First stage (end x V. - End of H.V.I. centuries) The process of improving the peasants in Russia was quite long. Back in era Ancient Russia Part of the rural population lost personal freedom and turned into funerals and holsters. In the conditions of fragmentation, the peasants could leave the land on which they lived and move to another landowner.

Judicial Court 1497 . Organized this right, confirming the right of ownership peasants after paying elderly On the possibility of going to Yuriev Day (St. George's Day) Autumn (week until November 26 and a week after). The law of a certain short term of the transition testified, on the one hand, on the desire of feudalists and the state to limit the right of the peasants, and on the other hand, about their weakness and inability to consolidate the peasants for the identity of a certain feudal. This rate was contained in the new Faiphery 1550

However, in 1581, in the conditions of the extreme ruin of the country and the flight of the population, IvanI V. introduced reserved years , Prohibiting the peasant exit in the territories most affected by disasters. This measure was emergency and temporal, Up to the tsareva decree.

Second phase. (End of H. VI in. - 1649 g).

Confirmation of widespread . IN 1592 (or in 1593 .), those. In the era of the Board of Boris Godunov, a decree was released (the text of which was not preserved), which prohibited the exit along the whole country and without any temporary limitations. The introduction of the regime of the protected years made it possible to begin the preparation of wrist books (i.e., to conduct a census of the population that created the conditions for attaching peasants to the place of residence and their return in the case of flight and further capture of the old owners). In the same year, the Barskaya Spar was exempted) (ie, he stimulated serviced people to an increase in its square.

Urgent years. Focus books were focused on decree 1597. G., established so-called The urgent years (the term of the cheek of the runaway peasants, determined at first in five years). At the end of the five-year period, the fizz, the peasants were subject to consolidation in new places, which responded to the interests of large landowners, as well as the nobles of the Southern and South-Western counties, where the main flows were sent.

Final reinforcement . At the second stage of the fixture process, an acute struggle was passed between various groups of landowners and peasants on the date of the term of the secret, while Cathedral Code 1649 It did not abolish the urgent years, introduced a permanent cheer, declared the eternal and hereditary fortress of peasants. So the legal registration of serfdom ended

In the third stage (from the middle of x VII in. until the end of H.VIII. in.) The serfdom developed on the uplink. For example, according to the law of 1675, the owners of the peasants could already be sold without land. From slaves serfs differed only by the presence of our own farm on the landowner land. In H.VIII. in. The landowners received the full right to dispose of the personality and property of the peasants, including to refer them without trial to Siberia and to the catguard.

At the fourth stage (end x VIII. in. - 1861) Freight relations entered into the stage of their decomposition. The state began to carry out measures, somewhat restricted by the arbitrarians, besides, fortunciation as a result of the spread of humane and liberal ideas was condemned to the advanced part of the Russian nobility.

As a result, due to various reasons, it was canceled by the Manifesto Alexander 11 in February 1861

The first is p (end of the XV - the end of the XVI centuries) The process of improving the peasants in Russia was rather long. Even in the era of ancient Russia, part of the rural population lost personal freedom and turned into funerals and hills. In the conditions of fragmentation, the peasants could leave the land on which they lived and move to another landowner.

Ordership. The lawyer 1497 ordered this right, confirming the right of the owner peasants after the payment of the "elderly" on the possibility of "exit" in Yuriev Day (St. George's Day) of the Autumn (week until November 26 and a week after).

At another time, the peasants and did not go to other land - prevented employment by agricultural work, autumn and spring dissolve, frost. But the fixation by the law of a certain short term of the transition testified, on the one hand, on the desire of feudalists and the state to limit the right of the peasants, and on the other hand, their weakness and inability to fasten the peasants for the identity of a certain feudal. In addition, this right forced landowners to reckon with the interests of the peasants, which had a beneficial effect on the socio-economic development of the country. This rate was also contained in the new judiciary of 1550.

However, in 1581, in the conditions of the extreme ruffles of the country and the flight of the population, Ivan IV introduced the "protected years", forbidden the peasant exit in the territories most affected by disasters. This measure was an emergency and temporary, "right up to the tsareva decree."

Second phase. (End of XVI century - 1649 g)

Decree of widespread reinforcement. In 1592 (or in 1593), i.e. In the era of the Board of Boris Godunov, a decree was released (the text of which was not preserved), which prohibited the exit along the whole country and without any temporary limitations. The introduction of the regime of the protected years made it possible to begin the preparation of wrist books (i.e., to conduct a census of the population that created the conditions for attaching peasants to the place of residence and their return in the case of flight and further capture of the old owners). In the same year, "decorated" (that is, it was released from taxes) a boric church, which stimulated servicing people to increase its square.

"Urgent years." Focus books were focused on the decisions of the decisions of 1597, established by the so-called. "Urgent years" (the term of the cheek of runaway peasants, determined at first in five years). At the end of the five-year period, the fizz, the peasants were subject to consolidation in new places, which responded to the interests of large landowners, as well as the nobles of the Southern and South-Western counties, where the main flows were sent. The dispute due to workers' hands between the nobles of the center and the southern Okrain became one of the reasons for the shocks of the beginning of the XVII century.

Final consolidation. At the second stage of the fixture process, an acute struggle was pasted between various groups of landowners and peasants on the date of the success of 15, until the Cathedral Code of 1649 abolished "urgent years", introduced a permanent cheer, declared the "eternal and hereditary fortress" of peasants. So the legal registration of serfdom ended

In the third stage (from the middle of the XVII century to end of XVIII c.) The serfdom developed on the uplink. For example, according to the law of 1675, the owners of the peasants could already be sold without land. In many respects, under the influence of a socio-cultural split caused by Peter 1 reforms, the peasants began to lose the remnants of their rights and in their social and legal status approached the slaves, they were treated as a "talking cattle." From slaves serfs differed only by the presence of our own farm on the landowner land. In the XVIII century The landowners received the full right to dispose of the personality and property of the peasants, including to refer them without trial to Siberia and to the catguard.

At the fourth stage (The end of the XVIII century - 1861) serfdom entered the stage of its decomposition. The state began to carry out measures, somewhat restricted by the arbitrarians, besides, fortunciation as a result of the spread of humane and liberal ideas was condemned to the advanced part of the Russian nobility.

As a result, due to various reasons, it was abolished by the manifesto Alexander II in February 1861

The Board of Fyodor Johnovich. Formation of dishonea backgrounds.

Years from 1598 to 1613 are known in the historical literature called the era of the vague time or time of the invasion of impostors. Tsar Fedor John, the last of the remaining sons of Ivan Grozny, died on January 7, 1598 childless. His death ended by the Rurikovsky Dynasty, which ruled Russia more than 700 years. On February 22, 1598, a representative of the Boyarsky genus, Boris Fedorovich Godunov, the native brother of the queen Irina Fedorovna, the wife of Tsar Fyodor John.

Eature is a deep spiritual, economic, social, and foreign policy crisis, comprehended by Russia at the end of 16 - early 17 century. Coincided with the dynastic crisis and the struggle of the Boyarian grouping for the power that put the country on the edge of the catastrophe. The main signs of the Troubles consider consideration (nonsense), sanctivity, civil war and intervention. According to a number of historians, Time of Troubles One can consider the first civil war in the history of Russia.

Contemporaries talked about the confusion as the time of "struts", "non-triations", "embarrassment of the minds", which caused bloody clashes and conflicts. The term "troubled" was used in the 4th century domestic speech, office work of Moscow orders.

The prerequisites of the Troubles were the consequences of the Okrichnina and the Livonian War 1558 - 1583.: The ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension.

The reasons for the troubles like the era of the robustness, according to historiography of the 19th - early 20 century, are rooted in the preventment of the Rurikovsky dynasty and the intervention of neighboring states (especially united Lithuania and Poland, since it was sometimes called "Lithuanian or Moscow ruin") in the affairs of the Moscow kingdom. The combination of these events led to the emergence of adventurers and impostors in the Russian throne, attractions on the throne from the Cossacks, runaway peasants and holsters. Church historiography of the 19th - early 20 century. He considered the confusion by the period of the spiritual crisis of society, seeing the reasons for the distortion of moral and moral values.

The first stage of the troubled time began with a dynastic crisis caused by the kill of the king Ivan IV formidable his elder son Ivanov, coming to power of his brother Fedor Ivanovich and the death of their younger consolidated brother Dmitry (on the conviction of many, slaughtered by the Feds of the actual ruler of Boris Godunov). The throne lost the last heir from the Rurikovsky dynasty.

The death of a childless king Fyodor Ivanovich (1598) made it possible to come to power Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the ruled energetic and wise, but the incapable of stopping the intrigue of the displeased boyars.

Accepted in pre-revolutionary historiography The term "troubled time", belonging to the rapid events of the beginning of the XVII century, was strongly rejected in Soviet science as "noble-bourgeois" and replaced with a long and even a few bureaucratic name: " Peasant War And foreign intervention in Russia. "Today, the term" troubled time "is gradually returning: apparently, because it not only corresponds to the usual consumption of the era, but also definitely reflects historical reality.

Among the meanings of the word "Smoot", given V.I. Dalem, we meet "Rubbing, rebellion ... General disobedience, discord between the people and authorities [source 9]. However, in modern language in the adjective" vague "there is a different meaning - unclear, unclear. And in fact, the beginning of the XVII century. Trying time: everything in motion, all fluctuates, blurred the contours of people and events, the kings are changing with incredible speed, often in different parts of the country and even in neighboring cities recognize the power of different sovereigns at the same time, people sometimes change their power Political orientation: Yesterday's allies diverge on hostile camps, then yesterday's enemies act together ... Troubled time - the most complex interweaving of various contradictions - class and national, intracelave and interclasses ... And although there was a foreign intervention, it is impossible to reduce only the variety of events of this violent And truly troubled time.

Naturally, such a dynamic period was extremely rich in not only bright events, but also a variety of developmental alternatives. In the days of nationwide shocks, accidents can play a significant role in the direction of history. Alas, the troubled time turned out to be the time of lost opportunities, when there were no alternatives that promised the event more favorable for the country.

The goal of the course work is to disclose and as one can fully reflect the essence of the troubled time.

1. Consider the causes and prerequisites of the troubled time.

2. Analyze the Board of Challengers to the Russian throne and possible alternatives to Russia's development.

3. Consider the results and consequences of the troubles.

The formation of feudalism was impossible without turning free peasants dependent on major landowners of workers.

Free Communities - Summit from 1391 began to be called peasants. The name was the synonym for the word "Christians" - the Rusichi in opposition to "pebans" from the Horde called themselves. For the first time, the term "peasants" used Metropolitan Kikilinean in the humble diploma to Konstantinovsky monastery.

The first stage of fastening the peasants Passed in the XI-XII centuries., It was the time of the appearance of the first in Russia of the arms of laws under Yaroslav Mudrome) 1019 - 1054) called "Russian True". The documents of it testify to the presence of several social groups among the population: funerals, holsters, ordinary, procurement, etc. The life of Smeed was estimated at 5 hryvnia, as well as the life of Holop and a number; Penalty (Vira) for killing a free "husband" was 8 times higher than a significant person - 16 times.

The choppers (later, yard) were sub-million people who worked for their Lord until the cancellation of serfdom. As a rule, they did not have their own farms and families, according to the situation resembled slaves, especially in the first centuries of the formation of statehood.

The rankings fell into the economic cable to the landowner, concluding a special agreement - "row".

In one of the articles of "Russian truth", the procurements are referred to, which are considered a variety of orders. The term "procurement" (take a "bubble" from the owner in the form of a harrow, soy) first occur at the beginning of the XII century. Purchasing was staged on the use of the peasantry. Any series, including a purchase, so much efforts had to be made for the coloration of the forest and transformation of the plot into arable land, processing it, etc. that they almost never went in a year from the owner, even paying the debt. Purchasing reached over the years and decades led to a complete challenge to the landowner of the peasant and his family.

There were still "Naimites", their position is not specified by historians. Apparently, they were a prototype of a lot later than the battles.

The second stage of fixing the peasants In time coincides with the Tatar-Mongolian invasion. As it was already noted, in the XIII - XIV centuries. The feudalization process was not actively actively, with the exception of some individual cases, including the reassurance of peasants in Russia.

Third stage On the way of the formation of serfdom accounts for the XV - XVI centuries. Rus is completely exempt from the influence of the horde, the noticeable economic rise begins. The legal status of the peasant was determined by national documents: Covern 1497 and 1550, by other official acts.

The lawsuit 1497 Tsar Ivan III recorded the transition time of the peasants to another landowner: a week before and within a week after one of the Orthodox holidays - Yuriev Day on November 26 (old style). The innovation was the need to pay the "elderly" tax for all the discharges of the peasants. Before leaving the spaced place, the peasant was supposed to pay off the treasury and the owner of the Earth at the previously established payments. Legal law of the transition of peasants from one to another landowner in Yuryev the day was confirmed by the judiciary of 1550, released during Ivan IV.

With the economic development of new lands, the state has existed increasingly interested in the full reassigning of the peasant-major cormists of the country. Colonization continued in the eastern regions, an extensive business method was increasing. In Russia, there was no tradition to rent a land, and did not embody the ideas of private ownership of Earth for working on it. To secure the peasants behind the land-processed land from 1581, the "Restored Years" are introduced, which are prohibited from the free transition of farmers in Yuriev Day. This rule concerned the entire population of the Russian centralized state. Already years from 1581 to 1586 were announced by "protected". In some regions of the country and 1590, 1592, 1594, 1595. Also were "protected."

The restriction of the rights of peasants in the choice of place of residence and management was supplemented by a well-known government decree of November 24, 1597. "Urgent" years were announced on it for the "Sud" on the owner of the peasants who did not pay the previously all debts and filters. For fluorescent, five years ago was established, and if the landowners managed to submit petitions about the cheek of the peasants who escaped five years to 1597, the state power was obliged to help them in the return of peasants and their families.

Representatives of state structures took care not only about the rise of agriculture, the economic strengthening of Boyar Votchin and the noble places, they were disturbed by increasing social instability in the country. The flight of peasants from the Lord was the form of passive resistance to the oppression of the Boyar and landowners, strengthening economic and legal pressure on their part.

Funny had two ways: in the nearest city, in search of food by random earnings; Escape for the outskirts of the Russian state and the transformation into the "Cossacks" (with Turkic-free, free). In the period of the North-Eastern and even Moscow Russia, Ryazan lands were considered in the outskirts, there were wide polishing bands for protection from sudden raids of steppes. Precisely about the Cossacks on Ryazanchin as special social group Population S.M. Solovyov first mentioned in relation to the middle of the XV century. And from the end of the XVI - in the XVII century. large masses Cossacks accumulate on Don and Dnieper (Zaporizhia), in the XVIII century. Orenburg Cossacks will be well known, etc. With the development of Siberia, the latter will be formed by the Trans-Baikal Cossacks.

Fourth Stage Reflooring Peasants Encompasses the XVII - XVIII centuries. Under Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov in 1649, "Cathedral Molding" forever prohibits the transition of a peasant from one owner to another, even in Yuriev Day, November 26th. In chapter XII, entitled "Court of Peasants", in Articles 2, 3, 22, provided for the cheer of runaway peasants, without establishing special "urgeous" years. The peasants were fixed behind the landowners, if they were previously recorded behind them in "wrist" or other books.

Peter I in the period of its reform activity from 1698 to 1725. Much attention was paid to socio-economic relations in the village. New groups of peasants got into the category of serfs: Odnodvorsa, Bobyli, Yasanny people of the northern regions of the country, etc. Up to the end of the XVIII century. The Board of Catherine II was the process of spreading serfdom in attached areas, including Tavria.

Agriculture continued to develop and in the conditions of gradual reassurance of peasants. Some improvement in the agricultural technique led to a reduction in the range of use of gravy-fire and overlapping systems of agriculture. They have survived for a longer time in northern, wooded and partially wetlands. In the "Opole", that is, in the open areas of the Russian Plain, especially in the black earth lands, began to move to fatty, two-, three-round crop rotation. So it originated and preserved until the XX century. Practice of alternate transformation of one of the fields in "clean", or "black", couples. Earth, "Resting" a year, gave a greater harvest and without applying fertilizers.

Labor productivity B. agriculture Significantly increased with the use of heavy power: oxen, horses, bulls. But the households of the community officers rarely had a horse, in Russia in the first centuries of the state of their existence they have not yet been bred.

The free sought-to-community has become more difficult to survive in the struggle for existence. The absence of not only horses, but sometimes in general, there was a sideways to the boyar, with whom he concluded a "row" or took Coupu. So the "horse" question and the solution of it with the help of a boyar-landowner, and later the landowner from the servants of the nobles contributed to the reassurance of peasants in Russia.

If you compare the structure of the use of agricultural tools, a set of sowed and disembodied agricultures with the Western European countries of this time, then we will not see special differences. They were observed only in countries with other agro-climatic conditions. From IX to XV - XVI centuries. In Russia seeded: rye (in the northern regions), a spring and winter wheat closer to the south; Everywhere oats and barley, millet and lentils, peas, wiki, beans. In northern I. northern Western regions up to the end of the XX century. Flax, hemp (has long yielded cannol oil or used as fiber). From the garden plants were widespread, especially near the cities: onions and garlic, cabbage, cucumbers, beets, poppy and hops. In households of death, procurement, etc. Not yet engaged in gardening, but apple trees, pears, cherries were grown in the grandfather and boyars estates.

In addition to Sokhi and Rail (Wooden Plow), an iron plow was increasingly used. The main restraining factor for the development of agriculture, especially agriculture, was relatively small in those days the territory of the state. Territory of ancient ( Kievan Rus) Massed in the XIII century. 1.1 million square meters. km, and the population is 4.5 million people. Up to the beginning of the XVI century, i.e. Before joining the Volga region and the first trips to the Urals and in Zauralia, incompatible were the concepts of "Russia" and "the absence of expanses and crowded population." With the Grand Duza Vasily Vasilyevich Dark (XV century) subject to him the territory of Moscow Rus was modest sizes. The Western and South borders defended from Moscow for no more than 200 km, the northern frontiers were a little further, just to the east and the southeast, open space for peaceful colonization of land.

The economic potential of the farmers' courtyards was determined by the magnitude of the peasant family put on the demographic composition of the family.

80-00 years - between 1450-1480. and 1550s. - They are considered the "golden age" of the Russian Pashnya. The most ambitious cutting of forests (including around Moscow) and land disintegration were carried out. Accordingly, grain and other crops were increased. In the XV century From Nagai steppes began to be driven by thousands of herds of horses and first high-sided sheep. But still small cattle remained small, the cows of the XV-XVI centuries, according to the archaeologists, were less than the most small Meshchery breed of the XIX century.!

Middle peasant put on Novgorod lands Reached from 7 to 17 tents with three-round crop rotation, and in secular and church pencils and palace possessions - up to 20 tents. It was almost twice as much as the average sizes of the peasant yard of the XIX - XX centuries. Such a picture was explained by the small population of the land of Russian. In addition to the arable, there were also household land in the farms, including gardens: cabbagers and sinks. There were also hayed grounds, since the ratio of Pashnya and the Bescas reached 5: 1.

In Novgorod, there is information about the composition of families: one courtyard had (on average) 1.3-1.6 married men. This is witnessing of undivided families of the 3rd age. But still more often met a relatively small family of 5-9 people, including children.

The place of residence of the peasant was: the courtyard -\u003e Pochinok -\u003e Sloboda -\u003e Village -\u003e Selo -\u003e Village.

When highlighting a family from the community, a "courtyard" or "Povenche" appeared (a house with a furnace). If one-two families cleared the forest chapher for the home and exercise "Agriculture", "repair" appeared (from the word "to repair", i.e. start). But if the farmers switched to another place, turned into a "wasteland". Several families, more often, up to five, were "Slobodi" and had in the first years of benefits (Slobodi) from shavers (taxes). Larger settlements, from eight families, have already been called "Village" (from the word "to heat" - to sprinkle to the turf, scratch the ground for arable land). In the future, the village has surrendered to the "ruler. At the bottom of this peculiar pyramid was the "village". The village at least numbered several dozen yards, more often than 30-40. But there were very large villages to 150 yards.

Characteristics of settlements, the history of their education helps it is better to understand how widely the agriculture was widespread in Russia, with what difficulties it was necessary to deal with the processing of arable land.

"Great clearance" of forests in the XV - XVI centuries. Not only expanded the economic turnover of land and led to the rise in general agriculture, but also created the conditions for the quantitative growth of the noble places; favored the emergence of new cities. And the excess of agricultural products, and the development of crafts revived trade, the conditions for the formation of the domestic market were gradually began to develop, intensifying commodity and market relations. The overall economic lifting helped to heal the wounds caused by the Horde.

The history of the formation of feudal absolutist monarchies in Europe shows that the centralization was going through political separatism and separation. Otherwise, a large land ownership could not be formed. In the struggle for it, for new lands and personal enrichment of specific princes (in Russia), graphs, barons, etc. (In France) decentralization was observed. In Russia, the process of socio-political fragmentation began with the XII century, from the wills of Vladimir Monomakh, who for the first time divided the ancient Russia to the specific principalities between her sons. This century was the significant and advent of the second capital of Russia - Vladimir-Klyazma. The watershed between the Okoy and the Volga began to settle with Rusichs. And although Andrei Bogolyubsky officially announced Vladimir the capital of Russia, the Great Table was even repeatedly moved from Kiev to Vladimir and back. The spontaneous migration of Russian people to Northwestern helped to preserve the statehood after falling in 1240 Kiev. North-Eastern or Vladimir-Suzdal Rus continued the history of future Russia. The genuofund of the people, original culture, the national idea was preserved. With the rise in Moscow, based also in the XII century, the country began to be called Moscow Rus.

Fragmentation, indispensable sign of the feudalization of the country, an objective process. The tragedy of Russia was that just during this period, in the 1230s, the Horde collapsed on it. And the specific princes could not unite to confront the orders.

Rus, not assimilated by the Horde, which preserved the political structure of individual principalities, headed by national representatives, should be sooner or later to create a centralized state (which happened in the XVI century). Moreover, the line of the Rurikovsky dynasty was not interrupted by the Ordans.

And finally, the fourth sign of feudalism is the presence of vassalite, hierarchical coented stairs between land owners. This feature is less distinct than others, manifested itself in Russia not only in the housesongol period, but also after. ORDENSKY IHO And this has adversely affected the socio-economic history of the country.

Only in the XVIII century. It appears in front of us a complete hierarchical staircase in the face of nobles, graphs, princes. Barons in Russia appear on a wider scale with joining at the beginning of the XIX century. Baltic. For several centuries, the country lagged behind in the process of feudalization from Western Europe. The late reinstitution of peasants led to the fact that Russia itself has conducted an agrarian reform from the countries of Europe and has become the path of active development of the market economy.

The late formation of feudalism initially led to the strengthening of the state (prince, the royal) form of ownership, which imposed a print on all subsequent economic and socio-political development of the country. Not only Byzantium, who passed the idea of \u200b\u200bprimacy of secular power with Christianity, the idea of \u200b\u200bPrimacy of secular power over the spiritual, state ownership over the private, influenced the subsequent economic development of the country. The colonization of the Ordans "caused" the need for a "strong" hand: the Grand Duke -\u003e Tsar -\u003e Emperor.

Thus, IHO Horde did not appear the root cause in the economy of Russia. But it became a perennial constraining factor in its advance towards the feudalization of society, intensifying commodity relations, trends in the development of a market economy. It was at the end of the XIII - XIV - the beginning of the XV century. In Western Europe, the "switching" of rent, which meant not only the transition to the lifting, but also the beginning of the process of personal liberation of peasants. And in Russia, completeness will finally be established in the XVII - XVIII centuries.

But at the same time, the fact that Russia did not become an agrarian appendage of Western Europe became positive.

Conclusion

Thus, this abstract discloses the topic of fixing the peasants, and the role of classes in Russia in the era of feudalism.

Speaking about the slowdown in the process of feudalization in Russia, it is necessary to keep in mind such an essential factor as later, for 300- 400 years compared to Western Europe, appearance on world stage Russian civilization and Russian ethnos. Earth Eastern Europe was on the periphery of the ancient Roman, then the Western Roman Empire. And Greek peaceful colonization included only the Crimean Peninsula. On earth of future Russia, its influence did not extend, the traditions of ancient civilization were not manifested, including in urban planning, early adoption of Christianity. With the adoption of Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium in Russia, ideas are argued strong in the economic and political meaning of state power.

List of used literature

"The history of the world economy" edited by Pole

"Economic History" Tolmachev

I. Backgrounds of fastening the peasants

The natural medium was the most important prerequisite for serfdom in Russia. The seizure of the surplus product necessary for the development of society in the climatic conditions of extensive Russia, demanded the creation of the most rigid mechanism of out-economic coercion.

The approval of serfdom occurred in the process of oppositioning the community and developed by the objective land tenure. The peasants perceived arable land like God's and royal property, counting at the same time that she belongs to the one who works on it. The spread of the local land tenure, and especially the desire of servicing people to take under their direct control of the part of community land (i.e., create a "boring church", which would guarantee the satisfaction of their needs, especially in military equipment, and most importantly - gave the opportunity for this land directly convey to The quality of the inheritance to his son and thereby consolidate for his native of practically on behavior law) I met the resistance of the community that it was possible to overcome, only completely subordinating the peasants.

In addition, the state acutely needed a guaranteed taxation of taxes. With the weakness of the central control apparatus, the collection of taxes it passed into the hands of landowners. But for this it was necessary to rewrite the peasants and attach them to the personality of the feudal.

The action of these prerequisites has become particularly actively manifested under the influence of disasters and destruction caused by the Ochrichnina and Livonian War. As a result of the flight of the population, the problem of providing the service for the labor force, and by the state-taxpayers, sharply aggravated the problem of the outskirts.

In addition to these reasons, reinforcement facilitated by the demoralization of the population caused by the horrors of Oricnin, as well as the peasant ideas about the landowner, as a royal man sent more than to protect against external hostile forces.

II. The main stages of consolidation

The process of improving the peasants in Russia was quite long and passed several stages. The first stage is the end of XV - the end of the XVI century. Even in the era of ancient Russia, part of the rural population lost personal freedom and turned into funerals and hills. In the conditions of fragmentation, the peasants could leave the land on which they lived and move to another landowner. The lawyer 1497 ordered this right, confirming the right of the peasant after the payment of the "elderly" on the possibility of "exit" in Yuriev's day of autumn (week until November 26 and a week after). At another time, the peasants and did not go to other land - prevented employment by agricultural work, autumn and spring dissolve, frost. But the fixation of the law of a certain short term of the transition testified, on the one hand, on the desire of feudalists and the state to limit the right of the peasants, and on the other, they are about their weakness and inability to consolidate the peasants for the identity of a certain feudal. In addition, this right forced landowners to reckon with the interests of the peasants, which had a beneficial effect on the socio-economic development of the country.

The new stage in the development of reinforcement began with the end of the XVI century and ended with the edition of the Cathedral Covering 1649. In 1592 (or in 1593), i.e. In the era of the Board of Boris Godunov, a decree was released (the text of which was not preserved), which prohibited the exit along the whole country and without any temporary limitations. In 1592, the preparation of wrist books began (i.e., the population census was held, allowing the attachment of the peasants to the place of residence and return them in the case of flight and further catching the old owners), "decomposed" (i.e., was released from taxes) Spare.

Focus books were focused on the decisions of the decisions of 1597, established by the so-called. "Urgent years" (the term of the check of runaway peasants, defined in five years). After the five-year period, the fizz, the peasants were subject to consolidation in new places, which responded to the interests of large landowners and the nobles of the Southern and South-Western counties, where the main flows were sent. The dispute due to workers' hands between the nobles of the center and the southern Okrain became one of the reasons for the shocks of the beginning of the 20th century.

At the second stage of reinforcement, there was an acute struggle between various groups of landowners and the peasants on the issue of the success of 15, until the Cathedral Code of 1649 abolished the "urgent years", introduced a permanent cheer and finally did not fix the peasants.

In the third stage (from the middle of the XVII century to the end of the 18th century), serfdom developed on the uplink. The peasants lost the remnants of their rights, for example, according to the law of 1675 they can be sold without land. In the XVIII century The landowners received the full right to dispose of their personality and property, including to refer without trial to Siberia and to the catguard. The peasants in their social and legal status approached the slaves, they began to relate to them as a "talking cattle."

At the fourth stage (the end of the XVIII century - 1861), serfdom entered the stage of its decomposition. The state began to carry out measures, several restrictive frosting arbitrariness, besides, the fastener as a result of the spread of humane and liberal ideas was condemned to the advanced part of the Russian nobility. As a result, due to various reasons, it was canceled by the Manifesto Alexander 11 in February 1861

Imediately reassurance.

Fastener led to approval of the extremely inefficient form of feudal relations, preserving the backwardness of the Russian society. Freight operation deprived of direct manufacturers of interest in the results of their labor, undermined as the peasant, so, in the end, the landowner is the economy.

Having aggravated the social split of society, the serfdom caused mass folk speeches that shook Russia in the XVII and XVIII centuries.

Fastener has formed the basis of the despotic form of power, predetermined the powerlessness of not only the bottom, but also the Rights of the Company. The landowners rightly served the king and because they became the "hostages" of the serf system, because Their safety and ownership of "baptized property" could guarantee only the strong central government.

Obligas for patriarchalness and ignorance, serfdom prevented the penetration of cultural property in the folk medium. It was reflected on the moral appearance of the people, some slave habits spent in it, as well as sharp transitions from the extreme humility to the unimustant rebound.

And yet, in the natural, social and cultural conditions of Russia, a different form of organization of production and society probably did not exist.

Start refreshing - Covering Court 1497.

The court of 1497 in Tsar Ivan III for the first time in a national scale was limited to the right of the peasant exit: their transition from one owner to another was now allowed only once a year, within a week before and week after Yuriev's Day of the Autumn (November 25) after the end of the field work. In addition, the immigrants obliged to flew the owner of the elderly - money for the loss of workers' hands, for the "courtyard" - household buildings. So it was necessary to start creating a nationwide system of serfdom. The lawsuit 1497, however, was not widespread.

The lawyer, limiting the power of the Ferrenders, established how the court should occur, and moreover, the participation of elected representatives from the tops of the local population. The judge was forbidden to take bribes, use the court with a goal. Revenge, etc. It was positive side centralization. But the "judiciary" was intended primarily to provide the class interests of the feudalists. The death penalty was introduced for many "dashing affairs" associated with the encroachment on feudal property and order. For the extregnation of mezhi beat the whip and took a cash fine. He promoted further development feudal relationships.

A special category of large, delegates, horses, i.e. Princely or boyars who made individual branches of the economy - keystones, tiunov, firing, string, elder, pashane. In the estates of their Lords, they performed regular functions: administrative, financial, judicial and police (bailiffs, closers, etc.). These functions often acquired inheritance.

Second Stage - Judicial 1550g

Folk speeches and boyars arbitrariness during the age of Ivan IVA, as well as the general trend towards the centralization of the country and the state apparatus led to the publication of this new Code of laws. Taking as the basis of the Fate Ivan III, the compilers of the new judiciary made changes to it related to the strengthening of the central government. His characteristic feature The desire to improve the administration of justice. True, the old management system and vessels in the face of governors and moays remained, but with significant amendments, the essence of which was reduced to strengthen control over the local population and the central authorities.

The population of the country was obliged to carry a complex of natural and monetary contesions. There is a single state for the total state of tax collection - large soha. Depending on the fertility of the soil, as well as the social position of the land owner, the Soka was (400-600 hectares) of the Earth.

At the same time, there was a reduction in the coolant. According to the court of 1550, the holopas - parents were forbidden to boil their children born on freedom. Since 1589, there is a question of a free woman who got married the Holop. The Covern of the XV-XVI centuries as sources of the Halophry no longer mentioned the punishment for the flight of the purchase, robbery murder, arson and concoction (as it was in Russian truth). At the same time, the procedure for the leave of the Halls on the will was more complicated - the issuance of the literacy was carried out in a limited number of cities. A complicated form of issuing a document (by a boyar report) was required.

Third stage - Cathedral crown 1649.

After the intelligence of the XVII century, it was necessary to restore a lot. Redo or do it again, since the events of the beginning of the century strongly undermined all the institutions or establishments. Such a share lay on the shoulders of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanova. After the forensication of 1550 has accumulated new Material - Decrees and sentences of the highest authorities. When, during the Moscow uprising of 1648, the nobles and Poshesky people raised the issue of streamlining management, including the preparation of a new Code of laws, an extensive material from "newly specified" articles was at the disposal of the authorities.

The most important section of the Cathedral Casting was the chapter "Court of Peasants". An indefinite cheese was introduced for runaway and dried peasants. The prohibition of the transition of peasants to new owners in Yuryev is confirmed. Feudals received the right to almost fully dispose of the property and personality of the peasant. This meant the legal registration of the system of serfdom. Simultaneously with the privately owner peasants, serfdom was spread to the Black and Palace Peasants, who were forbidden to leave their communities. In the case of flight, they also subject to an indefinite cheese.

Feodalai had the right to land and peasants, but are obliged to serve with Position and Votchin. For deviation from the service, the confiscation of half of the estate, beating the whip, for treason - the death penalty and complete confiscation of property.

The peasants did not have the right to keep shops in cities, and could trade only from the carriage and in trade orders.

Thus, all the peasant population was attached to its owners. Increased the power of the monarch, which meant movement along the path of establishment absolute monarchy in Russia. The "Cathedral Code" was taken, first of all, in the interests of the nobility and the tops of the Posad, took into account the interests of the boyars and clergy.

The main reform caused by the revolution was the Stolypin agrarian reform. Its goal is to strengthen the social basis of the autocracy and create the conditions for the once * of capitalism and agriculture. The reform began in 1906 and was carried out in several directions: the destruction of the community; disposal policy; Planting cuts and farms.

In Belarus, this reform had its own characteristics. In Western regions, the peasant community has been eliminated for a long time. And it facilitated the conduct of agrarian reform. The destruction of the community in the Mogilev and Vitebsk provinces, where the community landpad prevailed, went prevailing rather quickly. By the number of courtyards, which came out of the community, Belarus held the 1st place among many regions of Russia.

Peasant malskins contributed to the resettlement policy in Belarus.

Exercise agrarian reform In Belarus was accompanied by an intense plant of Russian landowdonia. The peculiarity of the reform was the introduction of Zemstvo in 1911, which played an important role.