Revolution in the social political life of society. Social revolution. Classification of forms of social revolutions based on accounting of actors of revolutionary events
The development of a unified classification of types and forms of the social revolution is one of the most actual problems Modern social Science. The main difficulty of developing a unified typology of revolutionary shocks is due to their complex, complex character, which makes it difficult to identify criteria for creating a universal taxonomy.
Types of social revolutions
Traditionally, in the Marxist approach, the type of revolutions is determined by the nature of socio-economic contradictions that lead to a revolutionary explosion. In other words, the type of revolution depends on the objective objectives that are confidential forces. Based on the diversity of the forms of the change of socio-economic formations, the following types of social revolutions can be distinguished:
- social revolutions, which led to the formation of feudalism;
- bourgeois, anti-sofodal social revolutions;
- socialist revolutions.
Classification of forms of social revolutions based on accounting of actors of revolutionary events
Note 1.
It should be noted that in modern scientific literature The classifications of revolutions based on the main actors of revolutionary events are widely functioned.
For example, F. Gros highlights the following forms of social revolutions:
- revolution below;
- revolution from above;
- combined coup in which the "tops" and "bottoms" take part;
- palace coups.
J. Pitti on the basis of the same criterion allocates the following forms of social revolutions:
- the Great National Revolution is the Social Revolution below;
- palace coup - a social revolution from above;
- soviet coup - social revolution from above;
- uprising, riot - social revolution from below;
- the revolution of the political system.
Classification R. Toner and M. Midler
These scientists have developed their own classification of social revolutions on the basis of the allocation of the following criteria for the development of typology:
- the level of mass involvement;
- the duration of revolutionary processes;
- goals of the revolutionary forces;
- the level of violence.
In accordance with the above criteria, the following types of revolutions can be distinguished:
- the revolution of the masses;
- revolutionary coups;
- palace coups;
- coup - reform.
Causes of social revolutions
All types and forms of social revolutions act as a long development of certain social processes, the formation of a number of reasons that otherwise contribute to the increase in public stress, the exacerbation of social tensions, which before or later leads to a revolutionary situation.
As one of the reasons, the symptoms of the social revolution is the formation of revolutionary public sentiment, growing concern, the feeling of the loss of the former bases of collective and individual existence. Like any other social feeling, which has the opportunities to "infect others, a feeling of anxiety is constantly growing, people lose their goals of their own feelings, they begin to feel the need for new incentives, purposes, intentions. There is a feeling of dissatisfaction, awareness of the routine.
At the initial stage, the causes of concern are not realized, people simply feel anxiety and anxiety, the most active looking for an exit in emigration. It should be noted that in itself the strengthening of emigration processes cannot act as the cause of revolutionary events, but acts as a peculiar "indicator", an indicator of hidden social processes, reflecting the need to reform the system of social interactions.
Note 2.
Thus, in modern scientific literature presents numerous approaches to the classification of types and forms of revolutionary events based on the accounting of various criteria. Regardless of the form and type of recolving processes, they are based on numerous social reasons, a long period of course of certain social processes.
Definition 1.
Under the social revolution in modern scientific literature it is understood as a sharp change of social system mainly violent by the participation of large masses of the people; Scrolling high-quality change in the development of social phenomena, processes; The method of transition from one phase of social development to another.
In essence, the revolution is a complex social phenomenon that is contradictory paradoxical in nature: on the one hand, it contributes to progressive public development through the withdrawal of social contradictions, overcoming social conflicts; On the other hand, it acts as a kind of social "earthquake", an extreme degree of exacerbation of all existing social contradictions up to an open civil confrontation.
Essential signs of social revolutions
As the main essential signs that distinguish the social revolution from other socio-political changes can be called the following:
- in the revolution, mass social movements are always involved;
- the revolution necessarily leads to large-scale changes and reforms;
- the revolution involves the threat to the application of violence by participants in mass movements.
These signs are distinguished by a revolution from the state coup, which consists of a change in the alone elite by others without significant changes in the system of power, political institutions.
Causes of social revolutions
As the main causes of social shocks, you can call the following:
- an increase in the basic needs of the population in the absence of the possibilities of minimal satisfaction;
- formation of the majority of the population of the urgent need for large-scale political and social reform;
- the inability, the inability or unwillingness of the power structures peacefully resolve this formed need;
- loss of power structures of the ability to act, manage the power authorities;
- full fall of power authority.
The main purpose of the social revolution is the change in the system of production relations, socio-economic conditions for the existence of society, the result of which is the complete renewal of the entire society.
Change of power as an essential sign of the revolution
The issue of the transition of state power to revolutionary forces is a key aspect of any social revolution. Taking into account the fact that at the heart of the exacerbation of social confrontation, as a rule, the clashes of socio-political interests, the conquest of political power acts as an essential tool for achieving socio-economic domination. In other words, the conquest of political power acts as a means of legal and political consolidation of a new system of socio-economic relations.
In the most general form, two forms of power transition are distinguished:
- one-time;
- gradual.
In turn, there are two main forms of the one-time transition of power:
- legitimate is one-time without armed confrontation;
- one-time in the form of an armed struggle - the seizure of power as a result of a military coup or armed uprising.
The gradual transfer of power is represented by the following forms:
- rebirth of the functioning power - a gradual transition without an armed war;
- gradual in the form of an armed struggle - civil war.
It should be noted that the social revolution can be carried out by any of the above methods.
Note 1.
Thus, social revolutions are deep, ontological transformation of every aspect of the life of society, including the change of power elites, a system of production interactions that are often violent nature involve mass social movements into confrontation.
§ 3. Causes of the Social Revolution
The Maxist Theory of the Social Revolution claims that the main cause of the social revolution is the deepening conflict between the growth of the productive forces of society and the obsolete, conservative system of production relations, which manifests itself in the exacerbation of social antagonisms, strengthening the struggle between the dominant class, concerned in the preservation of the existing system, and the oppressed class . Classes and social strata, which, according to their objective position in the system of production relations, are interested in the expulsion of the existing building and are capable of participating in the struggle for the victory of a more progressive building, act as the driving forces of the social revolution. The revolution is never the fruit of a conspiracy of single or arbitrary actions isolated from minority masses. It may occur only as a result of objective changes leading to mass forces and creating a revolutionary situation. Thus, social revolutions are not just random outbreaks of discontent, rebelliousness or coups. They are "not mounted on request, do not learn to this or another moment, and ripen in the process of historical development and are broken down at the time due to a complex of a number of internal and external reasons."
Of the non-marxist points of view, the reasons for social revolutions will identify the following. First. P. Sorokin, understanding under the reasons of the uprisings and wars "The complex of conditions, the connection of events framed into the causal chain, the beginning of which is lost in the eternity of the past, and the end is in the infinity of the future," and emphasizing that the immediate prerequisite for any "revolutionary rejection in people's behavior "There was always" an increase in the depressed basic instincts of most of the population, as well as the impossibility of even their minimal satisfaction, "allocated the following reasons: 1)" Suppression "with hunger" digestive reflex "of a large part of the population; 2) "suppression" of instinct of self-preservation by despotic executions, mass murders, bloody atrocities; 3) "Suppression" of the reflex of collective self-preservation (family, religious sect, party), the desecration of their shrines, washing over their members in the form of arrests, etc.; 4) dissatisfaction with the needs of people in the dwelling,
7 Lenin V.I. Poly. Cathedral cit. T. 36. P. 531.
8 Sorokin P.A. Human. Civilization. Society. M, politicization, 1992. P. 272.
clothes, etc. even in minimal volume; 5) "suppressing" of sexual reflex of most people in all its manifestations (in the form of jealousy or desire to possess the subject of love) and the lack of conditions for its satisfaction, the presence of abduction, violence of wives and daughters, forced marriage or divorces, etc.; 6) "suppression" of the proper instinct of the masses, the domination of poverty and deprivation, and in particular, if this happens against the background of prosperity of others; 7) "suppression" of instinct of self-expression or individuality, when people face, on the one hand, with insults, neglect, permanent and unfair ignoring their advantages and achievements, and on the other, - with the exaggeration of the merits of people who do not deserve that; 8) "Suppression" in most people of their impulse to fight and competitiveness, creative work, acquisition of a variety of experience, freedom needs (in the sense of freedom of speech and action or other undetectable manifestations of their innate inclinations), generated by "too peaceful life", monotonous The habitat and work that does not give anything to the brain or the heart, constant restrictions in freedom of communication, words and actions. This is, according to Sorokina, an incomplete list of reasons. At the same time, he emphasizes that the strength of the "suppression" of the most significant instincts, and their cumulative number affect the nature of the "produced revolutionary explosion".
Second. From the point of view of A. Toynbee, social revolutions are genetically connected with the predestine integration transition of the development of civilization and are caused by the nature of social development. Since the development of a separate civilization goes in a circle, the social revolution is committed at the moment when the history of history begins to move downwardly, and therefore the social revolution serves as if the reference point with which the process of dying of civilization begins. Essentially, the social revolution at Toynbi is a symptom of decline in civilization and acts a brake in the development of history.
10 Sorokin P.A. Human. Civilization. Society P. 272-273.
11 See: Toynby A. Comprehension of History. M., Progress, 1991. P. 578-579.
Third. A. Tokville in the work "Old order and revolution" tried to identify the continuity between the past and "new order" and argued that the elimination of the feudal regime was possible and without social revolutions. At the same time, he came to the conclusion that the reasons for the social revolution could be like impoverishment of society and his prosperity.
Fourth. In modern Western literature, there is an approach, supporters of which all the causes of the social revolution are reduced to three large groups: 1) long-term, 2) medium-term and 3) short-term factors. Long-term factors include: economic growth, technical innovations, scientific achievements, democratization of the system, secularization, modernization of the state, the growth of nationalism. The medium-term factors include: economic depressed, alienation of the intelligentsia, decomposition of the ruling group of society, war, collapse or failure of the government policy. Finally, the third group includes various unregulated subjective factors that are especially valid. From our point of view, this approach does not give a scientific explanation of the causes of social revolutions, replacing it with descriptive schemes. At the same time, the main (decisive) factors and factors are minced.
R. Duddorf questioned the Marxist concept about the presence of antagonistic contradictions in the exploitation society, denies class antagonism as a decisive cause of social conflicts. He claims to create the theory of classes and class conflict, which is opposed not only to Marxism, but also the theories of class harmony.
The typology of the conflict of Daerendorf deserves attention. First, it allocates the basis of the classification in the difference in ranks of the elements participating in the conflict, groups, relating here: 1) conflict between equal, 2) conflict between subordinates and dominant, 3) conflict between the whole society and its part. Secondly, on the basis of the volume of social unity involved in the conflict, Darendorf also identifies the following conflicts: 1) conflict inside and between social roles, 2) conflict within individual social groups and 3) conflict between groups of interests or pseudogroups.
Without going into a detailed analysis of the type of conflict of Darendorf, we note that it reduces the class struggle to the conflict between social groups and classes. This conflict about the legitimacy of the existing separation of power, that is, in the interests of the dominant class, to express confidence in the legality of the existing domination, and in the interests of the shortcoming class to express doubts about the legality of this domination. It further emphasizes that the theory of classes based on the division of society on the owners and non-affairs of the means of production loses its value as soon as the formal property and actual control over it is separated from each other, cease to be in some hands. Finally, Damarendorf puts forward the ideal of "liberal" and "
the temporary "society in which social conflicts are recognized and regulated, there is equality of the initial chances for all, individual competition and high mobility.
12 See: DahrendorFR. Sociale Klassen und KiassenKonflikt in der Industriellen Geselschaft Stuttgart, 1952. S. 12-13.
Recognizing the definite value of the concept of conflicts of Daerendorf, especially when analyzing modern society, we emphasize that a class approach is the great conquest of scientific social studies. After all, the origins of the class approach are in the political ideology of N. Makiavelli, in the historical teachings of O. Thierry, F. Gizo, etc., in the Political Economy D. Ricardo. They have discovered the existence of classes and class struggles before Marx. Therefore, abandon the class approach means to take a step back in social studies.
Although the social revolution is an objectively committed process, some objective laws for its implementation are not enough. Therefore, there is some controversy in the interpretation of the problem of objective and subjective in the revolution. This is also due to discussions on the topic: there are generally objective laws of the development of society, since it acts people endowed with consciousness. Accordingly, there is a Marxist approach that recognizes the pattern of social and historical development, and various options for non-massic approaches.
Socio-philosophical analysis of this problem shows that the basic categories here are the concepts of "object" and "subject". With their help, the activities of specific historical creators and carriers of social activities in all spheres of public life are comprehended and expressed in all areas of public life - economic, social, political, spiritual. Further development These categories are carried out with the help of categories "Objective", "Objective Conditions", "Objective Factor" and "Subjective", "Subjective Conditions", "Subjective Factor".
As is known, the concept of "conditions" means a set of objects, phenomena, processes that are necessary for the emergence and existence of a particular object. This concept characterizes the causal relationship between the phenomena of nature and society. The concept of "factor" reflects the active nature of certain phenomena and processes, their driving forces. The objective conditions include the results of the activities of people who materialize in productive forces, production relations, the social structure of society, political organization, etc., that is, not only the relationship of economic, but also the whole system of ideological relations in which consciousness is one of the conditions formation. Subjective conditions characterize those prerequisites and circumstances that depend on the specific historical subject of action. Here the most important role is played
the development and condition of the consciousness of the social entity, guiding its activities, as well as the totality of its spiritual forces - the subjective qualities of the subject of activity.
However, not all objective and subjective prerequisites may act as objective and subjective factors. These will be only those phenomena of objective and subjective conditions of human activity, which direct it, actively move the driving force. Thus, an objective factor is those conditions and circumstances that do not depend on a particular social entity and, when interacting with a subjective factor, send and determine its activities. The subjective factor is the active driving forces of a particular social entity depending on it and aimed at changing objective conditions.
In domestic social studies there is an ambiguous understanding of the relationship between the above concepts. A more generally recognized approach, according to which, in the process of ripening of the social revolution, not only certain material prerequisites are included, but also elements of political life, which in the aggregate form objective conditions. The latter play a decisive role as they determine the structure and direction of people's activities and real opportunities for solving certain objectives. The subjective factor in the development of society is the conscious activities of people, classes, parties, creating history: these are their organization, will and energy necessary to solve certain historical tasks.
At the same time, other authors emphasize that when analyzing social phenomena, with the help of the categories of "objective conditions" and "subjective factor", the question of their primary and secondaryness is not solved. These categories express the functional and causal relationship of public phenomena. "The objective side of the historical process is objective social conditions, and above all the economic, of which people proceed in their specific activities and which are reflected in their consciousness - writes B.A. Chagin, - nation, classes, parties and individual individuals proceed to His social, political, ideological, etc. Activities from specific objective relations and conditions. " In his opinion, the subjective factor is not only ideas, but also the activities of people, and this concept includes the concept of "social action", with the exception of labor, production activities.
13 Chagin B.A. Subjective factor Structure and patterns. M., 1968. P. 31.
By giving himself a report that no one can claim to "truth in the last instance", especially in such a difficult issue, we note that if the concept of "condition" means the prerequisites of activities, the concept of "factor" characterizes the mechanism of movement of social processes. At the same time, in the process of activity, the function of the subjective factor is carried out not all, but only those elements of subjective conditions that subject to a particular act of activity are carried out, and only one part of objective conditions is becoming an objective factor, which acts as an active reason in collaboration with a subjective factor, determines the content The activities and its direction within the framework of objective laws in which social revolutions are committed.
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In accordance with the structure and the main characteristic Any system can be allocated as follows. types of change In general, social changes in particular:
Contained in science, they understand the totality of the elements of the system, so this is a change in the elements of the system, their occurrence, disappearance or change their properties. Since social constituents are elements of the social system, this may be, for example, a change in the personnel composition of the organization, that is, the introduction or abolition of some posts, a change in the qualifications of officials or the change in the motives of their activity, which is reflected in the increase or decrease in labor productivity .
Structural changes
These are changes in the combination of links of elements or the structure of these bonds. In the social system, it may look, for example, as moving a person in a hierarchy. At the same time, not all people understand that structural changes in the team have occurred, and may not be able to adequately respond to them, painfully perceive the instructions of the chief, who was still an ordinary employee.
Functional changes
These are changes in the system performed. Changes in the functions of the system can be caused by a change in both its content or structure and the surrounding social environment, i.e. external bonds of the dike system. For example, changes in the functions of state bodies may be caused by both demographic changes in the country, and external influences, including military, from other countries.
Development
Special type of change - development. Its presence is considered to speak in a certain relationship. In science under development it is considered Directed and irreversible change, leading to appearance Qualitatively new objects. The object in development, at first glance, remains itself, but the new combination of properties and connections makes you perceive this object completely in a new way. For example, a child and grown from it a specialist in any field of activity is essentially different peopleThey are evaluated and perceived by society in different ways because they occupy completely different positions in the social structure. Therefore, such a person say that he passed the path of development.
Changes and development are one of the main aspects of consideration of all sciences.
Essence, types of social change concepts
Change — these are differences Meanwhile, representing the system in the past, and what happened to her after a certain period of time.
Changes are inherent in the entire living and non-living world. They occur every minute: "Everything flows, everything changes." A person is born, aging, dying. The same path is held by his children. Old and new societies are disintegrated.
In sociology under social changes Understand conversionoccurring over time in the organisation,, samples of thinking, culture and social behavior.
Factors cause Social changes are diverse circumstances, such as the change in the habitat, the dynamics of the number and social structure of the population, the level of tension and the struggle for resources (especially in modern conditions), discoveries and inventions, accumulation (assimilation of elements of other crops when interacting).
Shower moving forces social changes can be transformed both in economic, so in the political, social and spiritual spheres, but with different speed and strength, fundamental impact.
The topic of social change was one of the central in sociology of the XIX and XX centuries. This was due to the natural interest of sociology to the problems of social development and social progress, the first attempts of the scientific explanation of which belong to O. Conte and the city of Spencer.
Sociological theories of social changes are made to divide into two main branches -theory social evolution and theories of the social revolutionConsidered mainly within the Paradigm of Social Conflict.
Social evolution
Theory social evolution determined social changes as transition from some stages of development to more complex. A. Saint-Simon should be considered the predecessor of evolutionist theories. Conservative tradition end of XVIII - The beginning of the XIX century. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe life of society as equilibrium, he supplemented the Regulations on the steady consistent promotion of society to higher development levels.
O. Kont connected the processes of development of society, human knowledge and culture. All society pass three stages: primitive, intermediate and scientificwhich correspond to the shape of human knowledge (theological, metaphysical and positive). Evolution of society For it, it is an increase in the functional specialization of structures and improving the adaptation of parts to society as a holistic organism.
A prominent representative of the evolutionism of Spencer represented the evolution as an upward movement, the transition from a simple to a complex, not having a linear and unidirectional nature.
Any evolution is consistingof two interconnected Processes: differentiation of structures and their integration at a higher level. As a result, the Company is distributed to divergent and branching groups.
Modern structural functionalism, continuing the Spencers tradition, rejected continuity and monolainee evolution, supplemented its idea of \u200b\u200bgreater functional adaptability arising during the differentiation of structures. Social change is considered as the result of the system adaptation to its surround. Only those structures that provide the social system a large fitness to the medium, promote evolution forward. Therefore, although society changes, it retains stability due to new useful forms of social integration.
Presented evoluationist Concepts mainly explained the origin of social changes endogenous, i.e. internal reasons. The processes occurring in society were explained by analogy with biological organisms.
Another approach is an exogenous - submitted by the theory of diffusion, seeping cultural samples from one society to others. In the center of the analysis, the channels and the mechanisms of penetration of external influences are placed here. They were conquered, trade, migration, colonization, imitation, etc. Any of cultures inevitably experiencing the influence of other cultures, including cultures of conquered peoples. This counter process of mutual influence and interpenetration of cultures is called in sociology of accumulation. Thus, Ralph Linton (1937) drew attention to the fact that the fabric was first made in Asia, the clock appeared in Europe, etc. became an integral and usual part of the life of the American society. In the same United States, immigrants from the most important role throughout history different countries World. You can even talk about strengthening in recent years on the previously almost unchanged English-speaking culture of the American Society of the Spanish and African American subculture.
Social evolutionary changes other than fundamental can occur in subspecies of reforms, modernization, transformation, crises.
1. Reforms B. social Systemsoh — conversion, change, reorganization of any sides of public life or all Social System. Reforms, in contrast to revolutions, suggest gradual changes These or other social institutions, spheres of vital activity or system as a whole. They are held with the help of new legislation and are aimed at improving the existing system without its qualitative changes.
Under reforms usually understand slow evolutional changesnot leading to mass violence, the rapid change of political elites, rapid and radical changes in social structure and value orientations.
2. Social modernization — progressive social changeAs a result of which social system (subsystem) improves the parameters of its functioning. The process of becoming a traditional society in the industrial is customary to be called upgrades. Social modernization has two varieties:
- organic - Development on own based;
- inorganic - The answer to the appearance, in order to overcome the backwardness (initiated " from above»).
3. Social transformation - transformations occurring in society as a result of certain social changes, both targeted and chaotic. The polo of the historical changes established in the countries of Central Europe from the late 80s - early 90s., And then in the former republics of the USSR unpaved, is expressed in precisely this concept, originally had a purely technical meaning.
Under social transformation, the following changes are usually understood:
- Change of political and state Systems, rejection of the monopoly of one party, the creation of the Parliamentary Republic of the Western Type, the general democratization of social relations.
- Upgrading the economic basissocial system, departure from the so-called central planned economy with its distribution functions, orientation to the market type economy, in the interests of which:
- the privatization of property and the broad privatization program is carried out;
- a new legal mechanism of economic and financial relations is being created, allowing the multipliness of the forms of economic life and creating infrastructure for the development of private property;
- entered free prices.
To date, almost all countries have created a legal framework for the development of market economy.
The period of active entry into the market was conjugate with the disorder of the financial system, inflation, the growth of unemployment, the weakening of the total cultural background, a surge of crime, drug addiction, a fall in the level of health of the population, the increase in mortality. In a number of new post-socialist states, military conflicts were unleashed, including civil wars, brought by the mass death of people, great material destruction. These events were touched upon Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Tajikistan, Moldova, Russia and other republics and regions of the former Soviet Union. Lost national unity. Before each new sovereign country, the task of restructuring the economy, if you decide separately, without taking into account the previous cooperation links, you will require a huge recalculation of scarce investment and will cause fierce competition of economic regions that have once completed each other. As a compensation, the Company received a refusal of socialist universality, the liquidation of a system of social dependency with simultaneous proclaiming standard liberal democratic freedoms.
Practical adaptation to world market requirements suggests new forms of foreign economic activity, constructuring Economy, i.e. destruction Her established proportions and cooperation ties(in particular, conducting conversion, i.e., radical weakening of the arms production sector).
These include the problem environmental Security, which really acquires the nature of one of the most important factors for the development of national production.
Changes in the sphere of spiritual values \u200b\u200band priorities
This sector of transformation affects the problems of socio-spiritual adaptation to new conditions for the existence of a large number of people, their consciousness, changes in value criteria. Moreover, the change in mentality is directly related to the process of socialization in new conditions. Modern development shows that the transformation of political and economic Systems can be carried out in a relatively short time, while consciousness and socializationwho were prioritized for a long life can not undergo rapid changes. They continue to influence and can in the process of adapting to new requirements cause a crisis of a person and system.
In the public consciousness of the population of transformational countries, generally accepted criteria for property stratification have not yet been developed. The deepening of the abyss between the rich and the poor, the progressive impoverishment of a significant part of the working-age population generates a well-known reaction: the increase in crime, depression and other negative psychological consequences that reduce the attractiveness of a new social system. But the course of history is inexorable. Objective need always turns out to be higher than the subjective factor. The transformation, thus, turns out to be a specific development mechanism, designed to provide not only guarantees from the restoration of the old system, the return of the former ideology, but also recreation of a powerful state that could significantly influence geopolitical processes in their economic, trade and financial, military, scientific Technical and other dimensions, which is Russian specifics.
In sociology Social changes exists Significant number concepts theories and directions. Consider the most studied: evolutionsist, Neoavolutionist and theory of cyclic changes.
Evolyucism It comes from the fact that society develops on the uplink - From the lower forms to the highest. This movement is constantly and irreversible. All societies, all cultures pass the path from a less developed state to a more developed in a single predetermined sample. Representatives of classical evolutionism are such scientists as Ch. Darwin, O. Kont, Spencer, E. Durkheim. For example, Spencer believed that the essence of evolutionary changes and progress is to complicate society, in strengthening its differentiation, in the dying of unsuitable individuals, social institutions, cultures, survival and prosperity of adapted.
Classic evolutionism examines changes as strictly linear, ascending and developing on a single scenario. This theory has repeatedly subjected to a reasonable criticism from its opponents.
The following arguments were put forward as arguments:
- many historical events have limited and accidental character;
- the growth of the manifold of human populations (tribes, cultures, civilizations) does not give reason to talk about a single evolutionary process;
- the increasing conflict of social systems does not correspond to evolutionary views on changes;
- available in the history of mankind cases of deviations, failures and deaths of states, ethnic groups, civilizations do not give reason to talk about a single evolutionary scenario.
Evolutionist postulate (approval) about inevitable Development sequences are questioned historical factthat during development some stages can be Missed, and the passage of others is accelerated. For example, the majority european countries During its development, this stage was passed as slavery.
Some not Western societies cannot be assessed according to a single scale of development and maturity. They are qualitatively excellent from Western.
It is impossible to identify evolution with progressSince many societies as a result of social change turn out to be in crisis state and / or degraded. For example, Russia as a result of the beginning in the early 90s. XX century Liberal reforms on the main indicators (socio-economic, technological, moral and ethical, etc.) was discharged in its development for many decades ago.
Classic evolutionism, in fact, eliminates the human factor in social changes, inspiring people inevitable upward development.
Neoeavolutionism. In the 50s. XX century After a period of criticism and opals, sociological evolutionism again turned out to be the focus of sociologists. Such scientists, as the city of Lensky, J. Stewart, T. Parsons and others, distancing from classical evolutionism, offered their theoretical approaches to evolutionary changes.
The main provisions of Neoavolutionism
If classic evolutionism comes from the fact that all societies go through the same path of development from lower forms to higher, then representatives neoeavolutionism come To the conclusion that each culture, each society, along with general trends, have his logic of evolutionary development. The main focus is directed not to the sequence of necessary stages, but for the causal mechanism of change.
When analyzing changes of neo-avironmentalists try to avoid estimates and analogies with progress. The main views are formed in the form of hypotheses and assumptions, not in the form of direct statements.
Evolutionary processes proceed not evenly on the ascending straight line, but skump and carry a multi-sided character. At each new stage of social development, one of the lines who played even a secondary role in the previous stage can be the lead.
Theories of cyclic changes. Cyclic various natural, biological and social phenomena was already known in ancient times. For example, the ancient Greek philosophers, and others have developed a teaching about the cyclicality of political regime of power.
In the Middle Ages, Arabic Scientist and Poet Ibn Haldong (1332-1406) compared cycles civilization With life cycles of living organisms: growth - maturity - old age.
In the Epoch of Enlightenment, the Italian court historiographer Jambattist Vico (1668-1744) developed the theory of cyclical development of history. He believed that a typical historical cycle passes three stages: anarchy and wildness; order and civilization; Decidation of civilization and return to new barbarism. At the same time, each new cycle is qualitatively different from the previous one,
i.e. movement goes on the ascending spiral.
Russian philosopher and sociologist K. Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885) in his book "Russia and Europe" presented human history, divided into separate historical and cultural types or civilizations. Each civilization is similar to the biological organism undergoes the stage of birth, mature, flushing and death. In his opinion, no civilization is better or more perfect; Each has its own values \u200b\u200band thus enriches the overall human culture; Each has its own internal logic of development and the stages peculiar to it.
In 1918, the book of German scientist O. Spengler (1880-1936) "Sunset of Europe" was published, where he develops the ideas of his predecessors about the cyclical character historical changes And eight higher cultures stand out in world history: Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian, Chinese, Greco-Roman, Arab, Mexican (Maya) and Western. Each culture is experiencing children's cycles, youth, maturity and old age. By realizing the entire amount of opportunities and fulfilling its purpose, the culture dies. The emergence and development of one or another culture cannot be explained from the point of view of causality - the development of culture occurs on its inherent inner necessity.
Forecasts Shnegler Regarding the future of Western culture were very gloomy. He believed that western culture passed the stage of his heyday and entered the stage of decomposition.
Theory of life cycles civilizations found their development in the writings of the English historian A. Toynbi. (1889-1975), which believed that the World History is the emergence, development and decline relatively closed discrete (intermittent) civilizations. Civilizations arise and develop as a response to the challenge of the environment and social medium (unfavorable natural conditions, an ingenus attack, the persecution of previous civilizations). As soon as the answer was found, a new challenge and a new answer.
Analysis of the above points of view allows you to make some general conclusions from the theory of cyclic changes in general:
- cyclic processes There are closedwhen each full cycle returns the system to the initial (identical initial) position; There are spiraloidwhen the repetition of certain stages occurs on a high-quality level - higher or lower);
- any social system in its development is experiencing a number of consecutive stadium: number, development (maturity), decay, destruction;
- phase system development tend to have various intensity and temporary length (the accelerated processes of changes in the same phase can be replaced by a long-term stagnation (conservation);
- no civilization (culture) is not better or more perfect;
- social changes - it's not only the result of the natural process of social systems development, but alsothe result of active human transformative activity.
Social revolution
The second type of social change is revolutionary.
The revolution represents fast, fundamental, socio-economic and political changes implemented, as a rule, violent path. The revolution- This is a coup below. She sweeps the ruling elite, which has proven its inability to manage society, and creates a new political and social structureNew political, economic and social relationships. As a result of the revolution basic transformations occur in the socio-class structure of society, in the values \u200b\u200band behavior of people.
Revolution involves in active political activities large masses people. Activity, enthusiasm, optimism, hope for a bright future mobilize people to tactful feats, gratuitous work and social creativity. During the revolution period, mass activity reaches its apogee, and social changes - unprecedented pace and depths. K. Marx called revolution« locomotives history».
According to K. Marx, the revolution is a qualitative leap, the result of the resolution of the indigenous contradictions in the basis of the socio-economic formation between the backward production relations and the developing frameworks of their framework. Direct expression of these contradictions is class conflict. In the capitalist society, this is a non-resistant antagonistic conflict between exploiters and exploited. To fulfill its historical mission, the advanced class (for capitalist formation, according to Marx, the proletariat, the working class) should be aware of its oppressed position, develop class consciousness and rally in the fight against capitalism. Help in obtaining required knowledge The proletariat is provided by the most far-sighted progressive representatives of the discovery class. The proletariat should be ready to solve the problem of the conquest of power by violent. According to Marxist logic, socialist revolutions were to occur in the most developed countries, since they are more matured for this.
Follower and student K. Marx E. Bernstein at the end
XIX century, based on statistical data on the development of capitalism in industrial countries, doubted the inevitability of the revolution in the near future and suggested that the transition to socialism could be relatively peaceful and will take a relatively long historical period. V.I. Lenin modernized the theory of the Socialist Revolution, insisting on the fact that it should happen in the weaker link of the capitalist system and serve as "focus" for the global revolution.
History XX century He showed that both Bernstein and Lenin were right in their own way. Socialist revolutions in economically developed countries did not occur, they were in the problem regions of Asia and Latin America. Sociologists, in particular the French scientist Alain Tour, believe that the main reason for the lack of revolutions in developed countries is the institutionalization of the main conflict - conflict between labor and capital. They have legislative regulators of interaction between employers and employees, and the state acts as a social arbitrator. In addition, the proletariat of the early Baptist society, which studied K. Marx, was absolutely unheated, and he had nothing to lose, except his chains. Now the situation has changed: democratic procedures in the political sphere are also observed in the leading industrial states in the political sphere, and most of the proletariat constitute the middle class to which there is something. Modern followers of Marxism also emphasize the role of a powerful ideological apparatus of capitalist states in the containment of possible revolutionary speeches.
The neurxist theories of social revolutions are primarily true sociology of the revolution P. A. Sorokina. In his opinion, the revolution There is a painful process that turns the total social disorganization. But even painful processes have its own logic - the revolution is not random event. P. Sorokin calls three of its main conditions:
- an increase in the depressed basic instincts - the basic needs of the population and the impossibility of their satisfaction;
- repression, which are unhappy, should affect large groups of the population;
- the order of order does not have means to suppress destructive proliferations.
Revolutionhave three phases: short-term phase joy and expectations; destructivewhen old orders of magnitude are eradicated, often together with their carriers; constructiveIn the process of which the most persistent pre-revolutionary values \u200b\u200band institutions are largely reanimized. The total conclusion P. Sorokina is: damagenotified by society revolutions always turns out to be greatthan likely benefit.
The topic of social revolutions affects other non-marxist theories: the theory of circulation of Elite Vilfredo Pareto, the theory of relative deprivation and the theory of modernization. According to the first theory, the revolutionary situation creates the degradation of elites, which are in power too long and do not provide a normal circulation - replacement for a new elite. The theory of relative deprivation of Ted Garrah, explaining the emergence of social movements, lifters the emergence of social tensions in society with a break between the level of people's requests and the possibilities of achieving the desired. The theory of modernization is considering a revolution as a crisis arising in the process of political and cultural modernization of society. It arises when modernization is carried out in different spheres of the life of the society unevenly.
Social revolution means deep coup in the socio-political, economic and spiritual life of society, when the transition from one social and economic formation is carried out primarily to another, more progressive. Revolution is the engine public progress: this is and destruction and creativity, it marks the beginning of a new period of history that requires new thoughts, feelings, songs and singers. It is the essence of the historical necessity, rooting in the economic life of society. The very deep cause of social revolutions is a conflict between productive forces and production relations. It is the so-called economic basis of the revolution.
The fact that social revolutions are not accidental, but a natural phenomenon, with an objective necessity arising from the development
production, does not mean that they occur automatically. For their accomplishment, objective and subjective prerequisites are needed. Objective contradictions in the production method are manifested in a fierce struggle of progressive and reaction classes. Class struggle is the political basis of the revolution. Subjective The form of expression of this struggle is the collision of class interests, aspirations, ideas. The social revolution is the highest form of class struggle oppressed. The combination of objective conditions expressing the economic and political crisis of society creates revolutionary situation. For the revolutionary situation, the following signs are characterized: "The inability for the prevailing classes to preserve their dominance is in the constant form; A particular crisis of "tops", the crisis of the policy of the dominant class, which creates a crack, into which discontent and indignation of oppressed classes breaks through. For the occurrence of the revolution, it is usually not enough for "the bottoms do not want," and it is also required that "the tops could not" live in an old ... exacerbation, higher than the usual, needs and disasters of oppressed classes ... a significant increase ... the activity of the masses, in " peaceful "era giving themselves robbery calmly, and in the turbulent times attracted, as the entire situation of the crisis, so the "tops", To an independent historical performance. Without these objective changes, independent of the will not only individual groups and parties, but also of individual classes, the revolution - as a general rule - is impossible "1.
But not any revolutionary situation leads to the revolution. The revolutions flas out only when subjective and subjective conditions are joined to objective conditions. The subjective factor includes the will to the struggle, the skillful organization of this struggle, the consciousness of its participants, the understanding of the goals and objectives of the struggle, the determination of struggling classes to bring the fight to the end. In the presence of objective prerequisites, the subjective factor becomes crucial: the old government does not "fall, if you don't drop it."
Driving forces The revolutions are those social groups and classes that blood is interested in breaking the old orders in the construction of new and which they make a revolution. One of these classes plays a particularly active role: he is fond of all others participating in the revolution classes and social groups.
If, in relatively peaceful periods of history, the masses are as if for the scenes of politics, staying in Sos-
1 Lenin V. I.. Full Cathedral cit., t. 26, p. 218-219.
toyania "historical hibernation", then, in the midst of revolutionary events, people rose to the forefront of world history and acts as the Creator of the New.
The main issue of any revolution is the question of state power. When the fire of the revolution flared up, the flame is primarily directed against the main guardian of the old world - the state. "Transition of state power from the hands of one in the hands of another class There is the first, the main, the main feature revolution both in strictly scientific and in the practical significance of this concept "1. Taking into account political power, new classes engaged in the revolution, reorganize the entire mechanism of socio-political life of society: new organs of the revolution are born in her own fire. The capture of power revolutionary forces is the act of implementing the political revolution. This is a revolution in the narrow sense of the word. The concept of social revolution in a broad sense is, as already mentioned, the fundamental transformations of all areas of public life.
Social revolutions are peculiar to different measure of spontaneity and consciousness. In the process of transition from the primitive-free system, to the slave-owned, and from it - to the feudal revolution, it was carried out mainly spontaneously and were expressed in individual, as a rule, local mass movements and uprisings. The bourgeois revolutions that broke the foundations of feudalism acquire a more informed, organized in nature: the conscious activity of political parties and organizations that have among their prerequisites and a certain ideology plays an increasingly role. The principle of consciousness rises to the highest level in the era of socialist revolutions committed as theoretically, tactically and strategically reasonable, legitar than the social process of transition from capitalism to socialism.
The social revolution is fundamentally different from social reform: the latter is directed, as a rule, only on partial transformations as part of the existence of a given system. "But this opposite is not absolute, this face is not dead, but a living, movable face that you need to be able to determine in each separate case" 2. History experience shows that reforms are not contraindicated by social progress.
1 Lenin V. I.. Full Cathedral cit., t. 31, p. 133.
2 there, t. 20, p. 167.
Types of social revolutions
The type of social revolution is determined by what socio-political contradictions it permits which social system will leave and what anew. This content expresses an understanding of the revolution in the broad sense of the word - as a transition from one qualitative state of society to another (which is performed as by the armed actions of the masses, and it is not necessarily by this way, but as a cumulative result of the action of multi-solid social life factors). Such a type of revolutions can be attributed, for example, the transition of society from slavery to feudalism, from feudalism to capitalism, that is, in general, the transition from one social and economic formation to another. Thus, the social revolution was the transition from slavery to feudalism as a result of the permission of the internal contradictions of the slave-ownership method of production, although he did not have the nature of the political revolution.
A fundamentally different type is revolutions in which socio-political motives play a leading role. These revolutions also contribute to the change of one social and economic formation of the other, but they are carried out by violent actions of the same class against the other. And these actions are carried out on the basis of the theoretical program that puts forward certain socio-political goals and ideals. Such type can be attributed to the bourgeois and socialist revolution. The special type of social revolutions contributing to the implementation of both mentioned revolutions in the final score should be attributed to the revolution, affecting one or another separate sphere of public life. These include scientific and technical, cultural revolutions, etc. are all necessary component parts specified types of revolution.
The highest type of revolution is a socialist revolution, which is intended to be indigenous transformation of society in the interests of workers. It differs from the preceding social revolutions by the fact that if the previous revolutions were limited to a change in political power, bringing it in line with the already emerged new economic relations, the socialist revolution was primarily characterized by the creative start: its higher appointment - the statement of social ownership of the means of production, socialist production relationship. If the previous revolutions led to the approval of private ownership in one form or another, not seeking to complete the destruction of operation, the socialist
volulation is aimed primarily against all human exploitation by a person, against all forms of private ownership of the means of production. Such a radical fracture in the history of mankind became the Great October Socialist Revolution. The socialist revolution, like no other, suggests a one-time act of overthrowing the old and approval of the new political power, and a very long period of revolutionary transformations in all spheres of society.
Perestroika as a special form of revolutionary transformation of our society
The revolution itself does not create a new society, but creates only the possibilities for its construction. The embodiment of these opportunities in reality depends on real forces, funds, both objective and subjective factors, so the implementation of the planned plans does not mean their automatic implementation.
The principles of socialism themselves are not formal, but the real possibilities of further public progress. Since any social opportunities can turn into reality only through the social and historical practice of people, they turn out to be extremely sensitive to the impact of the subjective factor. It is precisely, first of all this factor, the full use of the opportunities that had the opportunities in the very nature of socialism did not have been implemented. In the conditions of socialist construction, the lack of timely transformation of real capabilities in reality leads to the fact that opportunities, if so to speak, change their status: from real, they turn into formal. And as a result, in the public development, an unfavorable braking mechanism is developing, which leads to both different kind of negative phenomena in various spheres of public life and the deformation of public psychology, moral climate in society, to the emergence of elements of social degradation. Thus, dialectic capabilities and reality turns out to be an abstract theoretical law, but specifically the current principle of the development of society. Accumulated quantity unfavorable and destructive for society of the phenomenon and trends in the end to such quality The state of the entire public organism, which turned out to be unsatisfactory and partly even a detrimental.
Under these conditions, it became necessary for the restructuring of public life, which, since we are talking about the qualitative transformation of society, it is equal in nature to the revolutionary process. And there is no alternative to this revolutionary process.
It would seem that at the present stage it can only be about some reforms, and not about the revolution. Of course, the current stage of transformations is not such a socio-political revolution when the foundations are destroyed. economic relations Old building and establishes a new political power. In this case, it is not about the destruction of social ownership of the means of production, but about its all-time strengthening and effective use, not about the layer of state power, but on the further strengthening of the socialist democracy and the development of national self-government. In other words, in this case, revolutionary transformations are mainly related to strengthening and creating.
The revolution, as already mentioned, is not a one-time act, but the prolonged process of indigenous transformations in all spheres of public life. The specific feature of the socialist revolution is that it contains deep in itself critical The beginning, allowing you to critically evaluate the created on any stage of the development of society and, if necessary, eliminate all unwanted, alter or strengthen certain sides of the new. This specific feature of the socialist revolution associated with its positive, creative force, K. Marx described in the work "The Eighteenth Louis Louis Bonaparte", characterizing socialist revolutions as such that "constantly criticize themselves ... Return to what it seems already performed, In order to start it again with Syznov, with a merciless thoroughness, halfness, weaknesses and the disrepair of their first attempts ... "1.
We have repeatedly said that a person is a subject of history, with a specific subject, that is, that at the same time acts and its object. Therefore, when it comes to restructuring, it is clear that no one else, as a person himself, is put forward to the very center of her. Therefore, everyone should realize this with maximum clarity and discriminativeness and approach this extremely subtle and complicated case with the maximum degree of responsibility. Objectively, a person's life is contradictory in that, that he always strives for a new one, but at the same time he is captured by the established obsolete stereotypes. And therefore, the difficulty lies in the conscious refusal of these stereotypes, that is, in a constant struggle with himself, which requires the development of dialectically flexible thinking, independence and imperfectness of the mind and the concentration of will. For there is no revolution without revolutionaries.
1 Marx K., Engels F. Cit., T. 8, p. 123.
Chapter XII.
Social sphere of public life