Children at primary school age still retain many of the psychological qualities inherent in a preschooler. Frivolity and naivety can still be traced in their behavior, however, the logic of thinking is changing. Childlike spontaneity is gradually lost, interest in cognitive activity develops. It is at the elementary school age that the child's social status changes. And if at the age of three the preschooler undergoes a crisis "I myself", then at the age of seven it is a psychological crisis of the social "I", during which the student adapts to new social conditions. His development is largely related to how successfully he adapts, finds his place in this new world for him.

In general, by the age of six, children are psychologically ready to receive an education at school. During the period of entering a new stage of his development, the child has already formed new qualities and skills, namely:

• Ability to control behavior;
• Striving for collective action;
• Speech mastery;
The ability to cooperate;
• The ability to generalize.

Psychological and pedagogical features at primary school age directly depend on a fundamental change in the child's entire usual life. New responsibilities begin to enter into it, his relationship with people changes. At the primary school stage, children carry out activities that require arbitrariness and commitment.

Changes of a physiological nature also occur, which directly affect psychological changes: growth slows down, weight increases, muscles are actively developing. Through the development of the hand muscle, the student gains the ability to write quickly. Features of the psychological and pedagogical character of schoolchildren are associated with the development of the nervous system, during which the formation of the brain and its hemispheres continues to occur. Features of the child's psyche are characterized by changes in the processes of inhibition and excitement. If in a preschooler inhibition was poorly developed, then in schoolchildren this process begins to prevail, although arousal can still manifest itself quite strongly.

The development of a young student may be characterized by some disharmony in terms of psychology and physiology. This leads to temporary increased fatigue, but, at the same time, to a great need for activity. As for the motor functions as such, it is in the primary school age that they develop especially intensively. Spatial orientation, endurance, coordination of movements with the help of vision are improved. Schoolchildren master a large number of motor skills, which noticeably improves their ability for successful sports activity. The subsequent improvement of the child's physical activity can be achieved through practicing a variety of sports.

The average child aged 7-10 should be able to:

• Catch the ball accurately;
• Tie shoelaces;
• Fasten buttons;
• Draw straight lines;
• Work with scissors;
• Outline dotted lines;
• Finish drawings according to symmetry.

But the biggest changes concern, nevertheless, psychological and pedagogical characteristics. Cognitive functions and morality receive a powerful impetus to development.

The rapid development of cognitive activity is associated, first of all, with a new learning process for the younger schoolchild. Not in the last place in development is the expansion of contacts.

Changes in thinking and perception of a primary school student

The perception of children of primary school age is still characterized by instability, however, a special curiosity appears. The student can still make the simplest mistakes, for example, confuse numbers or similar letters, but this is compensated by a lively curiosity, thanks to which he receives a large amount of new information every day. Perception at the age of 6-10 years is characterized by low differentiation. Analysis skills are still poorly developed, so teachers must, using pedagogical methods, form the ability to observe and concentrate through the emotional sphere. However, the perception of children of primary school age is changing very quickly, and by the end of the first grade it becomes differentiating and analyzing.

Attention, like perception, still has many characteristics that schoolchildren have inherited from preschool age. It is unstable. Children aged 7-10 can concentrate their attention on things they are not interested in. However, involuntary attention still predominates, therefore, the pedagogical features of the first grade are based on teaching how to form voluntary attention. If it is poorly developed, then all subsequent schooling will become impossible. The development of psychological and pedagogical characteristics is closely related to the development of attention and will, which is necessary in order to concentrate. For their formation in young students, motivation for learning and responsibility for the success of school activities are laid.

The thinking of schoolchildren undergoes special changes, which from the figurative-emotional develops into the abstract-logical. At the very beginning of the school path, children still think figuratively, according to their feelings, however, the learning process should develop in them the ability to understand cause-and-effect relationships. In the primary school, the child begins to develop intellect intensively. In this case, psychological and pedagogical education, which a teacher can give a student, is very important. It is on the pedagogical characteristics and organization of the educational process that the degree to which the intellect of schoolchildren develops depends. According to research, changing the methodology and organization of pedagogical activity, the characteristics of the thinking of schoolchildren also change.

The development of thinking during teaching in primary school is closely related to the development of speech. A child's vocabulary can increase to seven thousand words. But the most important skill is to express your thoughts in oral and written form according to the accumulated vocabulary. The quality of contextual speech reliably shows the level of development of the student.

The advantage in the development of children of primary school age goes to verbal-logical thinking. To improve it in the elementary grades, illustrative examples are required. In the course of educational activity, the students reveal differences, thanks to which psychologists divide students into three groups: theorists, practitioners, and artists. The first ones do an excellent job with solving problems through speech, the second ones need practical actions and visualization for successful activity, the third are characterized by good figurative thinking. In general, to one degree or another, all children possess the qualities of all three groups, with a predominance of one.

In addition to speech, the cognitive activity of a child depends on the development of memory, and in this case we can talk about the great natural possibilities of memorization that children receive due to the plasticity of the brain and its rapid development. At this age, there is an easy literal memorization, but the memory, as before, is characterized by a figurative character.

The difference between the characteristics of memory at school age from preschool age is the purposeful memorization of material that is not interesting, but necessary for obtaining knowledge. The development of voluntary memory is the basis for the success of educational activities in subsequent school years. The pedagogical goal is to develop different types of memory, such as short-term, long-term and operational, and ways of memorizing.

As for the imagination, in the elementary grades it must still have support on a specific object, however, over time, it is the word that opens up scope for fantasy that becomes the fulcrum.

The development of the psychology of schoolchildren is influenced both, directly, by the educational process and its quality, and by relations with teachers, classmates, and the team. During elementary school, the child develops the skills of behavior in society, responsibility for their actions, mutual assistance and collectivism. It is at the age of 6-10 that moral qualities begin to develop especially intensively, a great role in the formation of which the teacher plays. The psychological and pedagogical characteristics of schoolchildren are such that their psyche has great suggestibility and pliability, a tendency to trust adults and imitate them. The teacher acquires especially great authority in the eyes of the students, which gives him the right to instill certain moral qualities and models of behavior.

Change in self-esteem and its subsequent development

In addition to the development of memory, attention, perception and speech, motivation is important for successful learning activity, however, it is still not enough for primary schoolchildren. She lags behind intelligence. The will is still being formed, so the children are not fully aware of the motives. High self-esteem helps to form motivation, however, with the transition from family to school, it undergoes significant changes. This is due to the fact that a previously formed assessment of one's own strength rarely coincides with a real assessment of capabilities.

The psychology of a student is such that self-esteem is highly dependent on school performance. According to her, the motivational sphere is formed. The period of a child's formation as a schoolchild is associated with difficult experiences and maladjustment. Grades obtained at school affect student self-determination. In accordance with them, children rank themselves and their classmates in the category of excellent students, poor students, C grade students and good students. This division leads to endowing oneself and peers with the qualities inherent in each category. Children do not separate grades for academic performance from their own and their own abilities.

So, for excellent students it is overestimated, and for children who cope with the school curriculum unsatisfactorily, self-esteem begins to decline rapidly. Although at the very beginning of the school path, the guys do not agree to be in the category of lagging behind, trying to maintain high self-esteem, gradually the need to break out of the number of poor and C students becomes weaker. The number of children who underestimate their abilities increases many times by the fourth grade.

However, school performance and communication with the teacher and peers are not the only factors in the development of self-esteem. Family, parenting style and family values ​​continue to play an important role.

Features of the emotional sphere of a schoolchild in psychological and pedagogical development

When a child's self-awareness changes, a complete reassessment of values ​​occurs. Previously significant things begin to lose their meaning, new incentives appear. Everything related to school activities and cognition comes to the fore. Of course, a school-age child continues to enjoy the game, but now it is not so important and not so interesting.

Among the pedagogical and psychological characteristics of school-age children is stubbornness. So, the child will stubbornly adhere to this or that model of behavior for as long as he does not want to change it himself. That is why it is important to develop independence at the very beginning of school age.

If we touch upon the psychological and pedagogical peculiarity of the emotional sphere, then in this case we can single out several aspects of its development.

Children in primary school age are very responsive and emotionally react to events around them. They have an immediacy, thanks to which they can sincerely express their experiences. At the same time, their emotional instability is clearly manifested: a change in mood, short-term periods of affects. Moreover, the psychological and emotional state is largely influenced by school performance and communication with classmates.

During the period of study in elementary grades, children still cannot correctly perceive and analyze either their own or other people's emotions, therefore, often the behavior of their peers is psychologically perceived incorrectly. The feeling of empathy has not yet been developed, and the child's behavior is beginning to reflect on his psychological state, therefore, it is precisely on external manifestations that close attention should be paid.

During the school period, the child begins to differentiate his outer life from his inner life, and this is influenced by changes in his behavior model. The so-called semantic basis of an act appears, which is a link between doing an action and, in fact, an action. This is expressed in an adequate assessment of the necessity and result of an action. However, in addition to the intellectual component, the semantic basis of an act is also characterized by an emotional one, because it contains the individual meaning of specific actions. This means that the child analyzes the act through the prism of his desires, relationships with people around him, as well as changes in them. Semantic orientation is an important psychological feature of the development of a schoolchild, which gradually excludes childish spontaneity from his behavior. Thanks to this, the younger student learns to think before doing anything, and this is also associated with the need to hide his feelings so that others do not know about his fluctuations. In other words, we can say that the external behavior becomes different from the inner world of the child. Duality appears, although openness and sincerity are still important psychological features of his behavior. Changes in the child's psyche, the beginning of school activities, the assessment of their own strengths lead to a crisis of seven years of age, which can be characterized as a generalization of experiences.

A series of successes or failures, which are repeated from day to day, often form complexes of inferiority or, conversely, exclusivity. Over time, the complexes can disappear or change, however, often they, on the contrary, become part of the personality, his psychology, and have a serious impact on the personality, the child's relationship with the outside world further. At the age of seven, the student has a logic of feelings, which develops precisely due to the generalization of all experiences, between which a certain connection is established.

Summarizing all of the above, the psychological and pedagogical development of a younger student is characterized by rapid changes in perception and behavior. The main task at this age continues to be the cognition of the world, however, the methods of cognition are changing. Voluntary attention and intelligence, logical thinking and the ability to generalize come to the fore.

It is important to note that during the period of elementary school, an attitude to the world around and a model of behavior is formed, the psychology of the student and moral qualities are laid, many of which will not undergo changes throughout life.

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on the topic: "Age characteristics of primary school age"

1. Mental characteristics of primary school children

2. Development of interpersonal relationships in primary school age in a peer group

3. Imagination and creativity of younger students

1. Mental features detei of primary school age

Younger school age (from 6-7 to 9-10 years old) is determined by an important external circumstance in a child's life - entering school.

A child who enters school automatically takes a completely new place in the system of human relations: he has constant responsibilities associated with educational activities. Close adults, a teacher, even strangers communicate with a child not only as a unique person, but also as a person who has made a commitment (no matter - willingly or under compulsion) to learn, like all children of his age. The new social situation of development introduces the child into a strictly normalized world of relations and requires from him organized arbitrariness, responsible for discipline, for the development of performing actions associated with the acquisition of skills in educational activities, as well as for mental development. Thus, the new social situation of teaching at school toughens the living conditions of the child and acts as stressful for him. Every child who enters school has increased mental stress. This is reflected not only in physical health, but also in the behavior of the child.

Before school, the individual characteristics of a child could not interfere with his natural development, since these characteristics were accepted and taken into account by close people. At school, the standardization of the child's living conditions is taking place. The child will have to overcome the trials that have fallen on him. In most cases, the child adapts himself to standard conditions. Educational becomes the leading activity. In addition to mastering special mental actions and actions that serve writing, reading, drawing, work, etc., the child, under the guidance of a teacher, begins to master the content of the main forms of human consciousness (science, art, morality, etc.) and learns to act in accordance with traditions and new social expectations of people.

According to the theory of L.S. Vygotsky, school age, like all ages, opens with a critical, or turning point, period, which was described in the literature earlier than others as a crisis of seven years. It has long been noted that a child changes dramatically during the transition from preschool to school age and becomes more educationally difficult than before. This is some kind of transitional stage - no longer a preschooler and not yet a schoolboy.

Recently, a number of studies have appeared on this age. The results of the study can be schematically expressed as follows: a 7-year-old child is distinguished, first of all, by the loss of childlike spontaneity. The closest reason for childish spontaneity is the lack of differentiation of internal and external life. The child's experiences, his desires and the expression of desires, i.e. behavior and activity usually represent an insufficiently differentiated whole in a preschooler. The most essential feature of the seven-year crisis is the beginning of the differentiation of the inner and outer sides of the child's personality.

The loss of immediacy means the introduction of an intellectual moment into our actions, which wedges between the experience and the direct action, which is the direct opposite of the naive and direct action inherent in a child. This does not mean that the crisis of seven years leads from an immediate, naive, undifferentiated experience to the extreme pole, but, in fact, in every experience, in every manifestation of it, a certain intellectual moment arises.

At the age of 7, we are dealing with the beginning of the emergence of such a structure of experience, when the child begins to understand what it means "I am happy," "I am upset," "I am angry," "I am good," "I am evil," that is, ... he has a meaningful orientation in his own experiences. Just as a 3-year-old child reveals his relationship with other people, so a seven-year-old reveals the very fact of his experiences. Thanks to this, some of the features that characterize the crisis of seven years come out.

Experiences acquire meaning (an angry child realizes that he is angry), thanks to this, the child has such new attitudes towards himself that were impossible before the generalization of the experiences. As on a chessboard, when with each move completely new connections arise between the pieces, so here completely new connections arise between experiences when they acquire a certain meaning. Consequently, the entire character of a child's experiences by the age of 7 is rebuilt, just as a chessboard is rebuilt when a child has learned to play chess.

By the crisis of seven years, for the first time, a generalization of experiences, or affective generalization, the logic of feelings, appears. There are deeply retarded children who experience setbacks at every step: ordinary children play, an abnormal child tries to join them, but he is refused, he walks down the street, and they laugh at him. In short, he loses at every step. In each individual case, he has a reaction to his own insufficiency, and after a minute you look - he is completely satisfied with himself. Thousands of individual failures, but there is no general sense of his own little value, he does not generalize what has happened many times already. A school-age child develops a generalization of feelings, i.e., if a situation has happened to him many times, he develops an affective formation, the nature of which also refers to a single experience, or affect, as a concept refers to a single perception or memory ... For example, a preschool child does not have real self-esteem, pride. The level of our requests for ourselves, for our success, for our position arises precisely in connection with the crisis of seven years.

A child of preschool age loves himself, but self-esteem as a generalized relationship to oneself, which remains the same in different situations, but self-esteem as such, but a generalized relationship to others and an understanding of his value in a child of this age. Consequently, by the age of 7, a number of complex formations arise, which lead to the fact that the difficulties of behavior change dramatically and radically, they are fundamentally different from the difficulties of preschool age. imagination creativity junior student

Such neoplasms as self-esteem, self-esteem, remain, and the symptoms of the crisis (deceit, antics) are transient. In the crisis of seven years, due to the fact that there is a differentiation of the internal and the external, that for the first time a semantic experience arises, an acute struggle of experiences also arises. A child who does not know which candy to take - bigger or sweeter - is not in a state of internal struggle, although he hesitates. The inner struggle (contradictions of experiences and the choice of one's own experiences) becomes possible only now.

A characteristic feature of primary school age is emotional impressionability, responsiveness to everything bright, unusual, colorful. Monotonous, boring activities sharply reduce cognitive interest at this age and generate a negative attitude towards learning. Going to school makes a big difference in a child's life. A new period begins with new responsibilities, with systematic learning activities. The child's position in life has changed, which brings about changes in the nature of his relationship with others. New circumstances in the life of a young schoolchild become the basis for such experiences that he did not have before.

Self-esteem, high or low, generates a certain emotional well-being, causes self-confidence or self-doubt, anxiety, feelings of superiority over others, a state of sadness, sometimes envy. Self-esteem is not only high or low, but also adequate (corresponding to the true state of affairs) or inadequate. In the course of solving life tasks (educational, household, play), under the influence of achievements and failures in the activities performed, the student may experience inadequate self-esteem - increased or decreased. It causes not only a certain emotional reaction, but often a long-term negatively colored emotional well-being.

While communicating, the child simultaneously reflects in consciousness the qualities and properties of the communication partner, and also cognizes himself. However, now in pedagogical and social psychology, the methodological foundations of the process of forming primary schoolchildren as subjects of communication have not been developed. By this age, the basic block of psychological problems of the personality is structured and the mechanism of development of the subject of communication changes from imitative to reflexive.

An important prerequisite for the development of a primary school student as a subject of communication is the appearance in him, along with business communication, of a new non-situational-personal form of communication. According to the research of M.I. Lisina, this form begins to develop from the age of 6. The subject of such communication is a person. The child asks the adult about his feelings and emotional states, and also tries to tell him about his relationships with peers, demanding an emotional response from the adult, empathy for his interpersonal problems.

2. Development of interpersonal relationships in primary school age in a peer group

The group of peers of primary school age also belongs to the peer group.

A junior student is a person who is actively mastering communication skills. At this age, there is an intensive establishment of friendly contacts. Acquiring the skills of social interaction with a peer group and the ability to make friends is one of the most important developmental tasks at this age stage.

With the arrival at school, there is a decrease in collective ties and relationships between children of primary school age compared with the preparatory group of kindergarten. This is due to the newness of the team and new learning activities for the child.

Acquiring the skills of social interaction with a peer group and the ability to make friends are one of the most important tasks of a child's development at this age stage.

The new social situation and new rules of behavior lead to the fact that in the first year of education the level of comfort of children increases, which is a natural consequence of joining a new group. Communication with peers plays an important role at this age. It not only makes self-esteem more adequate and helps the socialization of children in new conditions, but also stimulates their learning.

The relationship of first graders is largely determined by the teacher through the organization of the educational process. It contributes to the formation of statuses and interpersonal relationships in the classroom. Therefore, when conducting sociometric measurements, one can find that among the preferred children there are often children who study well, who are praised and singled out by the teacher.

By the second and third grades, the teacher's personality becomes less significant, but the connections with classmates become closer and more differentiated.

Usually children begin to communicate by sympathy, community of any interests. The proximity of their place of residence and gender characteristics also play a significant role.

A characteristic feature of the relationship of younger schoolchildren is that their friendship is based, as a rule, on the commonality of external life circumstances and random interests; for example, they sit at the same desk, live next to them, are interested in reading or drawing ... The consciousness of younger schoolchildren has not yet reached the level to choose friends for any essential personality traits. But in general, children in grades III - IV are more deeply aware of certain qualities of personality and character. And already in the third grade, if necessary, choose classmates for joint activities. About 75% of students in grades III motivate the choice with certain moral qualities of other children.

Sociometric research materials confirm that school success is accepted by students as the main characteristic of personality. Answering the questions, with whom do you want to sit at the desk and why? Who do you want to invite to your birthday and why exactly him?

85% of the students in the first grade and 70% in the second grade motivated their choice by the successes or failures of their peers in their studies, and if the choice fell on an unsuccessful student, help was offered. Very often in their assessments, the guys referred to the teacher.

It is at the elementary school age that the socio-psychological phenomenon of friendship appears as an individually selective deep interpersonal relationship of children, characterized by mutual affection based on a feeling of sympathy and unconditional acceptance of the other. At this age, group friendships are most common. Friendship fulfills many functions, the main of which is the development of self-awareness and the formation of a sense of belonging, communication with a society of their own kind.

According to the degree of emotional involvement of the child's communication with peers, it can be comradely and friendly. Companionable communication - emotionally less deep communication of the child, is realized mainly in the classroom and mainly with his gender. Friendly - both in the classroom and outside it and also mainly with the same gender, only 8% of boys and 9% of girls are of the opposite sex. The relationship between boys and girls in the lower grades is spontaneous.

The main indicators of the humanistic relationship between boys and girls are sympathy, camaraderie, friendship. With their development, a desire for communication arises. Personal friendship in elementary school is very rare compared to personal companionship and sympathy. The teacher plays an important role in these processes.

Typical inhuman relationships between boys and girls are (according to Yu.S. Mitina):

The attitude of boys to girls: swagger, pugnaciousness, rudeness, arrogance, refusal of any relationship ...

The attitude of girls towards boys: shyness, complaints about the behavior of boys ... or, in some cases, the opposite phenomena, for example, children's flirting.

The relationship between boys and girls needs constant attention and adjustment and should be managed wisely without relying on them to develop properly on their own.

Thus, we can conclude that the interpersonal relationships of peers of primary school age depend on many factors, such as academic success, mutual sympathy, community of interests, external life circumstances, and sexual characteristics. All of these factors influence the child's choice of peer relationships and their relevance.

Pupils have different attitudes towards their comrades: the student chooses some classmates, does not choose others, rejects the third; the attitude to some is stable, to others it is not stable.

There are three social circles for each student in each class. In the first circle of communication are those classmates who are the object of constant stable choices for the child. These are the students for whom he has a steady sympathy, emotional attraction. Among them there are those who, in turn, sympathize with this student. Then they are united by a mutual connection. Some students may not have a single comrade at all for whom he would feel stable sympathy, that is, this student does not have the first circle of the desired communication in the class. The concept of the first circle of communication includes both a special case and grouping. The grouping is made up of students who are united by mutual communication, that is, those who are included in the first circle of communication with each other.

All classmates for whom the student has more or less sympathy form the second circle of his communication in the class. The psychological basis of the primary collective is such a part of the general collective where the students mutually form a second circle of desired communication for each other.

These circles are certainly not a frozen state. A classmate who was previously for a student in the second circle of communication can enter the first, and vice versa. These social circles interact with the widest third social circle, which includes all students in this class. But schoolchildren are in personal relationships not only with classmates, but also with students from other classes.

In the elementary grades, the child already has a desire to occupy a certain position in the system of personal relationships and in the structure of the team. Children often find it difficult to experience the discrepancy between the claims in this area and the actual state.

The system of personal relationships in the classroom develops in the child as he learns and learns from school. The basis of this system is formed by direct emotional relationships, which prevail over all others.

In the manifestation and development of children's need for communication, primary school students have significant individual characteristics. Two groups of children can be distinguished in accordance with these characteristics. For some, communication with comrades is mainly limited to school. For others, communication with comrades already takes a significant place in life.

Younger school age is a period of positive changes and transformations taking place in the child's personality. Therefore, the level of achievements achieved by each child at this age stage is so important. If at this age the child does not feel the joy of learning, does not gain confidence in his abilities and capabilities, it will be more difficult to do this in the future. And the child's position in the structure of personal relationships with peers will also be more difficult to correct ..

The position of the child in the system of personal relationships is also influenced by such a phenomenon as speech culture.

The speech culture of communication consists not only in the fact that the child pronounces correctly and chooses the correct words of politeness. A child who has only these capabilities can cause peers to feel a sense of condescending superiority over him, since his speech is not colored by the presence of his volitional potential, expressed in expression, manifested self-confidence and self-esteem.

It is the means of effective communication that the child assimilates and uses that will first of all determine the attitude of the people around him. Communication is becoming a special school of social relations. The child is still unconsciously discovering the existence of different communication styles. It is in the conditions of independent communication that the child discovers various styles of possible relationship building.

Thus, the basis for the development of relationships in a group is the need for communication, and this need changes with age. She is satisfied with different children differently. Each member of the group occupies a special position both in the system of personal and in the system of business relations, which are influenced by the child's success, his personal preferences, his interests, speech culture, and at the end of the III-IV class and individual moral qualities.

3. Imagination and creativity of younger students

The first images of the child's imagination are associated with the processes of perception and his play activity. A one and a half year old child is still not interested in listening to the stories (fairy tales) of adults, since he still lacks the experience that generates the processes of perception. At the same time, one can observe how, in the imagination of a child at play, a suitcase, for example, turns into a train, a silent doll, indifferent to everything that happens, into a crying little man, offended by someone, a pillow into an affectionate friend. During the period of speech formation, the child even more actively uses his imagination in his games, because his life observations expand sharply. However, all this happens as if by itself, unintentionally.

From 3 to 5 years, arbitrary forms of imagination "grow up". Images of imagination can appear either as a reaction to an external stimulus (for example, at the request of others), or initiated by the child himself, while imaginary situations are often purposeful in nature, with an ultimate goal and a pre-planned scenario.

The school period is characterized by the rapid development of imagination, due to the intensive process of acquiring versatile knowledge and using it in practice.

The individual characteristics of the imagination are clearly manifested in the process of creativity. In this area of ​​human activity, the imagination of significance is placed on a par with thinking. It is important that for the development of imagination it is necessary to create conditions for a person under which freedom of action, independence, initiative, and relaxedness are manifested.

It has been proven that imagination is closely connected with other mental processes (memory, thinking, attention, perception) that serve educational activity. Thus, by not paying enough attention to the development of imagination, primary teachers reduce the quality of education.

In general, junior schoolchildren usually do not have any problems associated with the development of children's imagination, so almost all children who play a lot and variedly in preschool childhood have a well-developed and rich imagination. The main questions that in this area may still arise before the child and the teacher at the beginning of learning, relate to the connection between imagination and attention, the ability to regulate imagery through voluntary attention, as well as the assimilation of abstract concepts that can be imagined and presented to a child, as well as an adult. hard enough.

Senior preschool and primary school age are classified as the most favorable, sensitive for the development of creative imagination and fantasy. The games and conversations of children reflect the power of their imagination, one might even say, a riot of fantasy. In their stories, conversations, reality and fantasy are often mixed, and the images of imagination can, by virtue of the law of the emotional reality of imagination, be experienced by children as completely real. The experience of them is so strong that the child feels the need to talk about it. Such fantasies (they are also found in adolescents) are often perceived by others as a lie. Parents and teachers often turn to psychological consultations, alarmed by such manifestations of fantasy in children, which they regard as deceit. In such cases, the psychologist usually recommends analyzing whether the child is pursuing any benefit with his story. If not (and most often it happens that way), then we are dealing with fantasizing, inventing stories, and not with lies. This kind of storytelling is normal for children. It is useful for adults in these cases to join the children's play, to show that they like these stories, but precisely as manifestations of fantasy, a kind of game. By participating in such a game, sympathizing and empathizing with the child, the adult must clearly identify and show him the line between play, fantasy and reality.

In early school age, in addition, there is an active development of the recreational imagination.

In children of primary school age, several types of imagination are distinguished. It can be recreational (creating an image of an object according to its description) and creative (creating new images that require the selection of material in accordance with the concept).

The main tendency arising in the development of children's imagination is a transition to an ever more correct and complete reflection of reality, a transition from a simple arbitrary combination of ideas to a combination that is logically reasoned. If a 3-4-year-old child is satisfied with two criss-cross sticks to depict an airplane, then at 7-8 years old he already needs an external resemblance to an airplane ("so that there are wings and a propeller"). A schoolboy at the age of 11-12 often designs a model himself and demands from it even more complete resemblance to a real plane ("so that he could fly just like a real one").

The question of the realism of children's imagination is connected with the question of the relationship of images that arise in children to reality. The realism of the child's imagination manifests itself in all forms of activity available to him: in play, in visual activity, when listening to fairy tales, etc. In play, for example, a child's demands on plausibility in a play situation increase with age.

Observations show that the child seeks to portray well-known events truthfully, as it happens in life. In many cases, a change in reality is caused by ignorance, inability to coherently, consistently depict the events of life. The realism of the imagination of a younger student is especially clearly manifested in the selection of the attributes of the game. For a younger preschooler, everything can be for everyone in the game. In older preschoolers, the selection of material for the game is already taking place according to the principles of external similarity.

The younger student also makes a rigorous selection of material suitable for play. This selection is made according to the principle of maximum closeness, from the point of view of the child, of this material to real objects, according to the principle of the possibility of performing real actions with it.

The obligatory and main character of the game for schoolchildren in grades 1-2 is a doll. Any necessary "real" actions can be performed with it. She can be fed, clothed, she can express her feelings. It is even better to use a live kitten for this purpose, since you can already really feed it, put it to bed, etc.

The adjustments to the situation and the images introduced in the course of play by children of primary school age give the play and the images themselves imaginary features, which more and more bring them closer to reality.

A.G. Ruzskaya notes that children of primary school age are not devoid of fantasy, which is at odds with reality, which is even more characteristic of schoolchildren (cases of children's lies, etc.). "Fantasizing of this kind still plays a significant role and occupies a certain place in the life of a junior schoolchild. But nevertheless, it is no longer a simple continuation of the fantasizing of a preschooler who himself believes in his fantasy as in reality. A schoolboy of 9-10 years old already understands" convention "his fantasies, his inconsistency with reality."

In the minds of a younger student, concrete knowledge and fascinating fantastic images built on its basis peacefully coexist. With age, the role of fantasy, divorced from reality, weakens, and the realism of children's imagination increases. However, the realism of the child's imagination, in particular the imagination of the younger schoolchild, must be distinguished from another of its features, similar, but fundamentally different.

Realism of the imagination involves the creation of images that do not contradict reality, but are not necessarily a direct reproduction of everything perceived in life.

The imagination of a younger student is also characterized by another feature: the presence of elements of reproductive, simple reproduction. This trait of children's imagination is expressed in the fact that in their games, for example, they repeat the actions and positions that they observed in adults, play out the stories that they experienced, that they saw in the movies, reproducing the life of the school, family, etc. without changes. The theme of the game is the reproduction of impressions that took place in the lives of children; the storyline of the game is a reproduction of what has been seen, experienced and necessarily in the same sequence in which it took place in life.

However, with age, the elements of reproductive, simple reproduction in the imagination of a younger schoolchild become less and less, and more and more creative processing of ideas appears.

According to the research of L.S. Vygotsky, a child of preschool age and primary school can imagine much less than an adult, but he trusts the products of his imagination more and controls them less, and therefore imagination in the everyday, "cultural sense of the word, that is, something like that. , which is real, fictional, in a child, of course, more than in an adult.However, not only the material from which the imagination is built is poorer in the child than in the adult, but also the nature of the combinations that are added to this material, their quality and diversity is significantly inferior to the adult's combinations.Of all the forms of connection with reality that we have listed above, the child's imagination has, to the same extent as the adult's, only the first, namely the reality of the elements from which it is built.

V.S. Mukhina notes that at primary school age, a child in his imagination can already create a variety of situations. Being formed in the game substitution of some objects by others, the imagination goes over to other types of activity.

In the process of the educational activity of schoolchildren, which in the elementary grades comes from living contemplation, the level of development of cognitive processes, as noted by psychologists, plays an important role: attention, memory, perception, observation, imagination, memory, thinking. The development and improvement of imagination will be more effective with purposeful work in this direction, which will entail the expansion of the cognitive capabilities of children.

At the primary school age, for the first time, there is a division of play and labor, that is, activities carried out for the sake of pleasure, which the child will receive in the process of the activity itself and activities aimed at achieving an objectively significant and socially assessed result. This distinction between play and work, including educational work, is an important feature of school age.

The value of imagination in primary school age is the highest and necessary human ability. At the same time, it is this ability that needs special care in terms of development. And it develops especially intensively at the age of 5 to 15 years. And if this period of imagination is not specially developed, then a rapid decrease in the activity of this function occurs.

Together with a decrease in a person's ability to fantasize, the personality becomes impoverished, the possibilities of creative thinking decrease, interest in art, science and so on dies out.

Younger schoolchildren carry out most of their vigorous activity with the help of imagination. Their games are the fruit of exuberant work of imagination, they are enthusiastically engaged in creative activities. The psychological basis of the latter is also the creative imagination. When, in the process of learning, children are faced with the need to understand abstract material and they need analogies, support with a general lack of life experience, imagination also comes to the aid of the child. Thus, the significance of the imagination function in mental development is great.

However, fantasy, like any form of mental reflection, must have a positive direction of development. It should contribute to a better self-disclosure and self-improvement of the person in terms of knowledge of the surrounding world, and not develop into passive daydreaming, replacing real life with dreams. To complete this task, it is necessary to help the child use his imagination in the direction of progressive self-development, to activate the cognitive activity of schoolchildren, in particular the development of theoretical, abstract thinking, attention, speech and creativity in general. Children of primary school age are very fond of doing artistic creativity. It allows the child to reveal his personality in the most complete free form. All artistic activity is based on active imagination, creative thinking. These functions provide the child with a new, unusual view of the world.

Thus, one cannot but agree with the conclusions of psychologists and researchers that imagination is one of the most important mental processes and the success of mastering the school curriculum largely depends on the level of its development, especially in children of primary school age.

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General characteristics of children of primary school age. Features of the development of perception, attention, memory, imagination, speech, thinking. Analysis of the problems of the adaptation period of the child at the beginning of his schooling. Mechanisms of psychological defense in children.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher professional education

"Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering"

Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning

Department of Physical Education

Discipline:<<Физическая культура>>

Abstract on the topic:

<<Возрастные особенности младшего школьного возраста >>

Performed:

Checked:

Nizhny Novgorod - 2008

Introduction ……………………………………………………………… ..3

Chapter 1. General characteristics ………………………………………

1. 1. Age characteristics …………………………………… ..

1. 2. Psychological and physiological characteristics ……… ..

Chapter 2. Concepts<<Физическая культура>>………………………

Chapter 3. Gymnastics in the formation of a culture of movements in primary school children ………………………………………

Conclusion…………………………………………………………...

Bibliography………………………………………………………...

Introduction

The younger school age begins at 6 - 7 years old, when the child starts school, and lasts up to 10 - 11 years old. The leading activity of this period is educational activity. The younger school period occupies a special place in psychology also because this period of schooling is a qualitatively new stage in the psychological development of a person. The strengthening of the child's physical and psychological health continues. Particularly important is attention to the formation of posture, since for the first time a child is forced to carry a heavy portfolio with school supplies. The motor skills of the child's hand are imperfect, since the skeletal system of the phalanges of the fingers has not been formed. The role of adults is to pay attention to these important aspects of development and to help the child take care of his own health.

Purpose of the work: to consider the characteristics of age, physical development in primary school age.

Object of research: age and physical development of primary school age.

Subject of research: to analyze age, physical development and give a special place to physical culture at primary school age.

1. Consider age characteristics in primary school age.

2. Consider the physiological and psychological characteristics of primary school age.

3. Theoretically substantiate the effectiveness of the influence of gymnastic exercises on the formation of the culture of movements of a younger schoolchild.

Chapter 1. General characteristics.

1. 1. Age features.

The boundaries of primary school age, which coincide with the period of study in primary school, are currently set from 6-7 to 9-10 years. Social situation of development: The internal position of the student as a person who improves himself. Educational activity becomes the leading activity in primary school age. It determines the most important changes in the development of the psyche of children at a given age stage. Within the framework of educational activities, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of primary schoolchildren and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage. Gradually, the motivation for learning activity, so strong in the first grade, begins to decline. This is due to a drop in interest in learning and the fact that the child already has a conquered social position, he has nothing to achieve. In order for this not to happen, educational activities must be given a new personally significant motivation. The leading role of educational activity in the development of a child does not exclude the fact that the younger student is actively involved in other activities, during which his new achievements are improved and consolidated. Features of educational communication: the role of a teacher, the role of a peer. Joint discussion of the educational problem. Psychological neoplasms:

- <<Умение учится>>

Conceptual thinking

Internal action plan

Reflection - Intellectual and Personal

A new level of arbitrary behavior

Self-control and self-esteem

Peer group orientation

Dependence of the level of achievement on the content and organization of educational activities.

At the primary school age, there is an increase in the desire of children to achieve. Therefore, the main motive for a child's activity at this age is the motive for achieving success. Sometimes there is another kind of this motive - the motive for avoiding failure.

In the mind of the child, certain moral ideals and patterns of behavior are laid. The child begins to understand their value and necessity. But in order for the formation of the child's personality to proceed most productively, the attention and assessment of an adult is important. "The emotional and evaluative attitude of an adult to a child's actions determines the development of his moral feelings, an individual responsible attitude to the rules with which he gets acquainted in life." "The child's social space has expanded - the child constantly communicates with the teacher and classmates according to the laws of clearly formulated rules."

It is at this age that the child experiences his uniqueness, he realizes himself as a person, strives for perfection. This is reflected in all spheres of a child's life, including in relationships with peers. Children find new group forms of activity, activities. They try to behave at first as is customary in this group, obeying the laws and regulations. Then the striving for leadership, for superiority among peers begins. At this age, friendships are more intense, but less lasting. Children learn the ability to make friends and find common ground with different children. "Although it is assumed that the ability to form close friendships is to some extent determined by the emotional bonds established in the child during the first five years of his life."

Children strive to improve the skills of those activities that are accepted and appreciated in an attractive company for him, in order to stand out in her environment, to achieve success.

The ability to empathize gets its development in the conditions of school education because the child participates in new business relationships, he is involuntarily forced to compare himself with other children - with their successes, achievements, behavior, and the child is simply forced to learn to develop his abilities and qualities.

Thus, primary school age is the most responsible stage of school childhood.

The main achievements of this age are due to the leading nature of educational activity and are largely decisive for the subsequent years of education: by the end of primary school age, the child must want to learn, be able to learn and believe in himself.

The full-fledged living of this age, its positive acquisitions are a necessary foundation on which the further development of the child is built as an active subject of knowledge and activity. The main task of adults in working with children of primary school age is to create optimal conditions for disclosing and realizing the capabilities of children, taking into account the individuality of each child.

1. 2. Physiological and psychological characteristics.

At this age, significant changes occur in all organs and tissues of the body. So, all the bends of the spine are formed - cervical, thoracic and lumbar. However, the ossification of the skeleton does not end from here, its great flexibility and mobility, which open up both great opportunities for proper physical education and practicing many sports, and lurking negative consequences (in the absence of normal conditions for physical development). That is why the proportionality of the furniture at which the younger student sits, the correct seating at the table and desk are the most important conditions for the normal physical development of the child, his posture, the conditions for all his further working capacity.
In younger schoolchildren, muscles and ligaments are vigorously strengthened, their volume grows, and overall muscle strength increases. In this case, large muscles develop earlier than small ones. Therefore, children are more capable of relatively strong and sweeping movements, but it is more difficult to cope with small movements that require precision. Ossification of the phalanges of the metacarpals of the hands ends by nine or eleven years, and the wrists - by ten or twelve. If we take this circumstance into account, it becomes clear why a junior student often copes with written assignments with great difficulty. His hand quickly gets tired, he cannot write very quickly and for an excessively long time. You should not overload younger students, especially students in grades I-II, with written assignments. The desire in children to rewrite a poorly done task most often does not improve the results: the child's hand quickly gets tired.
In a junior schoolchild, the heart muscle grows intensively and is well supplied with blood, therefore it is relatively hardy. Due to the large diameter of the carotid arteries, the brain receives enough blood, which is an important condition for its performance. The weight of the brain increases markedly after seven years. The frontal lobes of the brain, which play a large role in the formation of the highest and most complex functions of human mental activity, are especially increased.
The relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition changes.

Thus, in primary school age, in comparison with preschool age, there is a significant strengthening of the musculoskeletal system, cardiovascular activity becomes relatively stable, the processes of nervous excitement and inhibition acquire a greater balance. All this is extremely important because the beginning of school life is the beginning of a special educational activity that requires from the child not only significant mental stress, but also great physical endurance. Psychological restructuring associated with the child's admission to school. Each period of the child's mental development is characterized by the main, leading type of activity. So, for preschool childhood, play activity is the leading one. Although children of this age, for example in kindergartens, are already learning and even working as hard as they can, the real element that determines their entire appearance is role-playing in all its diversity. A desire for social appreciation appears in the game, imagination and the ability to use symbolism develop. All of this serves as the main points that characterize a child's readiness for school. As soon as a seven-year-old child enters the classroom, he is already a schoolboy. From that time on, play gradually loses its dominant role in his life, although it continues to occupy an important place in it, the teaching that significantly changes the motives of his behavior, opens up new sources for the development of his cognitive and moral forces. The process of such restructuring has several stages. The stage of the child's initial entry into the new conditions of school life stands out especially clearly. Most children are psychologically prepared for this. They happily go to school, expecting to meet something unusual here compared to a house and a kindergarten. This inner position of the child is important in two respects. First of all, the presentiment and desirability of the novelty of school life helps the child quickly accept the teacher's requirements regarding the rules of behavior in the classroom, the norms of relations with comrades, and the daily routine. These requirements are perceived by the child as socially significant and inevitable. The situation known to experienced teachers is psychologically justified; from the first days of the child's stay in the classroom, it is necessary to clearly and unambiguously disclose to him the rules of student behavior in the classroom, at home and in public places. It is important to immediately show the child the difference between his new position, responsibilities and rights from what was familiar to him before. The requirement of strict observance of the new rules and norms is not excessive severity towards first-graders, but a necessary condition for organizing their life, corresponding to the own attitudes of children prepared for school. With the precariousness and uncertainty of these requirements, children will not be able to feel the uniqueness of a new stage in their life, which, in turn, can destroy their interest in school. The other side of the child's internal position is associated with his general positive attitude to the process of assimilating knowledge and skills. Even before school, he gets used to the idea of ​​the need for learning in order to someday truly become who he wanted to be in games (pilot, cook, chauffeur). At the same time, the child does not, of course, represent the specific composition of knowledge required in the future. He still lacks a utilitarian-pragmatic attitude towards them. He is drawn to knowledge in general, to knowledge as such, which has social significance and value. This is where the child's curiosity, theoretical interest in the environment is manifested. This interest, as the main prerequisite for learning, is formed in the child by the entire structure of his preschool life, including expanded play activity.
At first, the student is not yet really familiar with the content of specific academic subjects. He does not yet have cognitive interests in the educational material itself. They form only as you delve into mathematics, grammar and other disciplines. And nevertheless, the child learns the appropriate information from the first lessons. At the same time, his educational work is based on an interest in knowledge in general, a particular manifestation of which in this case is mathematics or grammar. This interest is actively used by teachers in the first lessons. Thanks to him, information about such, in essence, abstract and abstract objects as the sequence of numbers, the order of letters, etc., becomes necessary and important for the child.
The child's intuitive acceptance of the value of knowledge itself must be maintained and developed from the first steps of schooling, but already by demonstrating unexpected, tempting and interesting manifestations of the very subject of mathematics, grammar and other disciplines. This allows children to form genuine cognitive interests as the basis of educational activity. Thus, for the first stage of school life, it is characteristic that the child obeys the new requirements of the teacher, regulating his behavior in the classroom and at home, and also begins to become interested in the content of the school subjects themselves. The painless passage of this stage by the child indicates a good readiness for school activities.

Introduction

The problem of studying the age characteristics of schoolchildren today remains the most urgent not only for parents, but also for school teachers, who also need to be a psychologist in order to effectively carry out their pedagogical activities.

The study of this topic makes it possible to compare the features of the physical development of students of junior, middle and senior school age, gives a comparative analysis of the neuropsychic and cognitive spheres of students of different ages and shows their influence on the organization of educational activities.

Today, at the beginning of the XXI century. there is a process of dicelration (slowdown in the rate of development). Modern children in the totality of morphological characteristics are significantly inferior to their parents in their childhood, and this process, based on the assumptions of anthropologists, is likely to continue. At the same time, due to the rapid pace of scientific and technological progress, our children are more informed and erudite. Are there specific features characteristic of today's schoolchildren in the development of their intellectual abilities, and what are these features? The answer to this question is fundamentally important both for modern science and for the practice of organizing the educational process. Based on the foregoing, it can be stated that the study of the patterns of development of cognitive abilities and their formation in educational activities during the period of human growth and development is one of the topical theoretical and scientific-practical tasks of our time.

The presented study is devoted to a comprehensive study of the development of cognitive abilities in the process of school ontogenesis. The object of our study was age as a psychological category. The subject of the research was the age characteristics of modern schoolchildren.

Among the most important tasks of the work are the study of the sources of pedagogical and psychological literature, the analysis of the views and ideas expressed by the authors, as well as a description of the age characteristics of modern schoolchildren of primary, adolescent and adolescent age.

In the course of the work, the works of leading psychologists and teachers were analyzed - Abramova G.S., Dubravina I.V., Klimov E.A., Obukhova L.F., Stolyarenko L.D., Ovcharov A.A., Tsukerman G. and others. Among the publications analyzed by us and used in writing the work, there are articles from such journals as "Questions of Psychology", "Psychology and School", "Psychological Journal", "School Management" "Children's Health".

It should be emphasized that age is not limited to the sum of individual mental processes, it is not a calendar date. Age, according to L.S. Vygotsky, is a relatively closed cycle of child development, which has its own structure and dynamics. The duration of age is determined by its internal content: there are periods of development and in some cases "epochs" equal to one year, three, five years. Chronological and psychological ages are distinguished, and they do not coincide. Chronological, or passport age is only a coordinate of reference, that external grid, against the background of which the process of the child's mental development, the formation of his personality, takes place.

In such cases, when significant changes occur in the structure and properties of the phenomenon, we are dealing with development. Development, first of all, is characterized by qualitative changes, the emergence of new formations, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. X. Werner, L.S. Vygotsky and other psychologists described the main signs of development. The most important among them: differentiation, dismemberment of the formerly single element; the emergence of new sides, new elements in the development itself; restructuring of connections between the sides of the object.

In this work, a person's childhood is relevant for us, since it is during this age period that he goes through a stage of development associated with learning at school.

The stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are just as subject to change as they were thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study the childhood of a child and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws that determine its development. The length of childhood is in direct proportion to the level of the material and spiritual culture of society.

Theoretically, the question of the historical origin of the periods of childhood was developed in the works of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin. The course of the child's mental development, according to L.S. Vygotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of the maturation of the organism. The course of childhood development in a class society, he believed, "has a very definite class meaning." That is why, he emphasized that there is no eternally childish, but there is only a historically childish. Thus, in the literature of the 19th century, there is abundant evidence of the absence of childhood among proletarian children.

Historically, the concept of childhood is associated not with a biological state of immaturity, but with a certain social status, with a range of rights and responsibilities inherent in this period of life, with a set of types and forms of activity available to it. Many interesting facts have been collected to support this idea by the French demographer and historian Philippe Aries. Thanks to his works, interest in the history of childhood in foreign psychology has increased significantly, and the research of F. Aries himself is recognized as classical.

The differentiation of the ages of human life, including childhood, according to F. Aries, is formed under the influence of social institutions, that is, new forms of social life generated by the development of society.

In psychology, different concepts of age periodization are accepted according to the principles of construction. So, in the 70s D.B. Elkonin proposed an age-related periodization of the development of the psyche, based on a change in leading activity:

1) play - preschoolers;

2) teaching - younger students;

3) intimate-personal communication - adolescents;

4) educational and professional activities - young men.

In the 80s A.V. Petrovsky proposed the concept of age-related periodization of personality development, determined by the type of activity-mediated relationship of the individual with the most referential groups for him.

In Vygotsky's cultural and historical concept, age is viewed as a relatively closed period of development, the significance of which is determined by its place in the general cycle of development and in which the general laws of development find a qualitatively unique expression each time. Age characteristics exist as the most typical, most characteristic general characteristics of age, indicating the general direction of development. A particular age period is sensitive to the development of certain mental processes and properties, psychological qualities of a person, and therefore to a certain type of impact. Therefore, a child at each age stage needs a special approach to himself.

Each age period, stable or critical, is a transitional one, preparing a person for the transition to a higher age level. The complexity of the age stage lies precisely in the fact that it contains the psychological realities of today, the value meaning of which is largely determined by the needs of tomorrow.

It is important to note that each author or group of authors presenting their theory is characterized by a certain limitation of conceptual schemes. Moreover, each time gives its own interpretation of old problems. Domestic psychologists (A.V. Brushlinsky, A.A. The cultural-historical theory of L.S.Vygotsky is just as harshly criticized for its clearly declarative nature. the increasing importance of integrating the approaches that have developed to date.

Regardless of the solution to the issue of determining age characteristics, the concept of age periodization basically reflects the unified point of view of psychologists on determining the boundaries of age stages.

The need for an interdisciplinary approach in the study of age-related characteristics of the psyche is emphasized in modern domestic and foreign psychology. Age levels are relative and conditionally averaged, but this does not exclude the individual originality of a person's mental appearance. The age characteristic of personality development reflects a certain system of requirements imposed by society on a person at a particular stage of his life, and the essence of his relations with others, his social position.

The specific characteristics of age are determined by:

1) the peculiarities of the child's entry into groups of different levels of development and into educational institutions;

2) a change in the nature of upbringing in the family;

3) the formation of new types and types of activities that ensure the development of social experience by the child, a system of existing knowledge, norms and rules of human activity;

4) features of physiological development.

Each age in human life has certain standards, with the help of which it is possible to assess the adequacy of the development of the individual and which relate to the development of psychophysical, intellectual, emotional and personal. The transition to the next age stage occurs in the form of age crises.

As already noted, the question of the historical origin of the periods of childhood, the relationship between childhood history and the history of society, and the history of childhood as a whole, without the solution of which it is impossible to formulate a meaningful concept of childhood, was posed in child psychology at the end of the 20s of the XX century and continues still being developed. According to the views of Soviet psychologists, studying child development historically means studying the transition of a child from one age stage to another, studying the change in his personality within each age period that occurs in specific historical conditions.

2. Characteristics of the age characteristics of modern schoolchildren

The success of upbringing depends, first of all, on the knowledge by educators (teachers, parents) of the patterns of age-related development of children and the ability to identify the individual characteristics of each child.

Currently, the following division of childhood into such age periods has been adopted:

1) infant - from birth to 1 year, and the first month is specially allocated in it - the neonatal period;

2) preschool age - from 1 year to 3 years;

3) preschool age - from 3 to 7 years;

4) primary school age - from 7 to 11-12 years old;

5) middle school age (adolescence) - from 12 to 15 years;

6) senior school age (youth) - from 15 to 18 years old.

Determination of the boundaries of these periods is conditional, since there is great variability in this regard. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that taking into account the age characteristics of students cannot be understood as an adaptation to the weaknesses of a particular age, since as a result of such adaptation they can only gain a foothold. The whole life of a child should be organized taking into account the possibilities of a given age, keeping in mind the inducement of the transition to the next age period.

2.1 Younger school age

By the age of 7, the child reaches a level of development that determines his readiness for school. Physical development, stock of ideas and concepts, the level of development of thinking and speech, the desire to go to school - all this creates the preconditions for systematic learning.

With admission to school, the whole structure of a child's life changes, his regime, relations with people around him change. Teaching becomes the main activity. Primary school students, with very few exceptions, love to study at school. They like the new position of the student, they are attracted by the learning process itself. This determines the conscientious, responsible attitude of younger students towards learning and school. It is no coincidence that at first they perceive the mark as an assessment of their efforts, diligence, and not the quality of the work done. Children think that if they “try,” then they learn well. The teacher's approval encourages them to “try harder”.

Younger schoolchildren readily and with interest acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities. They want to learn to read, write correctly and beautifully, and count. True, they are more fascinated by the learning process itself, and the younger student shows great activity and diligence in this regard. The interest in school and the learning process is evidenced by the games of junior schoolchildren, in which a large place is given to school and learning.

Younger schoolchildren continue to show the inherent need for preschool children for active play activity, for movements. They are ready to play outdoor games for hours, cannot sit in a frozen position for a long time, they like to run during recess. The need for external impressions is also characteristic of younger students; A first grader, like a preschooler, is primarily attracted by the external side of objects or phenomena, performed activities (for example, the attributes of a classroom attendant - a sanitary bag, a bandage with a red cross, etc.).

From the first days of schooling, the child has new needs: to master new knowledge, to accurately fulfill the teacher's requirements, to come to school on time and with completed assignments, the need for approval from adults (especially the teacher), the need to fulfill a certain social role (to be a headman, the orderly, the commander of the "asterisk", etc.).

Usually, the needs of younger students, especially those who were not brought up in kindergarten, are initially personal. A first grader, for example, often complains to a teacher about his neighbors, allegedly preventing him from listening or writing, which indicates his concern for personal success in learning. Gradually, as a result of the teacher's systematic work to instill in students a sense of camaraderie and collectivism, their needs acquire a social orientation. Children want the class to be the best, so that everyone is good students. They begin to help each other on their own initiative. The growing need to win the respect of comrades, the growing role of public opinion, speaks of the development and strengthening of collectivism among junior schoolchildren.

The cognitive activity of a primary school student is characterized, first of all, by the emotionality of perception. A picture book, a visual aid, a teacher's joke - everything evokes an immediate reaction in them. Younger schoolchildren are at the mercy of a striking fact; the images that arise from the description during the teacher's story or reading a book are very vivid.

Figurativeness is also manifested in the mental activity of children. They tend to understand literally the figurative meaning of words, filling them with specific images. For example, when asked how one should understand the words: "One is not a warrior in the field," many answer: "And with whom should he fight if he is alone?" Students solve a particular mental problem more easily if they rely on specific objects, ideas or actions. Initially, junior schoolchildren remember not what is most significant from the point of view of educational tasks, but what made the greatest impression on them: what is interesting, emotionally colored, unexpected or new.

The quality of information perception is characterized by the presence of an affective-intuitive barrier that rejects all educational information that is presented by a teacher who does not inspire confidence in the child ("an evil teacher").

In the emotional life of children of this age, first of all, the content side of experiences changes. If a preschooler is happy that they play with him, share toys, etc., then the younger student is mainly concerned with what is associated with learning, school, and a teacher. He is pleased that the teacher and parents are praising him for his academic success; and if the teacher takes care of the student's feeling of joy from educational work as often as possible, then this reinforces the student's positive attitude towards learning.

Along with the emotion of joy, the emotions of fear are of no small importance in the development of the personality of a younger student. Often, for fear of punishment, the baby tells a lie. If this is repeated, then cowardice and deceit are formed. In general, the experiences of a younger student are sometimes very violent.

At the elementary school age, the foundations of such social feelings as love for the Motherland and national pride are laid, students enthusiastically relate to hero-patriots, to brave and courageous people, reflecting their experiences in games, statements.

The younger student is very gullible. As a rule, he has boundless faith in the teacher, who is an indisputable authority for him. Therefore, it is very important that the teacher in all respects is an example for children.

Thus, we can say that the characteristic features of children of primary school age are:

Trusting the outside world.

Mythological outlook (interweaving of the real and the fictional on the basis of unlimited fantasy and emotional perception).

Free development of feelings and imagination.

Naive subjectivism and egocentrism.

The unconscious and later - imitation, regulated by feeling or design.

The extra-subjective nature of attention and feelings.

Building moral ideals - models.

A fabulous, playful, exploratory nature of cognition.

Deliberate transfer of the "game mindset" into their business and serious relationships with people (playfulness, innocent slyness).

The fragility of emotional experiences, internal individualism, expanding the subjective and objective world in the mind of the child.

Conformism (in aesthetic and moral assessments and actions: moral concepts of good and evil are determined by the assessment of adults).

The value priorities of schoolchildren are determined in the following hierarchical sequence:

Younger students (grades 1-4):

1) family; 2) God; 3) friendship (love); 4) books (Harry Potter, Astrid Lindgren "Pippi Longstocking", J. Tolkien, Winnie the Pooh); 5) art, music; 6) material goods; 7) theater, cinema (computer).

2.2 Middle school age

The main type of activity of a teenager, like that of a younger student, is learning, but the content and nature of educational activity at this age changes significantly. The teenager begins to systematically master the basics of science. Teaching becomes multidisciplinary, the place of one teacher is taken by a team of teachers. Higher demands are placed on the adolescent. This leads to a change in attitude towards learning. For a middle-aged schoolchild, classes have become commonplace. Students sometimes tend not to bother themselves with unnecessary exercises, complete lessons within the specified limits or even less. There is often a decline in academic performance. What prompted the younger schoolchild to actively study does not play such a role now, and new incentives for learning (attitude towards the future, long-term prospects) have not yet appeared.

The teenager is not always aware of the role of theoretical knowledge, most often he associates it with personal, narrowly practical goals. For example, a seventh grader often does not know and does not want to learn the rules of grammar, since he is “convinced” that even without this knowledge it is possible to write correctly. The younger student takes all the instructions of the teacher on faith - the teenager should know why it is necessary to perform this or that task. Often in the classroom you can hear: "Why do this?", "Why?" In these questions, there is perplexity, and some discontent, and sometimes even distrust of the teacher's requirements.

At the same time, adolescents are inclined to complete independent assignments and practical work in the classroom. They readily undertake the production of visual aids, they are quick to respond to the proposal to make the simplest device. Even students with low academic performance and low discipline are active in this situation.

The teenager manifests himself especially clearly in extracurricular activities. In addition to lessons, he has many other things to do that take up his time and energy, sometimes distracting him from his studies. It is common for middle school students to suddenly get carried away with some kind of occupation: collecting stamps, collecting butterflies or plants, designing, etc.

The teenager shows himself brightly in games. A large place is occupied by hiking games and travel. They love outdoor games, but those that contain an element of competition. Outdoor games begin to take on the character of sports (football, tennis, volleyball, a game such as "Merry Starts", war games). In these games, ingenuity, orientation, courage, dexterity, speed come to the fore. Teenage games are more sustainable. Intellectual games, which are of a competitive nature (chess, KVN, competition in solving problems for ingenuity, etc.), are especially pronounced in adolescence. Being carried away by the game, adolescents often do not know how to allocate time between games and study sessions.

In school teaching, academic subjects begin to appear for adolescents as a special area of ​​theoretical knowledge. They get to know a lot of facts, are ready to tell about them or even give short messages in the lesson. However, adolescents begin to be interested not in the facts themselves, but in their essence, the reasons for their occurrence, but penetration into the essence does not always differ in depth. Images, representations continue to occupy a large place in the mental activity of a teenager. Often details, small facts, details prevent us from highlighting the main, essential and making the necessary generalization. For adolescents, as well as for junior schoolchildren, the attitude is more likely to memorize the material than to ponder and deeply comprehend.

The teenager strives for independence in mental activity. Many adolescents prefer to cope with tasks without copying them off the blackboard, try to avoid additional explanations if it seems to them that they themselves can figure out the material, strive to come up with their own original example, express their own judgments, etc. Together with independent thinking, it develops and criticality. Unlike the younger schoolchild, who takes everything on faith, the teenager makes higher demands on the content of the teacher's story, he expects evidence and persuasiveness.

In the sphere of the emotional-volitional sphere, a teenager is characterized by great passion, inability to restrain oneself, weakness in self-control, and harshness in behavior. If the slightest injustice is shown to him, he is able to "explode", fall into a state of passion, although later he may regret it. This behavior occurs especially in a state of fatigue. The emotional excitability of a teenager is very clearly manifested in the fact that he argues passionately, with fervor, proves, expresses indignation, reacts violently and experiences along with the heroes of films or books.

When faced with difficulties, strong negative feelings arise, which lead to the fact that the student does not complete the work he has begun. At the same time, a teenager can be persistent and self-possessed if the activity evokes strong positive feelings.

For adolescence, an active search for an object to follow is characteristic. The ideal of a teenager is an emotionally colored, experienced and internally accepted image that serves as a model for him, a regulator of his behavior and a criterion for assessing the behavior of other people.

Puberty has a definite influence on the mental development of a teenager. One of the essential characteristics of a teenager's personality is the desire to be and be considered an adult. The teenager is trying by all means to assert his adulthood, and at the same time, he does not yet have a sense of full-fledged adulthood. Therefore, the desire to be an adult and the need for the recognition of his adulthood by others is acutely felt.

In connection with the "sense of maturity", a teenager develops a specific social activity, a desire to join different aspects of the life and activities of adults, to acquire their qualities, skills and privileges. At the same time, first of all, the more accessible, sensually perceived aspects of adulthood are assimilated: the appearance and manner of behavior (ways of rest, entertainment, specific vocabulary, fashion in clothes and hairstyles, and sometimes smoking, alcohol consumption).

The desire to be an adult is clearly manifested in the sphere of relationships with adults. The teenager protests, takes offense when he, "like a little", is taken care of, controlled, punished, demanded unquestioning obedience, do not take into account his desires and interests. The teenager seeks to empower himself. He demands that adults take into account his views, opinions and interests, that is, he claims equal rights with adults.

For adolescence, the need for communication with comrades is characteristic. Teenagers cannot live outside the team, the opinion of their comrades has a huge impact on the formation of a teenager's personality. The teenager does not think of himself outside the team, is proud of the team, values ​​its honor, respects and highly values ​​those classmates who are good comrades. He is more painful and more acutely experiencing the disapproval of the collective than the disapproval of the teacher. Therefore, it is very important to have a healthy public opinion in the class, to be able to rely on it. The formation of the personality of a teenager will depend on who he will enter into a friendly relationship with.

Friendship acquires a different character compared to younger age. If at primary school age children are friends on the basis that they live side by side or sit at the same desk, then the main basis of friendship between adolescents is a community of interests. At the same time, rather high requirements are imposed on friendship, and the friendship is of a more lasting nature. It can last a lifetime. In adolescents, relatively stable and independent of random influences moral views, judgments, assessments, and beliefs begin to take shape. Moreover, in cases where the moral requirements and assessments of the student body do not coincide with the requirements of adults, adolescents often follow the morality adopted in their environment, and not the morality of adults. Adolescents have their own system of requirements and norms, and they can stubbornly defend them, without fear of condemnation and punishment from adults. But at the same time, the morality of the adolescent is still not sufficiently stable and can change under the influence of the public opinion of his comrades.

Thus, we can say that the characteristic age characteristics of adolescence are:

Increased attention to your own inner world.

The development of daydreaming, a conscious departure from reality to fantasy.

Adventurism, balancing "on the brink" for the purpose of self-testing.

Moral criticism, negativism.

External forms of deliberate disrespect, passionate negligence, arrogance, rigorism.

Overconfidence.

Love of adventure, travel (escape from home).

Falsehood "for salvation", deceit.

Violently revealing new feelings awakening with puberty.

The adolescent period, with all the manifest signs of growing up, does not yet provide the experience of social activity to which the child aspires. This process of socialization is painful, raising both positive and negative qualities of the child to the behavioral level.

Teenagers (grades 5-7):

1) family; 2) love, friendship; 3) books (Harry Potter, AN Ostrovsky, Shakespeare "Romeo and Juliet", "Catherine's childhood", Tolkien); 4) God; 5) material goods; 6) music, cinema, art.

1) God; 2) family; 3) friendship.

Drugs are among the personal prohibitions that children define for themselves.

2.3 Senior school age

In early adolescence, learning continues to be one of the main activities of high school students. Due to the fact that in the senior grades the circle of knowledge is expanding, that students use this knowledge to explain many facts of reality, they are more consciously beginning to relate to learning. At this age, there are two types of students: some are characterized by the presence of evenly distributed interests, others are distinguished by a pronounced interest in one science.

The difference in attitude to teaching is determined by the nature of the motives. In the first place are the motives associated with the life plans of students, their intentions in the future, worldview and self-determination. In terms of their structure, the motives of senior schoolchildren are characterized by the presence of leading motives that are valuable for the individual. Senior students point to such motives as the proximity of graduation from school and the choice of life path, further education or work in their chosen profession, the need to show their abilities in connection with the development of intellectual powers. Increasingly, a senior student begins to be guided by a consciously set goal, there is a desire to deepen knowledge in a certain area, there is a desire for self-education. Students begin to systematically work with additional literature, attend lectures, and work in additional schools.

High school age is the period of completion of puberty and, at the same time, the initial stage of physical maturity. For a high school student, readiness for physical and mental stress is typical. Physical development favors the formation of skills and abilities in work and sports, opens up wide opportunities for choosing a profession. Along with this, physical development has an impact on the development of some personality traits. For example, the awareness of their physical strength, health and attractiveness affects the formation of high self-esteem, self-confidence, cheerfulness, etc. in young men and women, on the contrary, the awareness of their physical weakness sometimes causes them to withdraw, self-doubt, pessimism.

A senior student is on the verge of entering an independent life. This creates a new social development situation. The task of self-determination, of choosing one's own path in life is faced by a senior schoolchild as a task of paramount importance. High school students are looking to the future. This new social position changes for them the significance of the teaching, its tasks and content. Older students evaluate the educational process in terms of what it gives for their future. They start out looking at school differently than teenagers.

In senior school age, a fairly strong connection is established between professional and academic interests. In a teenager, educational interests determine the choice of a profession, while in older schoolchildren, the opposite is observed: the choice of a profession contributes to the formation of educational interests, a change in attitudes towards educational activity. In connection with the need for self-determination, schoolchildren have a need to understand their surroundings and in themselves, to find the meaning of what is happening. In senior grades, students move on to mastering theoretical, methodological foundations, various academic disciplines.

A characteristic of the educational process is the systematization of knowledge in various subjects, the establishment of interdisciplinary connections. All this creates the basis for mastering the general laws of nature and social life, which leads to the formation of a scientific worldview. The senior student in his educational work confidently uses various mental operations, reasoning logically, memorizing meaningfully. At the same time, the cognitive activity of high school students has its own characteristics. If a teenager wants to know what this or that phenomenon is, then the senior student seeks to understand different points of view on this issue, to form an opinion, to establish the truth. Older students get bored if there are no tasks for the mind. They love to explore and experiment, create and create new, original.

Senior schoolchildren are interested not only in questions of theory, but in the very course of analysis, methods of proof. They like it when the teacher forces you to choose a solution between different points of view, requires substantiation of certain statements; they readily, even happily, enter into an argument and stubbornly defend their position.

The most frequent and favorite content of disputes and intimate conversations among high school students are ethical and moral problems. They are not interested in any specific cases, they want to know their fundamental essence. The searches of older students are imbued with impulses of feeling, their thinking is passionate. High school students largely overcome the involuntary nature of adolescents, impulsiveness in the manifestation of feelings. A stable emotional attitude towards different aspects of life, towards comrades and towards adults is consolidated, favorite books, writers, composers, favorite melodies, paintings, sports, etc. appear, and at the same time antipathy towards some people, dislike for a certain type of activity etc.

During high school age, there are changes in feelings of friendship, camaraderie, and love. A characteristic feature of the friendship of high school students is not only common interests, but also the unity of views and beliefs. Friendship is intimate: a good friend becomes an irreplaceable person, friends share their innermost thoughts. Even more than in adolescence, high demands are made on a friend: a friend must be sincere, faithful, faithful, always come to the rescue.

At this age, friendship develops between boys and girls, which sometimes develops into love. Boys and girls strive to find the answer to the question: what is true friendship and true love. They argue a lot, prove the correctness of certain provisions, take an active part in evenings of questions and answers, in disputes.

At the senior school age, aesthetic feelings, the ability to emotionally perceive and love beauty in the surrounding reality, change noticeably: in nature, in art, in public life. Developing aesthetic feelings soften the sharp manifestations of the personality of boys and girls, help to get rid of unattractive manners, vulgar habits, contribute to the development of sensitivity, responsiveness, gentleness, restraint.

The social orientation of the student is strengthening, the desire to benefit society, other people. This is evidenced by the changing needs of older students. In 80 percent of junior schoolchildren, personal needs predominate, and only in 20 percent of cases do students express a desire to do something useful for others, but close people (for family members, comrades). In 52 percent of cases, teenagers would like to do something for others, but again for the people of their immediate environment. At senior school age, the picture changes significantly. The majority of high school students indicate their desire to help school, city, village, state, and society.

The collective of peers has a huge influence on the development of the senior pupil. However, this does not reduce the need for communication with adults in older students. On the contrary, their searches for communication with adults are even higher than in other age periods. The desire to have an adult friend is explained by the fact that it is very difficult to solve the problems of self-awareness and self-determination oneself. These issues are vividly discussed in a circle of peers, but the benefits of such a discussion are relative: life experience is small, and then the experience of adults comes to the rescue.

Older students make very high demands on the moral character of a person. This is due to the fact that in senior school age a more holistic idea of ​​oneself and the personality of others is created, the circle of perceived social and psychological qualities of people, and especially classmates, is expanding.

Demanding to the people around and strict self-esteem testify to the high level of self-awareness of the senior student, and this, in turn, leads the senior student to self-education. Unlike adolescents, high school students clearly manifest a new feature - self-criticism, which helps them to more strictly and objectively control their behavior. Boys and girls strive to deeply understand their character, feelings, actions and deeds, correctly assess their characteristics and develop the best personality traits, the most important and valuable from a social point of view.

Early adolescence is a time for further strengthening of the will, the development of such traits of volitional activity as purposefulness, perseverance, and initiative. At this age, self-control and self-control are strengthened, control over movement and gestures is enhanced, due to which high school students and outwardly become more fit than adolescents.

Thus, we can say that the characteristic features of adolescence are:

Ethical maximalism.

Internal freedom.

Aesthetic and ethical idealism.

Artistic, creative nature of the perception of reality.

Selflessness in hobbies.

The desire to know and remake reality.

Nobility and credulity.

This is the age of establishing aesthetic criteria for attitudes towards the surrounding world, the formation of an ideological position based on the choice of priority values. Perception is characterized by the presence of an ethical barrier that rejects all influences that are not consistent with ethical norms.

The value priorities of schoolchildren are determined in the following hierarchical sequence:

High school students (grade 9):

1) love; 2) friendship; 3) God; 4) material goods; 5) family; 6) music (boys - rock music, girls - domestic or foreign pop music); 7) books (50% - magazines, 50% - program school classics: "A Hero of Our Time", etc.); 8) cinema; 9) art; 10) theater.

10-11 grades:

1) family, love, friendship; 2) God; 3) material goods; 4) books (Tolkien, Harry Potter, Tolstoy, Turgenev (according to the school curriculum), music (pop, rock, alternative, rap, classical); 5) cinema, theater, art, sports, computer games, the Internet.

The concept of age characteristics, age boundaries are not absolute - the boundaries of age are mobile, changeable, have a concrete historical character and do not coincide in different socio-economic conditions of personality development.

Each age in human life has certain standards, with the help of which it is possible to assess the adequacy of the development of the individual and which relate to the development of psychophysical, intellectual, emotional and personal.

The age characteristics of the development of students are manifested in different ways in their individual formation. This is due to the fact that schoolchildren, depending on their natural inclinations and living conditions (the relationship between biological and social), differ significantly from each other. That is why the development of each of them, in turn, is characterized by significant individual differences and characteristics that must be taken into account in the learning process.

It is very important to know the features of the cognitive activity of students, the properties of their memory, inclinations and interests, as well as the predisposition to more successful study of certain subjects. Taking these features into account, an individual approach to students in learning is carried out: the stronger need additional classes in order to develop their intellectual abilities more intensively: the weakest students need to be provided with individual assistance, to develop their memory, intelligence, cognitive activity, etc.

Much attention must be paid to the study of the sensory and emotional sphere of students and in a timely manner to identify those who are characterized by increased irritability, react painfully to comments, and are unable to maintain friendly contacts with comrades. No less important is knowledge of the typology of the character of each student, which will help to take it into account when organizing collective activities, distributing social assignments and overcoming negative traits and qualities.

In our opinion, one of the important reasons for the catastrophic deterioration of the health of modern students is also insufficient consideration of the age and individual characteristics of schoolchildren when organizing their educational and cognitive activities. It is the wrong organization and regulation of intellectual and informational loads that lead to overwork of schoolchildren, and as a result - to malaise and various kinds of diseases.

P / p No.	Concept	Definition
	Age	category, meaning a qualitatively specific stage of development of ontogenetic
2	Age features	specific properties of the personality of an individual, his psyche, which naturally change in the course of changing age stages of development
3	Age periods	stage of development
4	Age norms	an established measure, the average value of any feature, with the help of which it is possible to assess the adequacy of the psychophysical, intellectual, emotional and personal development of an individual
5	Development	the process and result of the transition to a new, more perfect quality state, from simple to complex, from lower to higher
6	Individual characteristics	a unique set of more or less standard psychological qualities characteristic of an individual
7	Readiness to learn	the presence of certain knowledge, abilities, skills, as well as the readiness to counteract the obstacles arising during this process
8	The game	an individual's activity aimed at the conditional modeling of a certain expanded activity
9	Perception	holistic reflection of objects, phenomena, situations and events in their sensually accessible temporal and spatial connections and relationships
10	Thinking	one of the highest manifestations of the mental, the process of cognitive activity of the individual, the process of modeling non-random relationships of the external world, characteristic of a generalized and indirect reflection of reality; it is an analysis, synthesis, generalization of the conditions and requirements of the problem being solved and ways to solve it
11	Attention	the concentration of the subject's activity at a given moment on some real or ideal object - an object, event, image, reasoning, etc.
12	Values	a concept used to designate objects, phenomena, their properties, as well as abstract ideas that embody social ideals and thereby act as a standard of due
13	Imitation	following an example, a pattern; self-copying of actions perceived by others
14	Puberty	ontogenetically developing complex of biological, somatic, reproductive, sociocultural and behavioral characteristics that ensure the individual personal, social and legal status of men and women
15	Motive	motivation for activities related to meeting the needs of the subject; a set of external or internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine its direction
16	Maturity	the state to which the body and personality comes at the end of the developmental period
17	Social development situation	the system of the subject's relations, specific for each age period, in reality social, reflected in his experiences and realized by him in joint activities with other people
18	Team	a group of people united by common goals and objectives, having reached a joint high level of development in the process of activity
19	Self-awareness	a person's awareness of his social status and his vital needs
20	Self-education	conscious activity aimed at the fullest possible realization of oneself as a person, the development by a person in himself of such personal qualities that seem desirable

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The social situation of development in primary school age was considered by V.V. Davydov. By his definition, primary school age is a special period in a child's life that has emerged relatively recently. There was no age division into groups earlier, since the children did not attend lessons at school. Also, those children for whom primary school was the first and last educational stage of education did not have it. The description of this age can be attributed to the introduction of the education system, including universal and compulsory incomplete and complete secondary education. The system and composition of secondary education, including its tasks, have not yet been finally determined. For this reason, the psychological characteristics of primary school age as the initial stage of school childhood are also not considered final and unchanged. As V.V. Davydov, only a few of the most characteristic features of this age can be identified.

The topic of primary school age was studied most deeply in the works of D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov. Their colleagues and followers, including L.I. Aydarova, A.K. Dusavitsky, A.K. Markova, Yu.A. Poluyanova, V.V. Repkin, V.V. Rubtsova, G.A. Zuckerman and others.

This topic must be considered from those features that are characteristic of the time when the child comes to school. As the researcher of this topic D. B. Elkonin emphasized, at this moment the whole system of relations between the child and reality is being rebuilt. The student has 2 main areas of social relations: "child - adult" and "child - children". These areas relate to play activity, while the outcome of the play does not affect the relationship between the child and the parents. Relationships in the children's team are also not able to influence relationships with parents. They exist in parallel, without having to do with hierarchical relationships. However, it is important to consider that the well-being of children directly depends on harmony within the family.

The school forms a new structure of these relationships, while there is a differentiation of the system "child - adult" is differentiated (Fig. 1).

Picture 1... Differentiated with the system "child - teacher"

The relationship between the child and the parents, including the child's attitude to other children, is determined by the "child - teacher" system (Fig. 2).

Figure 2... Defining system "child - teacher"

Experimentally this was reflected in their studies by B.G. Ananiev, L.I. Bozhovich, I.S. Slavin. Excellent, "five" behavior and good grades are a demonstration of what forms the relationship between a child and adults, peers. The first thing that an adult will ask a child is: "How do you learn?"

Remark 1

For this reason, the "child - teacher" system constructs the center of the child's life, on which the system of all favorable conditions for life depends.

In general, the child-teacher system permeates the entire life of the child. When it’s good at school, it’s going to be good at home, so it’s also good with children.

Initially, the child-teacher relationship forms the child-society relationship. Relationships in the family presuppose inequality in relationships, in kindergarten an adult appears as an individual, in school years, the principle “all are equal before the law” is applied. The teacher embodies social demands, and the school has a system of equal standards, equal measures for assessment. As for the pre-revolutionary school, teachers there acted as representatives of the state not only in accordance with their functions. This was very clearly emphasized with the help of their uniform (uniform).

From the very beginning, the school should have a system of clear, definite relationships based on the adopted rules. Building such a system at that time was very difficult. Hegel believed that coming to school represented the bringing of a person to a social norm. The school, on the other hand, assumed a law common to all. D.B. Elkonin believed that children are very sensitive to how teachers treat them. When they notice that the teacher has favorites, the teacher's halo can fade. At the first stage, the child will try to strictly follow the instructions of the teacher. Assuming loyalty to the rule on his part, it is destroyed from within. The child begins to relate to other children from the position of how he relates to the standard introduced by the teacher. This is how sneaks appear.

The main contradiction of age (developmental task), namely the contradiction of the social situation of the development of a child of primary school age, is similar to a contradiction that already took place at an early age. In both cases, we can note the skills and knowledge, social in content, which should become the individual property of the child. Nevertheless, primary school age is characterized by the child's assimilation of science and culture accumulated by mankind throughout history and enshrined in the corresponding forms of society's consciousness. It is no longer possible to work with them as with material objects. These items do not line up like cubes, with which various manipulations are possible. Knowledge can be considered abstract and theoretical, so you need to learn to act with it.

The leading type of activity is necessary for solving the main problem of development. It involves a special activity called educational. Learning activity is an activity for the assimilation of knowledge. However, this characteristic cannot be considered sufficient. A preschooler assimilates knowledge in the same way as a student, for example, in a didactic game. Preschool age presupposes assimilation as an indirect product of some other activity. Learning activity begins only at school age, not being fully formed in all children and not always. Children’s disorganization has often been noted by educators and psychologists, including the child’s lack of productive ways of mental work. For this reason, failure manifests itself, there is no motivation and volitional efforts, self-esteem falls.

V.V. Davydov in the history of the development of education identified 2 theories of learning: associative-reflex and activity.

The associative-reflex theory is based on the concepts of association, reflex and the 5th formula. In accordance with this theory, the formation of elementary scientific concepts occurs through the imprinting of sensory impressions, their comparison with each other, the isolation of common properties and their designation by means of words. The fate of the associative-reflex theory was largely decided by American behaviorism. He introduced into the teaching scheme the need to reinforce the results of the exercise, create problem situations, design a way out of such situations by reinforcing correct reactions ("programmed learning"). Until now, the associative-reflex theory of learning has retained its scientific and practical significance, acquiring special influence with the emergence of a mass school, where students were required to master empirical knowledge that is necessary for practical life.

The modern society of students increasingly requires the formation of a different type of knowledge and thinking - theoretical. This need is satisfied only by education that is consistently guided by the theory of learning of the activity type. It is based on the concepts of "action", "task", "problem solving". According to Davydov's definition, an action requires the transformation of a certain object by the subject. A task is a goal that has been presented in certain conditions of its own achievement. The solution of the problem is the search by the subject of a certain action, through which the conditions of the problems can thus be transformed so that the required goal is achieved.

Both theories of teaching according to V.V. Davydova can be compared in Figure 3. It reveals the differences between the associative-reflex and activity theory of learning in several parameters, including the learning process, claims, the nature of learning, etc.

Figure 3... Comparison of teaching theories

The creation of the most favorable conditions for the formation of educational activity in primary school age occurs when the construction of education takes place on the basis of the activity theory of learning. The learning activity itself is not given in a finished form. The development of learning activities when a child visits school for the first time does not start immediately. It needs to be shaped. Along with the fact that the individual must be able to work, he must be able to learn. Learning independently can be a particularly important problem. The very process of constructing educational activities is the task of the elementary school. It consists in teaching the child to learn.

The first difficulty in this is that the motive according to which children come to school has nothing to do with the content of the activities that they must perform at school. There is no correspondence between the motive and the content of educational activity. For this reason, gradually the motive gradually begins to lose its strength, not starting to work sometimes even by the beginning of the second grade. The teaching should be built with the presence of a connection between its motive and its own internal content of the subject of assimilation. There remains a motive for socially evaluated activity as a common motive. Nevertheless, according to D. B. Elkonin, the motivation for learning should be due to the content that children are taught at school. Cognitive motivation must be created. Its formation is very much connected with the content and methods of teaching. In the case of using traditional teaching methods, the formation of cognitive motivation may not occur. At the same time, the transformation of an activity that at that time is not educational into an educational one as a prerequisite is characterized by a change in motive. Unfortunately, in schools, most often work occurs through the methods of external incentives, while the mark acts as an external incentive, that is, there is a compulsory system at school. The real motivation can be seen when the child rushes to school. There he will be interested, good, pleasant and informative. For this purpose, changes of a radical and radical nature in the teaching school system are necessary, which happened under the leadership of Elkonin D.B. and Davydov V.V. in the 1960-1970s. in experimental schools.

Characteristics and structure of educational activities

Any activity is characterized by its subject. It may seem that its subject is a generalized experience of knowledge, which is differentiated by individual sciences. The question arises, what objects are subject to changes on the part of the children themselves? The paradox of educational activity is that when assimilating knowledge, the child himself does not change anything in this knowledge. Here, for the first time, he himself becomes the subject of changes in educational activity as a subject who carries out this activity. For the first time, a child acts as a self-changing subject for himself. Learning activity is an activity that turns the child towards himself. It requires reflection, an assessment of what it was and what it has become. A change of its own is highlighted for the subjects themselves as a new subject.

Remark 2

The main thing in educational activity is the child's turn towards himself, the decision of the question whether he has become for himself a subject that changes every day, every hour.

Assessment of one's changes, reflection on oneself is the subject of its own educational activity. For this reason, any learning activity begins with assessing the child. A grade is a form of assessment. Sh.A. Amonashvili, an experimental training was organized without marks. At the same time, training without grades cannot be considered training without grades, because they are always there and should be maximized. With the help of assessment, the subject identifies himself as an object of changes in educational activity.

The structure of educational activities includes:

• learning task, which is what the student learns. In accordance with the definition of V.V. Davydov, the educational task forces the child to search for a common way to solve all problems of this type. For example, a student is asked to determine the ratio of two quantities: T and A, with the condition that T = A - Y. Solving such problems, the student must first of all master the general methods of analyzing relationships, subsequently applying them to particular problems, that is, actions with numbers ;
• educational actions, which are changes in the educational material that are needed for the student to master it (what students must do to discover the properties of the subject being studied. first of all, it must transform the conditions of the problem so as to find general relations in the educational material. Next, the selected relations are modeled, their presentation in subject, graphic or letter form. based on a system of private problems that are solved in a general way;
• a control action in the form of an indication of whether the students are correctly performing actions that should conform to the pattern. In the course of the formation of educational activity, the student can move from external control on the part of an adult to self-control. Self-control includes predictive control (before starting work), step-by-step control (in the process of work), final control (at the end of work);
• the action of assessment in the form of determining the degree of achievement of the result by the student. In the learning process, the assessment transitions to the level of self-esteem, which can be either adequate or inadequate, as well as global and differentiated, predictive and final.

There are several forms of educational activities. It is not given to the student from the very beginning; it is necessary to build it. At the initial stage, its form consists in the joint activity of a teacher and a student. Similarly to the development of object-related actions in early ages, we can say that initially everything is concentrated in the hands of the teacher, who "acts with the hands of the student." Nevertheless, at school age, the implementation of activities occurs with ideal objects (number, sounds), and the teacher's “hands” (“his brain.” Learning activity is represented by the same objective activity, but this subject is theoretical, ideal. For this reason, difficulties arise For its implementation, materialization of objects is necessary, without which actions with them are impossible (according to the research of VV Davydov, NG Salmina.) The development of educational activity is the transfer of individual links from teacher to student.

The activity, which is initially divided between the participants, initially acts as the basis for the formation of the activity of the intellect, becoming in the future a form of existence of a new mental function. According to the research of L.S. Vygotsky's higher mental functions are based on joint activity, arising from the form of collective relationships and interaction. "The psychological nature of people is represented by the totality of human relations, which are transferred inside and become functions of the personality and forms of its structure" (Vygotsky). Thus, joint activity can be considered a necessary stage and internal mechanism of an individual's activity. With the distribution of activities and the mutual exchange of methods of action, relationships can be considered a psychological basis, which is the driving force in the development of a person's own activity.

The construction of this joint activity, where the relationship "child - teacher" and "child - child" are characterized by differentiation. In accordance with the research of G.A. Zuckerman of the role of cooperation with peers in the mental development of younger schoolchildren, experimental data were obtained.

Example 1

Thus, children who work together in the classroom are 2 times better at assessing their capabilities and level of knowledge. We can say that they have a great success in the formation of reflective actions, if we compare them with students who are trained in the traditional way. The material for the research was presented by experimental teaching of the Russian language to 1st grade pupils. A comparison was made between the experimental and control class. The teacher in the experimental class worked with a group of children working together, while his main task was to organize business communication between students about the material under study. In the control class, the students were engaged in the traditional frontal method, in accordance with which the teacher's influence was directed separately to each child. The collective form of education built on cooperation is able to remove the contradictions between the visibility of joint learning and the real individual orientation of traditional education.

The conclusion about the better mastering of educational material by students in joint work with peers than with teachers is consistent with the research of J. Piaget. He singled out the relationship between the child and peers in communication, opposing them to the relationship "child - adult". The peer group is characterized by equality and symmetry of relations, and the relationship between a child and an adult (to what extent they are democratic) are hierarchical and asymmetrical. The scientist argued that criticality, tolerance, the ability to understand the position of another, can be developed only in the process of communication between children. Only by dividing the points of view of persons who are equal for the child (first of other children, and later, as they grow older, and adults) are genuine logic and morality able to replace egocentrism, as well as logical and moral realism.

G.A. Zuckerman has developed a hypothesis according to which cooperation with peers is qualitatively different from cooperation with adults. Moreover, it is a necessary condition for the mental development of children. In the relationship between a child and an adult, the separation of functions is inevitable, while the adult sets goals, monitoring and evaluating the actions of the child. Thus, children perform any actions first with adults, then the degree of help from adults decreases. The internalization of the action takes place and the child performs it himself. At the same time, a vicious circle arises in which a child without an adult is not able to master new actions, but with the participation of adults is not able to fully master the actions. This is due to the fact that certain components of the action, including assessment and control, remain with adults. For this reason, the help of an adult is insufficient for the interiorization of all aspects of object-related actions.

Note that the child often makes mistakes in actions that seem to be formed (they do not need meaningful help). At the same time, they can easily search for and correct these mistakes, but only if prompted by an adult. Zuckerman explained this by the fact that the teacher conveys the entire operational composition of the action, while remaining the holder of the goal and meanings. As long as the teacher is the central point of the learning situation, he has control and the "last word", that is, learning actions are not completely internalized.

In a different way, cooperation with peers than with adults influences the process of interiorization. Different modes of cooperation are designed to "serve" different types of activities. The researcher considered cooperation with peers as a mediating link in the beginning of the formation of a new action when working with an adult and as a completely independent intrapsychic result of formation.

In the case of cooperation with peers, the position of equal communication allows one to gain experience in control and evaluative actions and statements.

Example 2

Zuckerman compared learning outcomes in two classes, including the experimental class (with team learning) and the control class (frontal learning). The task consisted in the selection of words for the selected spelling rule. The experimental class worked in pairs, with the two having to come up with words for their two neighbors, subsequently exchanging tasks. Each student performed both his own and the teacher's part of the work (composing a spelling task, checking, evaluating the work of other students, explaining, listening to explanations, etc.). He was in both the teaching and student roles. Thus, the child mastered not only the operational composition of actions, but also their meanings and goals, including learning relationships. The work of the control class was carried out using a problematic method. At the same time, the teacher organized a discussion with the creation of conditions for the independent formulation, solution and verification of specific spelling problems by children. The teacher encouraged independence in an attempt to create an atmosphere of intellectual equality. Nevertheless, when tested, the experimental class showed the best result. To a greater extent, progress was characteristic of the so-called "average" students.

Zuckerman explained this by the fact that the group in question had mastered operational actions earlier, and in the course of collective learning, the mastery of control also occurred.

Carrying out a qualitative analysis of the interaction of children, Zuckerman identified 2 main characteristics of this activity:

• independence from adults. Adults organize work by "launching", and subsequently the child works on his own (in contrast to frontal learning, where the teacher provides motivation, direction, control, assessment, etc.). Children turn to teachers very rarely, only in extreme cases. Thus, the student-teacher relationship is changing, in which children do not want to constantly cooperate with adults, working on their own. It is possible to note the children's appeal, first of all, to their peers. With this help, the position of the peer, his point of view, is taken into account, which contributes to decentration. All this leads to the development of reflexive actions;
• the child's focus is not so much on the outcome as on the mode of action (partner and his own). In this process, the interaction of students is built in the form of a "teacher council situation", where children are teachers in different classes, discussing among themselves, according to what rules to give assignments to the corresponding class. A high level of motivation of cooperation participants can be noted. To a greater extent, this was noted on the example of weak students, who became more and more active and interested.

The researcher analyzed the interaction of children, including their characteristics from the standpoint of their influence on mental development in the course of genetic modeling experiments. Zuckerman's experiments reflected the need for cooperation with peers in order to form control and evaluative actions of children. At the early stage of mastering actions, children need adult help, as they master the actions, they begin to perform them partially on their own. This is due to the fact that the components of the action, represented by the function of control and evaluation, remain with the adult, not being transmitted to the children in full. To master these actions, the child needs to take the position of an adult, which is possible only in cooperation with other children (peers).

Remark 3

Thus, an essential condition for the interiorization of actions is joint action with the transition of all components from adults to children.

However, the conducted studies were unable to answer the question about the influence of cooperation with peers on the development of a student's thinking.

Based on experiments, V.V. Rubtsov concluded that cooperation and coordination of points of view is the basis of the origin of the intellectual structure. The form of cooperation represented by the type of distribution of activities can perform the function of modeling, including the content of the intellectual structure in the relations of the participants in the activity. The basis in the selection and assimilation of the content of the intellectual structure is represented by the redistribution of activities. In this case, children turn to the organization of a certain joint activity, revealing the universal nature of the subject transformation for the participants in the common work. The need for redistribution manifests itself in the event of contradictions between the method of organizing joint activities and the products of this activity that do not meet the requirements of the tasks. Redistribution requires finding new ways to work together. The applied method is able to provide the selection of links of cooperation of actions in joint activities and the content of thinking. Thanks to this, the study of the formation of thinking takes place.

Definition 1

Developed form of educational activity represents a form where the subject sets the task of his own change. This is the goal of learning, which is to change the student.

G.A. Zuckerman analyzed the psychological and pedagogical conditions for the emergence of the ability to learn in children. She showed that with the scientific organization of educational activity, the special design of a school subject, children of primary school age are able to master not only general actions with concepts, but also methods of interaction common to all members of this activity. She assumed that "the specificity of educational interaction lies in the appearance of the educational initiative of schoolchildren, who themselves can point out to adults the contradictions between the conditions of the tasks set by adults and the methods of action that the child has." Zuckerman formed the principles of constructing a school subject, thanks to which the child masters not only the content, but also what is especially important, that is, the forms of educational activity.

Educational activities and other activities of primary school students are linked through:

Learning activities and games

In preschool age, learning is not a leading activity. In the course of the relationship between play and study in preschool age, play becomes dominant. In preschool age, a peculiar form of educational activity occurs, that is, teaching in didactic games. Separate educational tasks are singled out in them.

It is wrong to believe that at school age the game completely loses its own meaning: it remains, but there are significant changes in the nature of the game itself. In the process of transition from preschool to primary school age, the role of play grows with the achievement of a certain result (sports play, intellectual play). The role of play in the psychology of a child at school has long been underestimated due to its hidden nature. Younger school age is characterized by the transition from games in terms of external action to games in the form of imagination. In addition, the ratio of these two activities is changing at school. So, the game now begins to be subordinate to educational activities. V.V. Veresaev wrote in his memoirs that when, when memorizing irregular Latin verbs, he tried to play around with them. He represented verbs in the form of military bastions, repeating them until the moment when they were destroyed. From this performance it became easier for him to live!

Psychologically, this is easily explainable, because most human actions are concentrated on very distant results, with very distant motivation. Both in learning and in work, this is very difficult for an adult, and even more so for young children. Different forms of play make it possible to make the meaning of things more explicit for the child. Through play, children are able to bring the meaning of these things closer to themselves. For the primary school age, play continues to have, albeit auxiliary, but still essential. This allows the individual to master a high social motive of behavior.

Today, computer games are widespread, in which children of different ages are involved. In relation to games in the public mind, an ambiguous attitude remains. It is more interesting to determine the opinion of the children themselves who are fond of this activity. An example can be seen in the form of reasoning on this about a teenage boy:

“A person who respects and understands computer games will never be able to agree with people who have never played them, especially if they are biased. The bias towards games is not surprising, for which there are a large number of objective and seemingly undeniable causes, including violence, harm to health, waste of time, which often includes the inability to "disconnect" from the game. A person can already stop playing, while talking and thinking only about the game. But, oddly enough, many statements are easily disputed. "

A computer game can be considered a unique thing that has no analogue among games all over the world. In no game does a person have such freedom, nowhere else does he participate in such diverse events, influencing them. Many people are capable of achieving great success in a particular field, but the spectrum of both people and fields is strictly limited. Many people want to be in the shoes of a millionaire, racer, pilot, secret agent, strategist, president, etc. It is important that in a game, unlike in life, a person does not assume any responsibility. In the game, you can create different things, while in reality there will be no problems. For example, a sniper or a sapper has no right to make mistakes, but a gamer, on the contrary. For this reason, complex problems are solved with the help of logical thinking, honing skills, trial and error. A person gets maximum pleasure when passing the game at a high level of difficulty (another thing is that he is not feasible for everyone, therefore he changes in many games), since the absence of problems usually quickly gets boring. So, the player during the game can get out of such a number of desperate situations that this cannot be imagined in reality.

The game is also characterized by high speed and lack of preparation. In reality, in order to achieve a certain goal, it is required to overcome a large number of everyday household difficulties with a huge number of training sessions. Nothing of the kind is needed for computer games, there are mainly active actions, which leads to their popularity. " (Zhenya Obukhov, 15 years old, from the family archive)

Remark 4

Note that the game should in no way replace real life, only its dilution is permissible ...

Learning activities and labor

Due to the restructuring of the school, this problem becomes extremely important. The child's participation in labor can have a significant impact on the assimilation of knowledge. One of the main negative features of mastering knowledge at school is formalism. Children seem to assimilate knowledge, defining scientific formulations, illustrating them with examples. However, this knowledge is not used in practice. When a child faces a life task, he most often resorts to everyday ideas, since the school does not organize activities to apply this knowledge in practice.

An important role in shaping the personality of schoolchild L.I. Bozovic gave work, while the task of the school was not so much to give the appropriate amount of knowledge, but to educate the child in a moral way. In the course of study, the school forms valuable qualities, while educational activity in itself is not able to fully form these qualities, without having favorable conditions for this. In the process of labor, the social result is a real objective, material form. At the same time, the need for joint efforts of the team to achieve certain results is more tangibly manifested. For this reason, work is of particular importance in the formation of moral personality traits.

When diagnosing the degree of formation of educational activity in the younger schoolchild Berzfan, studies were carried out, in the process of which the H.H. Poddyakov.

Example 3

The child was offered a labyrinth, in which, depending on a certain trajectory, it was necessary to bring out the figure of a man. The maze was connected to a remote control with 4 buttons, which made it possible to move the figure up (1), down (2), right (3), left (4). The first series posed a practical task for the child, where the goal was achieved through practical trials. After three unmistakable attempts to achieve the goal, the labyrinth changed to another, then the child again began to make mistakes. He was asked to lead the figurine as many times as needed to guide it flawlessly through any maze. In order to achieve this result, the child had to carry out 251 tests within 33 minutes. The second series consisted in solving the "educational" problem, where the subject was offered 1 labyrinth, where he made a mistake. He was told that he could not do this by taking the maze and leaving a clean model. The experimenters asked the children to learn, while the subject set the value using the buttons. The experimenter again set up the labyrinth, and the subject worked with errors. The experimenter cleared the maze again, and the subject worked with the model. In this case, the efficiency of task execution became higher, the number of samples decreased to 101, and the time to 20 minutes.

The question of why the efficiency in the second case turned out to be higher is explained by the fact that he had a different task before him. While solving the first practical task, the child was mainly oriented towards the order of pressures, which was changing all the time; in the second case, the orientation was towards the system of functional relations, on which the order depended. Thus, it can be considered the most effective change in orientation from a practical result to the formation of a cognitive result. This research as a whole can be presented in the form of a model of a learning situation. Unfortunately, the school is more inherent in a pragmatic approach that focuses on the result of the action. The subject of assimilation in the process of solving educational problems is an orientation towards the mode of action, which allows the child to reveal the relationship of individual aspects of reality.

Output

Educational activity focuses not on the result, but outlines the methods of its assimilation (the opinion of D.B. Elkonin). These methods are presented as important tools for independent mental activity, making the work of geniuses available to everyone.

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