiology - section of physiology, which studies the patterns of formation and age changes in the functions of a holistic organism, its organs and systems in the process of ontogenesis (from the fertilization of the egg to the termination of individual existence). Life cycle… …

- (from Greek. Phýsis - nature and ... logic) of animals and humans, science on the livelihoods of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and regulating physiological functions. F. also studies the patterns of interaction of living organisms with ...

Physiology of animals - (from Greek. Phýsis - Nature and Lógos - doctrine), science, learning the processes of livelihoods of organs, systems of organs and a holistic organism in relation to its environment. F. g. divided into common, private (special), ... ... Veterinary Encyclopedic Dictionary

Physiology - (Physiologia, from Greek. Physis nature + Logos doctrine, science, word) - biological science, studying the functions of a holistic organism, its component parts, origin, mechanisms and laws of vital activity, environmental relationships; Select F. ... ... Dictionary of terms in physiology of farm animals

Section F., which studies age-related features of life, patterns of formation and fuses of the body's functions ... Big Medical Dictionary

Age physiology - section of physiology that studies the laws of functioning of the body in different age periods (in ontogenesis) ... Psychomotorika: Slovar-Directory

Animals, a section of physiology (see Physiology) Animals, which studies the method of comparing the features of physiological functions in various representatives of the animal world. Together with age physiology (see age physiology) and ecological ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

I Medicine Medicine System scientific knowledge and practical activitiesThe goals of which are the strengthening and preservation of health, the extension of people's lives, prevention and treatment of human diseases. To perform these tasks, M. studies the structure and ... ... Medical encyclopedia

Ahautomo-physiological features of children - age features of the structure, functions of children. The organism, their transformation in the process of individual development. Knowledge and accounting of A. F. about. d. It is necessary for the correct formulation of training and education of children of different ages. The age of children conditionally ... ... Russian pedagogical encyclopedia

Current page: 1 (A total of 12 pages) [Available excerpt for reading: 8 pages]

Yuri Savchenkov, Olga Soldatova, Sergey Shilov
Age physiology (physiological features of children and adolescents). Textbook for universities

Reviewers:

Kovalevsky V. A. , D.M., Professor, Head of the Department of Childhood Psychology of the Krasnoyarsk State pedagogical University them. V.P. Astafieva,

Manchuk V. T. , D.M., Corresponding Member. RAMS, Professor of the Department of Polyclinic Pediatrics Krasgmu, Director of the Medical Problems of the North Sovar

© Humanitarian Publishing Center Vladosa, 2013

Introduction

The child's body is extremely difficult and at the same time a very varying social biological system. It is in childhood that the foundation of the health of the future adult is laid. An adequate assessment of the physical development of the child is possible only when taking into account the features of the relevant age period, comparison of the vital activity of this child with the standards of its age group.

Age physiology studies the functional features of the individual development of the body throughout its life. Based on these science data, training methods, education and child health are being developed. In case of inconsistency of the methods of upbringing and learning the capabilities of the body at any stage of development, recommendations may be ineffective, cause a negative attitude of the child to study and even provoke various diseases.

As the child's growing and development and development, almost all physiological parameters undergo significant changes: blood indicators are changed, the activity of the cardiovascular system, respiration, digestion, etc., the knowledge of various physiological parameters characteristic of each age period is necessary to assess the development of a healthy child.

The proposed edition summarizes and classified on systems features the age-related dynamics of the main physiological parameters of healthy children of all age groups.

Assignment of age physiology is an additional educational material on the physiological features of children of different ages, necessary for assimilation by students who are trained in pedagogical and secondary special educational institutions and are already familiar with the common course of physiology and human anatomy.

Each section of the book gives a brief description of the main directions of ontogenesis of indicators of a particular physiological system. In this embodiment, the benefits have significantly expanded sections "age features of higher nervous activity and mental functions", "age features of endocrine functions", "age features of thermoregulation and metabolism".

This book contains descriptions of numerous physiological and biochemical indicators and will be useful in practical work Not only future teachers, defectologists, children's psychologists, but also future pediatricians, as well as already working young professionals and high school students who want to replenish their knowledge about the physiological characteristics of the children's body.

Chapter 1
Age periodization

The patterns of growth and development of a children's body. Age periods of child development

A child is not an adult in a miniature, but the body, for each age is relatively perfect, with its morphological and functional features, for which the dynamics of their flow from birth to puberty.

The child's body is extremely difficult and at the same time a very varying social biological system. It is in childhood that the foundation of the health of the future adult is laid. An adequate assessment of the physical development of the child is possible only when taking into account the characteristics of the relevant age period, comparing the indicators of the vital activity of a particular child with the standards of its age group.

Growth and development are often used as identical concepts. Meanwhile, their biological nature (mechanism and consequences) is different.

Development is a process of quantitative and qualitative changes in the human body, accompanied by an increase in its complexity. Development includes three main interrelated factor: growth, differentiation of organs and tissues and formation.

Growth is a quantitative process characterized by an increase in the mass of the body due to changes in the number of cells and their size.

Differentiation is the emergence of specialized structures of new quality from minorized predecessor cells. For example, a nervous cell laying in the neural tube of the embryo (embryo) can potentially perform any nervous function. If the neuron migrating into the visual brain region, transplant to the area responsible for the hearing, it will not turn into a visual, but in the auditory neuron.

Forming is the acquisition of forms inherent in it. For example, ear sink acquires a form inherent in an adult person, by 12 years.

In cases where intensive growth processes are intensive in many different tissues, there are so-called growth racks. This is manifested in a sharp increase in the longitudinal sizes of the body due to an increase in the length of the body and the limbs. In the postnatal period of human ontogenesis, such "jumps" are most pronounced:

in the first year of life, when a semi-coat increase in length and a three-four-fold increase in body weight occurs;

at the age of 5-6, when predominantly due to the growth of the limbs, the child reaches about 70% of the body's length of the adult;

13-15 years old - a puberty growth jump due to an increase in body length and limbs.

The development of the body from the moment of birth and before the onset of maturity occurs in the ever-changing conditions of the external environment. Therefore, the development of the body is adaptive, or adaptive, character.

To ensure an adaptive result, various functional systems ripen non-uniformly, including and replacing each other in different periods of ontogenesis. This is the essence of one of the defining principles of individual development of the organism - the principle of heterochrony, or the unlimited ripening of organs and systems and even parts of the same organ.

The timing of ripening of various organs and systems depends on their significance to the life of the body. Faster growing and developing those organs and functional systems that are most vital on this stage development. By combining individual elements of a body with the most early ripening elements of another body that participates in the implementation of the same function, the minimal provision of vital functions is carried out sufficient for a certain stage of development. For example, to ensure meals to the moment of birth from the front muscles, the circular muscle of the mouth ripen; from the cervical - muscles responsible for turning the head; From the receptors of the language - receptors located at its root. By the same time, mechanisms are ripening that are responsible for coordinating respiratory and swallowing movements and ensuring the incomprehension of milk into the respiratory tract. Thereby ensuring the necessary actions associated with the nutrition of the newborn: the seizure and retention of the nipple, sucking movement, the direction of food according to the appropriate paths. Taste sensations are transmitted through language receptors.

The adaptive nature of the heterochronous development of body systems reflects another of the general principles of development - the reliability of the functioning of biological systems. Under the reliability of the biological system is understood as the level of organization and regulation of processes, which is able to ensure the vital activity of the body in extreme conditions. It is based on such properties of a living system, as the redundancy of elements, their duplication and interchangeability, the speed of return to relative constant and the dynamic of individual units of the system. An example of the redundancy of the elements may be the fact that during the period of intrauterine development in the ovaries is laid from 4,000 to 200,000 primary follicles, of which egg cells are formed, and only 500-600 follicles are ripening for the entire reproductive period.

Mechanisms for ensuring biological reliability are significantly changed during ontogenesis. In the early stages of postnal life, reliability is ensured by the genetically programmed union of the links of functional systems. In the course of development, as the cerebral cort is matured, providing the highest level of regulation and control of functions, the plasticity of connections increases. Due to this, there is a selective formation of functional systems in accordance with the specific situation.

Other an important feature Individual development of a children's body is the presence of periods of high sensitivity of individual organs and systems to the effects of environmental factors - sensitive periods. These are periods when the system is developing rapidly and it needs an influx of adequate information. For example, for a visual system, adequate information are light quanta, for the auditory system - sound waves. The absence or deficiency of such information leads to negative consequences, Up to non-formation of a function or another.

It should be paid to the fact that ontogenetic development combines periods of evolutionary, or gradual, morphofunctional maturations and periods of revolutionary, critical surprises of development associated both with internal (biological) and external (social) factors. These are the so-called critical periods. The inconsistency of the environmental impacts on the peculiarities and functional capabilities of the body at these stages of development may have detrimental consequences.

The first critical period is considered to be the stage of early postnatal development (up to 3 years), when the most intensive morphofunctional maturation occurs. In the process of further development, critical periods arise as a result of a sharp change of socio-environmental factors and their interaction with morphofunctional ripening processes. These periods are:

the age of the beginning of training (6-8 years), when a high-quality restructuring of the morphofunctional organization of the brain falls on a period of harsh change of social conditions;

the beginning of puberty is a pubertal period (in girls - 11-12 years old, boys -13-14 years old), which is characterized by a sharp increase in the activity of the central link of the endocrine system - hypothalamus. As a result, there is a significant decrease in the effectiveness of cortical regulation, which determines arbitrary regulation and self-regulation. Meanwhile, at this time, the social demands for adolescence increase, which sometimes leads to the inconsistency of the claims and the functional capabilities of the body, the consequence of which there may be a violation of the physical and mental health of the child.

Age Periodization of the Ontogenesis of the Growing Organism. Two main periods of ontogenesis are isolated: antenatal and postnatal. The antenatal period is represented by the embryonic period (from conception to the eighth week of the intrauterine period) and the fruit (from the ninth to the fortieth). Usually pregnancy lasts 38-42 weeks. Postnatal period covers the gap from birth to the natural death of man. According to age periodization adopted at a special symposium in 1965, the following periods allocate in the postnatal development of the children's body:

newborn (1-30 days);

thoracic (30 days - 1 year);

early childhood (1-3 years);

first childhood (4-7 years);

second childhood (8-12 years old boys, 8-11 years old - girls);

teenage (13-16 years old - boys, 12-15 years old - Girls);

youth (17-21 years of youth, 16-20 years old girls).

Considering the issues of age periodization, it must be borne in mind that the boundaries of the development stages are very conditional. All age structural and functional changes in the human body occur under the influence of heredity and conditions of the external environment, i.e. depend on the specific ethnic, climatic, social and other factors.

Heredity determines the potential of physical and mental Development Individual. For example, with the peculiarities of the genotype, the lowestness of African pygmen (125-150 cm) and the tallness of the Vatussi tribe representatives are connected. However, in each group there are individuals, in which this indicator can differ significantly from the average age norm. Deviations may arise due to the impact on the body various factors The environment, such as nutrition, emotional and socio-economic factors, the situation of the child in the family, relationship with parents and peers, the level of culture of society. These factors can violate the growth and development of the child, and on the contrary, to stimulate them. Therefore, indicators of growth and development of children of one calendar age can vary greatly. Generally accepted formation of groups of children in preschool institutions and classes B. secondary schools by calendar age. In this regard, the educator and teacher must take into account the individual psychophysiological features of development.

The delay in growth and development, called the retreet, or ahead of development - acceleration - indicate the need to determine the child's biological age. The biological age, or the development age reflects growth, development, maturation, the aging of the body and is determined by the combination of structural, functional and adaptive characteristics of the body.

Biological age is determined by a number of indicators of morphological and physiological maturity:

by the proportions of the body (the ratio of the length of the body and limbs);

degree of development of secondary sexual signs;

skeletal maturity (order and deadlines of the skeleton);

dental maturity (timing of teething of dairy and indigenous teeth);

metabolism level;

peculiarities of cardiovascular, respiratory, neuroendocrine and other systems.

In determining the biological age, the level of mental development of the individual is also taken into account. All indicators are compared with standard indicators characteristic of this age, sexual and ethnic group. At the same time, it is important for each age period to take into account the most informative indicators. For example, in a pubertal period - neuroendocrine changes and the development of secondary sexual signs.

To simplify and standardize the middle age of an organized group of children, it is customary to consider the age of the child to 1 month if its calendar age is in the range from 16 days to 1 month 15 days; Equal 2 months - if his age is from 1 month to 16 days to 2 months 15 days, etc. after the first year of life and up to 3 years: by 1.5 years include a child with age from 1 year 3 months to 1 year 8 months And 29 days, by the second year - from 1 year 9 months to 2 years 2 months 29 days, etc. After 3 years with annual intervals: by 4 years, children aged 3 years 6 months to 4 years 5 months 29 days, etc.

Chapter 2.
Caught fabrics

Age changes in the structure of neuron, nervous fiber and neuromuscular synapse

different types nerve cells In the ontogenesis ripen heterochronously. The most early, in the embryonic period, large afferent and efferent neurons ripen. Small cells (internals) ripen gradually during postnatal ontogenesis under the action of media factors.

Separate parts of the neuron also ripen not at the same time. Dendriti grows significantly later axon. Their development occurs only after the birth of the child and largely depends on the influx of external information. The number of dendritis branching and the number of spines increases in proportion to the number of functional relations. The most branched network of dendrites with a large number of spines has neurons of the cerebral cortex.

Axon myelinization begins during the period of intrauterine development and occurs in the following order. Previously, the myelin shell peripheral fibers are covered, then the fibers of the spinal cord, the brain barrel (oblong and medium brain), the cerebellum and the latter - the fibers of the cerebral cortex. In the spinal cord, motor fibers are minimized earlier (by 3-6 months of life) than sensitive (to 1.5-2 years). Myelination brain fibers occurs in another sequence. Here, the sensitive fibers and sensory areas are identified here, while motorizes are only 6 months after birth, or even later. Mostly, myelinization is completed by 3 years, although the growth of myelin shell lasts approximately 9-10 years.

Age changes affect the synaptic apparatus. With age in synapses, the intensity of the formation of mediators increases, the number of postsynaptic membrane receptors increases, which react to these mediators. Accordingly, as radiation, the speed of pulses through synapses increases. The inflow of external information determines the number of synapses. First of all, the synapses of the spinal cord are formed, and then other departments of the nervous system. Moreover, first ripen excitation synapses, then brakes. It is with the ripening of brake synapses that the complication of information processing processes are associated.

Chapter 3.
Physiology of the central nervous system

Anatomy-physiological features of the ripening of the dorsal and brain

The spinal cord fills the cavity of the spine channel and has a corresponding segmental structure. In the center of the spinal cord there is a gray substance (accumulation of nerve cells), surrounded by white substance (by the accumulation of nerve fibers). The spinal cord provides motor-reactions to the body and limbs, some vegetative reflexes (the tone of the vessels, urination, etc.) and the conductive function, since it takes all the sensitive (ascending) and motor (descending) paths for which the connection is established between various parts CNS.

The spinal cord develops earlier than the brain. In the early stages of the development of the spinal cord fetus, it fills the entire cavity of the spine channel, and then begins to fall behind in growth and by the time of birth ends at the level of the third lumbar vertebra.

By the end of the first year of life, the spinal cord occupies the same position in the spine canal, as in adults (at the level of the first lumbar vertebra). At the same time, the segments of the chest spinal cord grow faster than the segments of the lumbar and sacral departments. In the thickness of the spinal cord grows slowly. The most intensive increase in the mass of the spinal cord occurs by 3 years (4 times), and by 20 years its mass becomes like an adult (8 times more than a newborn). The myelination of the nerve spinal cord fibers begins with motor nerves.

By the time of birth, the oblongable brain and the bridge were already formed. Although the ripening of the cores of the oblong brain continues up to 7 years. It differs from adults and the location of the bridge. The newborn bridge is somewhat higher than in adults. This difference disappears by 5 years.

The cerebellum in newborns will still be discharged. Enhanced growth and development of the cerebellum is observed in the first year of life and during puberty. Myelination of his fibers ends for about 6 months of life. The total formation of cerebellum cell structures is carried out by 7-8 years, and by 15-16 its size corresponds to the level of adult.

The shape and structure of the medium brain in the newborn is almost no different from the adult. The postnatal period of maturation of the mid-brain structures is accompanied mainly by the pigmentation of the red nucleus and the black substance. The pigmentation of the neurons of the red nucleus begins with a two-year-old age and ends to 4 years. The pigmentation of the neurons of the Black Substance begins on the sixth month of life and reaches a maximum of 16 years.

The intermediate of the brain includes two essential structures: Talamus or visual borgorm, and subbohrum area - hypothalamus. The morphological distinction of these structures occurs in the third month of intrauterine development.

Talamus is a multi-core, associated with the crust of large hemispheres. Through its kernels in the corresponding associative and sensory zones of the cerebral cortex are transmitted visual, hearing and somatosensory information. The core of the reticular formation of the intermediate brain activates the neurons of the cortex that perceive this information. By the time of birth, most of his cores are well developed. The strengthened growth of Talamus takes place at a four years of age. The size of an adult Talamus reaches by 13 years.

The hypothalamus, despite its small sizes, contains dozens of highly differentiated nuclei and regulates most of the vegetative functions, such as maintaining body temperature, water balance. The hypothalamus cores participate in many complex behavioral reactions: sexual attraction, feelings of hunger, saturation, thirst, fear and rage. In addition, through the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus manages the operation of the internal secretion glands, and the substances formed in the neurosecrete cells of the hypothalamus itself are involved in the regulation of the "Sleep - wake" cycle. The hypothalamus kernel ripen mainly by 2-3 years, although cell differentiation of some structures continues until 15-17 years.

The most intense myelination of fibers, an increase in the thickness of the cerebral cortex and its layers occurs in the first year of life, gradually slowing down and ceases to 3 years in the projection and 7 years in associative areas. First ripen the lower layers of the crust, then the upper one. By the end of the first year of life, as a structural unit of the cerebral cortex, neurons, or column, the complication of which continues until 18 years. The most intense differentiation of inserting neurons of the bark occurs between the ages of 3 and 6 years, reaching the maximum by 14 years. The complete structural and functional ripening of the brain bark reaches about 20 years.

In development modern science Two main trends are clearly pronounced. On the one hand, the specialization of specific science is going, its deepening in the field inherent in it. On the other hand, there is a close relationship between different branches of knowledge, the integration of scientific knowledge is constantly. These trends are clearly manifested in the biological sciences, among which age physiology occupies a significant place. There are a number of major integration links of age physiology in the system of modern science.

Age physiology is associated with a number of adjacent sciences and its successes reflect the achievements of the anatomy (the science of the structure of the human body), histology (science that studies the structure and function of tissues), cytology (science learning the structure, chemical composition, the processes of vital activity and reproduction of cells), embryology (science, studying the patterns of cell development, tissues and organs of the embryo), biochemistry (science examining the chemical patterns of physiological processes) and others. It is widely used by their methods and achievements in the process of studying the functions of the body. Age physiology relies on these sciences that study the structure of the body, since the structure and function are closely related. It is impossible to deeply understand the functions without knowledge of the structure of the body, its organs, tissues and cells, as well as those structural and histochemical changes arising from their activities. With the development of science and technology, techniques are developing and improved, which are used for physiological studies. Without knowledge of genetics (science on the patterns of heredity and variability of organisms), it is impossible to understand the laws of the evolutionary and individual development of the human body). Common patterns, namely the laws of heredity, also apply to human body. The study is necessary to identify the specific features of the functioning of the organism at different stages of ontogenesis. The multifaceted and numerous links have long existed between physiology and medicine. According to I.P. Pavlova "Physiology and medicine are inseparable." On the soil of the knowledge gained on the physiological mechanisms and their features of the flow in ontogenesis, the doctor discovers their deviations from the norm, finds out the nature and degree of these violations, determines the ways of rehabilitation of the patient organism. With the aim of clinical diagnostics, physiological methods for the study of the human body are widely used.

The knowledge of physiological phenomena is based on the understanding of the laws of chemistry and physics, because all life activity is determined by the transformation of substances and energy, that is, by chemical and physical processes. Age physiology, relying on the general laws of chemistry and physics, gives them new qualitative features and raises them to more high levelwhich is inherent in living organisms.

Fruitful and promising communications with mathematics are the most schematic of all sciences, which significantly changed physics, chemistry, genetics and other industries of scientific knowledge. The importance of mathematical principles for processing the results of physiological experiments and establishing their scientific accuracy is well known. Such, for example, methods of variation statistics in the process of comparative study of wave electrical phenomena in the brain and other physiological processes in the body.

Physiology introduces holography methods - obtain a surround image of an effective object based on mathematical imposition of associated wave-like processes. Holographic methods allow a flat two-dimensional image to replace three-dimensional and thus reveal the subtle mechanisms for the operation of the sensory system - from its receptive field to the final neural projections in the large hemisphey crust.

Physiology has common tasks with technical sciences, namely: opens up promising methodological opportunities in the study of physiological phenomena. On this path, the adjacent direction was reached - electrophysiology, which explores the electrical phenomena of the living organism. Modern age physiology includes new generations of electronic amplifiers, microelectronic techniques, telemetry, computer equipment, etc.

Great perspectives have the interaction of age physiology with cybernetics, science about general principles Management and communications in machines, mechanisms and living organisms. The variety of cybernetics is physiological cybernetics, which studies the general patterns of perception, transformation and encoding information and use it in order to control the physiological processes and self-regulation of living systems.

A variety of communication of age physiology with pedagogy. There is no doubt that the understanding of the physiological patterns of growth and development of children, the accounting of the peculiarities of the functioning of the body in various age groups is based on the naturally scientific basis of the preparation of the teacher and the entire system school Education. So, the teacher should know the characteristics of the structure and vital activity of the children's body. The problems of age physiology are intertwined by numerous issues of physiological and hygienic support of the educational process at school, the formation of the student's personality, its hardening, the prevention of diseases that school hygiene studies.

A special place is occupied by the relationship of age physiology with philosophy. Like other sections of natural science, age physiology is one of the natural scientific foundations of philosophical knowledge. It is natural that many concepts and theoretical generalizations, which were formed within the framework of age physiology, went out of its limits and received general scientific, philosophical significance. Such general theoretical meaning has, for example, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe growth and development of the body, its integrity and systemic functioning, adaptation to the changing conditions of the external environment, about the neurophysiological mechanisms of complex forms of behavior and psyche.

School hygiene as science is developing on the basis of age physiology and anatomy. It as the science area also uses the methods and data of related disciplines: age physiology, bacteriology, toxicology, biochemistry, biophysics, and the like. It uses common biological laws of development. School hygiene is closely related to all medical disciplines, as well as with technical and pedagogical sciences. It is impossible to properly organize the activities of children and adolescents without understanding the basic principles of pedagogy and psychology. School hygiene is closely related to biology, physiology data is considered and at the same time expands the idea of \u200b\u200bthe features of the body's reaction in children and adolescents on the loading and influence of the medium.