Every year science more and more confidently enters our life. Films, books, serials are filled with specialized terms that were previously used only by scientists. More and more people are striving to understand how it works the world, according to what laws our Universe exists.

In this regard, questions arise: what is science? What methods and means does she use? What are the criteria scientific knowledge? What properties does it have?

Human cognitive activity

The whole cognitive activity a person can be divided into two types:

• The commonplace is done spontaneously by all people during their life. Such knowledge is aimed at acquiring the skills that a person needs to adapt to real life conditions.
• Scientific - involves the study of phenomena, the mechanism of action of which has not yet been fully disclosed. The information obtained is distinguished by its fundamental novelty.

Scientific knowledge is a system of knowledge about the surrounding world (laws of nature, man, society, etc.), obtained and recorded using specific means and methods (observation, analysis, experiment, and others).

It has its own characteristics and criteria.

Features of scientific knowledge:

• Universality. Science studies the general laws and properties of an object, identifies the patterns of development and functioning of an object in a system. Knowledge is not guided by the unique traits and properties of an object.
• Need. The main, system-forming aspects of the phenomenon are fixed, and not random aspects.
• Consistency. Scientific knowledge is an organized structure, the elements of which are closely related to each other. Knowledge cannot exist outside of a specific system.

Basic principles of scientific knowledge

The signs or criteria of scientific knowledge were developed by representatives of the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle under the leadership of Moritz Schlick in the 1930s. The main goal that scientists pursued in their creation was the separation of scientific knowledge from various metaphysical statements, mainly due to the ability to verify scientific theories and hypotheses. According to scientists, in this way scientific knowledge was deprived of emotional coloring and unfounded faith.

Presentation: "Methodology and methodology of scientific research"

As a result, representatives of the Vienna Circle developed the following criteria:

1. Objectivity: scientific knowledge should be an expression of objective truth and be independent of the subject knowing it, his interests, thoughts and feelings.
2. Reasonableness: knowledge must be supported by facts and logical conclusions. Statements without evidence are not considered scientific.
3. Rationality: scientific knowledge cannot rely only on people's faith and emotions. It always gives the necessary grounds for proving the truth of a statement. The idea of ​​a scientific theory should be pretty simple.
4. Use of technical terms: scientific knowledge is expressed in terms formed by science. Clear definitions also help to better describe and classify the observed phenomena.
5. Consistency. This criterion helps to exclude the use of mutually exclusive statements within the same concept.
6. Verifiability: The facts of scientific knowledge should be based on controlled experiments that can be repeated later. This criterion also helps to limit the use of any theory, showing in which cases it is confirmed, and in which its use would be inappropriate.
7. Mobility: Science is constantly evolving, which is why it is so important to recognize that some statements may be wrong or inaccurate. It should be recognized that the conclusions obtained by scientists are not final and can be further supplemented or completely refuted.

Sociological and historical features occupy an important place in the structure of scientific knowledge:

• Sometimes the historical criterion for the development of science is singled out separately. All kinds of knowledge and various theories could not exist without previous hypotheses and data obtained. The solution of problems and scientific paradoxes of the present time is carried out by relying on the results of the activities of predecessors. But modern scientists take as a basis already existing theories, supplement them with new facts and show why the old hypotheses do not work in the current situation and what data should be changed.
• The sociological criterion is also sometimes singled out separately in the structure of scientific knowledge. Its main property is the formulation of new tasks and questions that should be worked on. Without this criterion, the development of not only science, but also society as a whole would not be possible. Science is the main engine of progress. Each discovery raises many new questions that scientists will need to answer.

The structure of scientific knowledge also has its own properties:

1. The highest value is objective truth. That is, the main goal of science is knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself.
2. For all areas of science, there are a number of significant requirements that are universal for them.
3. Knowledge is systematic and well-ordered.

These properties partly generalize the features identified in scientific knowledge back in the 30s.

Science today

Per last years science has acquired a special status in public life. But at the same time, the significantly increased flow of information led to the growth of pseudoscientific theories. Distinguishing one from the other can be difficult, but in most cases, using the criteria above will help. Often it is enough to check the logical validity of the assumptions, as well as the experimental basis, in order to assess the validity of the proposed theory.

Any science has the most important property: it has no boundaries: neither geographic nor temporal. You can study a variety of objects at any point the globe over the years, but the number of emerging questions will only increase. And this is perhaps the most wonderful gift that science has made for us.

Types of extra-scientific knowledge

Scientific criteria. Scientific and non-scientific knowledge

The main stages of the development of natural science

The main functions of science

Science as a cultural phenomenon. Functions of science

• Culture is a collection of artificial orders and objects created by people in addition to natural ones.
• Culture is divided into material and spiritual.
• An integral part of spiritual culture is science.

• Science is a form of spiritual activity of people aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and the discovery of objective laws.

• Law is a stable repeating connection between processes and phenomena.

• To identify a law means to establish causal relationships and / or chains of processes and phenomena.

• theoretical (or cognitive);

• practical;

• predictive;

• ideological.

• 1. Pre-scientific (natural philosophical) - until the end of the XYI century.

• 2. Classic (early XYII centuries - XIX century).

• 3. Non-classical (early XX - 1970s).

• 4. Post-nonclassical (since the mid-1970s).

• Natural philosophy- This is mainly a philosophical and speculative study of nature, considered as an integral living organism.

• Scientific criteria- these are the main features of scientific knowledge, which make it possible to distinguish it from different types of extra-scientific knowledge.
• The inconsistency of knowledge with at least one criterion of scientific character means its belonging to extra-scientific knowledge.

• Criterion(Greek. kriteriori)- a feature on the basis of which an assessment, definition or classification is made, a measure of assessment.
• Sign- the property by which the object is cognized or recognized.
• Property- the side of an object that determines its difference or similarity with other objects.

TO scientific criteria can be attributed:

Objectivity;

Credibility;

Accuracy;

Consistency.

• Objectivity- the independence of knowledge from the personality of the researcher, from his individuality.
• Credibility- justification and verification of knowledge using experience (observations and experiments) and logical evidence.

• Accuracy Is the use in science of a special language of terms (definitions of concepts) and mathematical formulas.
• Consistency- bringing the body of acquired knowledge in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles.

• mythological;
• religious;
• artistic and figurative;
• philosophical;
• commonplace, etc.

Thus, knowledge cannot be limited only to the sphere of science, it also exists outside of it.

Natural science("Physics") and humanitarian("Lyrics") culture - two wings of a single culture, between which in a certain historical moment At first, a mutual misunderstanding arose, which reduced interest and respect for each other, fraught with open confrontation and enmity.

"... The criteria for the scientific character of knowledge are its validity, reliability, consistency, empirical confirmation and fundamentally possible falsifiability, conceptual coherence, predictive power and practical efficiency ..."

The main criteria are truth, objectivity and consistency: “... the specificity of scientific knowledge is reflected in the criteria of scientific character that distinguish scientific knowledge from unscientific: 1. The truth of scientific knowledge…. ... science seeks to obtain true knowledge by researching different ways establishing the reliability of scientific knowledge. 2. Intersubjectivity of knowledge. Scientific knowledge is ... knowledge of objective relationships and laws of reality. 3. The consistency and validity of scientific knowledge. In the most important ways substantiation of the knowledge gained are: A). on the empirical level: - Repeated checks by observation and experiment. B). not a theoretical level: - Determination of logical coherence, deducibility of knowledge; - Revealing their consistency, compliance with empirical data; - Establishing the ability to describe known phenomena and predict new ones ... "

Scientists questioned the benefits of psychologists' discoveries

The researchers concluded that most of the discoveries from the world of psychology are dubious, since research results cannot be reproduced.

In the study of this issue, 300 psychologists from different parts of the world were involved. They were faced with the task of analyzing in detail the results of about a hundred psychological research which have been featured in prestigious peer-reviewed journals. The conclusions turned out to be disappointing: it was possible to re-achieve such results only in 39% of cases. Project leader Brian Nosek said this was the first time such a study was being conducted.

For four years, scientists analyzed previously published work of their colleagues and accurately reproduced the described methods. Only in a third of cases did they manage to achieve similar results. In other words, the conclusions of most psychologists are incorrect: they may contain errors or are the product of the desire to obtain a "beautiful" result.

Some experts have already stated that this casts a shadow on psychology as a science. Brian Nosek himself is in no hurry to bury her and believes that psychology and the discoveries made within it are very important. Meanwhile, he emphasizes the need to improve research methods. A number of journals have already changed the rules for publishing materials, listening to new conclusions.

Assessment of the reliability and accuracy, as well as the validity (verification) of the forecast - the refinement of hypothetical models, usually by interviewing experts. The reliability of the forecast includes: 1) the depth and objectivity of the analysis; 2) knowledge of specific conditions; 3) efficiency and speed in carrying out and processing of materials. 1.

Validity "by content". This technique is used primarily in achievement tests. Usually, achievement tests do not include all the material that students have passed, but some small part of it (3-4 questions). Is it possible to be sure that the correct answers to these few questions indicate the assimilation of all the material. This is what content validation should answer. To do this, a comparison of the success on the test with expert assessments teachers (by this material). Content validity also applies to criterion-based tests. This technique is sometimes referred to as logical validity. 2. The "simultaneity" validity, or current validity, is determined using an external criterion by which information is collected concurrently with experiments using the tested methodology. In other words, data relating to the present performance during the test period, performance during the same period, and so on are collected. This is correlated with the results of success on the test. 3. "Predictive" validity (also called "predictive" validity). It is also determined by a fairly reliable external criterion, but information on it is collected some time after the test. An external criterion is usually expressed in some assessments of a person's ability to the type of activity for which he was selected according to the results of diagnostic tests. Although this technique is most consistent with the task of diagnostic techniques - predicting future success, it is very difficult to apply. The accuracy of the forecast is in inverse relationship from the time specified for such forecasting. The more time passes after the measurement, the more factors must be taken into account when assessing the predictive value of the technique. However, it is almost impossible to take into account all the factors influencing the prediction. 4. "Retrospective" validity. It is determined on the basis of a criterion that reflects events or a state of quality in the past. It can be used to quickly obtain information about the predictive capabilities of the technique. So, to check to what extent nice results aptitude test fast learning, you can compare past grades of academic performance, past expert opinions etc. in persons with high and low on this moment diagnostic indicators. The principle of alternativeness is associated with the possibility of development political life and its individual links along different trajectories, with different relationships and structural relations... The need to build alternatives, i.e. definitions possible ways development of political relations, always arises in the transition from the imitation of the existing processes and trends to foreseeing their future. The main task: to separate feasible development options from options that cannot be implemented under the prevailing and foreseeable conditions. Each alternative to the development of the political process has its own set of problems that must be taken into account when forecasting. What is the source of the alternatives? First of all, they are served by possible qualitative shifts, for example, in the transition to a new political course. The formation of alternatives is influenced by specific policy goals. They are determined by the prevailing trends in the development of social needs, the need to solve specific political problems. The principle of consistency means that, on the one hand, politics is viewed as a single object, and on the other, as a set of relatively independent directions (blocks) of forecasting. Systems approach involves the construction of a forecast based on a system of methods and models, characterized by a certain hierarchy and sequence. It allows you to develop a coherent and consistent forecast of political life. The principle of continuity. The task of the subject developing the forecast includes continuous adjustment of forecast developments as new information becomes available. For example, any initial long-term forecast is inevitably large-scale. Over time, this or that tendency manifests itself more clearly and reveals itself from many sides. In this regard, the information that comes to the forecaster and contains new data makes it possible to predict the onset with greater accuracy. political event: the need to convene a congress political party, holding various political actions, rallies, strikes, etc. Verification (verifiability) is aimed at determining the reliability of the developed forecast. Verification can be direct, indirect, consequential, duplicate, inverse. All the above principles of forecasting cannot be taken in isolation, in isolation from each other. PR-n consistency - requires coordination of normative and exploratory forecasts of different nature and different lead times. Pr-n variance - requires the development of forecast options based on the options for the forecast background. Pr-n profitability - requires the excess of the economic effect from the use of the forecast over the cost of its development.

What are the criteria for scientific knowledge, its characteristic features? One of the important distinctive qualities of scientific knowledge is its systematization. It is one of the criteria for scientific character. But knowledge can be systematized not only in science. Cookbook, telephone directory, road atlas, etc. etc. - everywhere knowledge is classified and systematized. Scientific systematization is specific. It is characterized by a striving for completeness, consistency, clear grounds for systematization. Scientific knowledge as a system has a definite structure, the elements of which are facts, laws, theories, pictures of the world. The individual scientific disciplines are interrelated and interdependent.

Striving for validity, evidence of knowledge is an important criterion for scientific character. Justification of knowledge, bringing it into a single system has always been characteristic of science. The very emergence of science is sometimes associated with the desire to prove knowledge. Various methods are used to substantiate scientific knowledge. To substantiate empirical knowledge, multiple checks, access to statistical data, etc. are used. When substantiating theoretical concepts, their consistency, compliance with empirical data, and the ability to describe and predict phenomena are checked.

In science, original, "crazy" ideas are valued. But the focus on innovation is combined with the desire to eliminate from the results scientific activities everything subjective, associated with the specifics of the scientist himself. This is one of the differences between science and art. If the artist did not create his creation, then he simply would not exist. But if a scientist, even a great one, did not create a theory, it would still be created, because it represents a necessary stage in the development of science, is intersubjective.

18. Methods of scientific knowledge.

It is important to distinguish between concepts such as methodology and method.

Methodology is a doctrine of structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity.

Methodology natural science - teaching about the principles of construction, forms and methods of natural science knowledge. So, for example, they have methodological significance in natural science conservation laws. In any research, theoretical constructions, they must be taken into account.

Method is a set of techniques or operations of practical or theoretical activity. The method can also be characterized as a form of theoretical and practical mastering of reality, proceeding from the patterns of behavior of the object under study. F. Bacon compared the correct scientific method with a lamp illuminating a traveler's path in the dark.

The methods of scientific knowledge include the so-called universal methods, i.e. general human methods of thinking, general scientific methods and methods of specific sciences. Methods can be classified according to the ratio of empirical knowledge (i.e. knowledge gained as a result of experience, experimental knowledge) and theoretical knowledge, the essence of which is knowledge of the essence of phenomena, their internal connections.

It should be borne in mind that each branch of natural science, along with general scientific ones, applies its own specific scientific, special methods, conditioned by the essence of the object of research. However, often the methods characteristic of any particular science are applied in other sciences. This happens because the objects of study of these sciences are also subject to the laws of this science. For example, physical and chemical research methods are used in biology on the basis that the objects of biological research include, in one form or another, physical and chemical forms of motion of matter and, therefore, obey physical and chemical laws.