During the years of the reign of the new emperor, a fairly large number of reforms were undertaken, which were designed to change the system of government, improve education and the life of the people as a whole. They were partially effective and played a significant role in raising the cultural level of the state. The reforms of Alexander I are briefly described in this article.

The reign of Alexander 1

In the history of Russia, like many other states, a new ruler often came to the throne through a series of intrigues, conspiracies, and even death. The emperor is the son of Catherine the Great and Peter Fedorovich (who was a grandson was killed in 1801 by conspirators. the reign of Paul 1. The liberal reforms of Alexander 1, briefly indicated in the table, did not evoke support from everyone.

Reforms of Alexander 1 - summary

The early 19th century was characterized by an autocratic-serf system and the search for a new way of political and socio-economic life. Alexander 1 got the state in a difficult both external and internal situation. Upon coming to the throne, he abolished the Secret Chancellery, banned torture and corporal punishment (for nobles and merchants). Also, many prisoners were released from the Peter and Paul Fortress.

If we talk about the reforms of Alexander I briefly, then from the beginning of the reign long-awaited hopes were justified - Russia saw liberal initiatives. In the same year, the task of which is formed is to discuss pressing issues life of Russians, in the center of which is serfdom, the spread of education, state reforms. According to the tsarist decree, a project on the cancellation is being developed, but real actions contradict these intentions.

Reforms of Alexander 1 in brief - table

	Political amnesty. Abolition of the Secret Chancellery.
	Replacement of the collegia (created by Peter 1) by ministries under the strict autocracy of the minister. Creation of the Committee of Ministers.
	As for the landlords, they can release the peasants with the land, while the latter must pay a ransom.
	Introduction of a new regulation regarding the device educational institutions... Schools of various levels (parish, county schools, gymnasiums, universities) receive succession. Founding of five universities - Vilna, Derpt, Kharkov, Petersburg and Kazan. Before that, there was Moscow.
	Universities are endowed with significant autonomy. Now they can choose professors and rectors, make their own decisions about their affairs. In the same year - the publication of the censorship charter of a liberal nature.
	Reform has begun in the Baltics. The results were not in line with expectations, since the implementation was not properly monitored.
	The granting of a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland.

These are the most important reforms Alexander 1 briefly. The table contains most of them. Speransky became a remembered personality during the period. However, his project regarding state reforms, which would radically change the life of the state, namely, the involvement of society in ruling the country, did not like the emperor and the ruling elite. In 1812, Speransky was expected to be removed from office and exiled. Speaking briefly about the reforms of Alexander I, it is also worth mentioning that they were not ready to allow a radical change in the way of life.

Changes in education

Since the 20s of the 19th century, radical actions began in relation to educational institutions. In 1821, the previously created universities - Kazan, Moscow, were destroyed. The professors were overtaken by dismissal and trial. The Ministry of Spiritual Affairs, created in 1817, controlled all institutions of upbringing and education. The permission to import books and the creation of printing houses gave impetus to the development of education.

A significant step was the ministerial reforms of Alexander 1. Summary them: through the creation of organs central administration a strictly subordinate chain appeared, which was characterized by individual power. The collegial meetings were replaced by ministers, each of whom was subordinate and accountable for their activities to the Senate. This was an attempt to rebuild the management system as a whole. This measure proved to be effective in part - central control was strengthened, but the person's greedy nature took over. The embezzlement of the state, the irresponsibility of senior officials, and bribery reappeared. Ancient human vices found their way into the new system.

Military settlements

In 1816, Alexander I came up with a way through which he was going to reduce spending on the army - military settlements. People in these settlements were required to simultaneously carry out military service and cultivate the land. The place was chosen quickly - the state lands of the provinces of Mogilev, Novgorod, Petersburg and Kharkov. If we briefly describe the military reforms of Alexander I, then we can say that the position of the army has deteriorated.

Importance of reforms

During the reign, the first steps were taken to restructure the government, but they were notable for their uncertainty. However, thanks to the transformations in education, the changes that took place in the second half of the 19th century and went down in history under the name of "great reforms" became possible. The cultural level of society increased, the number of educated people in the state increased, who understood how necessary changes were.

The state reforms of Alexander 1 can be briefly described as follows - a large number of formations occurred in the country, and the new ruler acted more deliberately than his predecessor. The emperor and his entourage pursued two goals - they tried to equalize the estates in the eyes of the law, and also sought to unite them in joint activities. However, a difficult time, during which wars and changes in the political structure fell, put pressure on the financial condition of the country, which, in turn, was reflected in the amount of rent asked from the people. In order to improve the improvement of the state, new laws were introduced that lowered the well-being of ordinary people.

End of reign

Alexander I was well aware that dissatisfaction with his policy was growing, and it did not lead the state to the desired haste. In the meantime, the international situation is also beginning to heat up. The emperor moves away from business and worries about the country, devotes more and more time to traveling. He died at the age of 48 in Taganrog during a trip.

Alexander I

Russian Emperor Alexander I (1777-1825) ruled Russia from 1801 until his death. Historians also sometimes call it parricide. He seemed to know about the impending palace coup, during which his father, Emperor Paul I, was killed, but did nothing "against" it.
Alexander was destined to reign in difficult times, in Europe there were continuous ("Napoleonic") wars, in Russia the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French bourgeois revolution... The country, as usual, required reforms that, on the one hand, transformed the life and structure of society in accordance with European trends, allowing it to develop in step with the times, on the other hand, they did not in any way affect the interests of the nobility, the support of the throne. Here and go.

Brief biography of Alexander I

• 1777 December 12 - born. Father - Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich, mother - Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna.

  Alexander's grandmother, Catherine the Great, took the child away from his parents, deciding to raise him according to her own understanding, since she did not consider her son Paul capable of ruling Russia

• 1784, March 13 - Catherine II completed work on the "Instruction on the Education of the Great Dukes"

  ... The high birth of their Highnesses (on April 27, 1779, the brother of Alexander Pavlovich, Konstantin was born), more than others, have two great paths: 1st) justice; 2nd) love for one's neighbor; for both, it is most necessary that they have a decent and accurate understanding of things, a sound body and reason ...

• 1784, June 10 - Swiss lawyer F.-C. Laharpe gives Catherine II a pedagogical note, prepared on the basis of her "Instruction"; soon Laharpe was appointed tutor of the great dukes

  Colonel Laharpe, a Swiss republican, an admirer of the abstract ideas of French educational philosophy, was elected the main mentor, educator of the political thought of the great dukes. He told children about the power of reason, the good of mankind, the contractual origin of the state, the natural equality of people, justice, the natural freedom of man, the absurdity and harm of despotism, the vileness of slavery. Mikhail Nikitich Muravyov, an educated person and a not bad writer in the liberal political direction, was invited to teach the Grand Duke the Russian language and history, as well as moral philosophy. General supervision over the behavior and health of the grand dukes was entrusted to General-in-Chief Count N.I. Saltykov, a typical nobleman of the Catherine's school, who knew how to live at court.

• 1792, July 31 - the Baden princess Louise arrived in Russia, who then converted to Orthodoxy and received the name Elizaveta Alekseevna
• 1793, September 28 - marriage of Alexander Pavlovich and Elizabeth Alekseevna
• 1794 October - Lagarpe announced his resignation; a few months later he left Russia
• 1794, November 6 - death. He became the new emperor; Alexander Pavlovich - heir to the throne, appointed military governor-general of St. Petersburg
• 1799, July 27 - Maria Alexandrovna, two-month-old daughter of Alexander and Elizabeth, died in St. Petersburg
• 1801, night from 11 to 12 March - as a result of which Paul I was killed; Alexander I was enthroned
• 1801, March 12 - the new emperor assumed the obligation to rule the people "according to the laws and according to the heart in Bose of the reposed august grandmother of our empress Empress Catherine the Great"

  His accession to the throne aroused the most noisy delight in Russian, mainly noble society; the previous reign for this society was strict Great Lent. Karamzin says that the rumor about the accession of a new emperor was accepted as a message of redemption. The prolonged tension of the nerves from fear was resolved by abundant tears of affection: people on the streets and in houses were crying with joy; when they met, acquaintances and strangers congratulated each other and hugged, as if on the day of bright resurrection.

  Soon the new, 24-year-old emperor became the subject of rave attention and adoration. His very appearance, his appeal, his appearance on the street, as well as the situation, produced a charming effect. For the first time they saw the sovereign walking in the capital on foot, without any retinue and without any adornments, even without a watch, and affably responding to the bows of those he met (N. Klyuchevsky)

  Within a month, Alexander pardoned 156 prisoners, pardoned and allowed 12 thousand of those previously dismissed by Pavel to return to the service, lifted the ban on the import of various goods and products into Russia (including books and musical notes), announced an amnesty for fugitives who had taken refuge abroad, restored the nobility elections, freed priests and deacons from corporal punishment, restored cash benefits for the maintenance of leading scientific institutions - the Free Economic Society (5 thousand rubles) and Russian Academy(6 thousand rubles). On April 2, he restored the effect of the Charter of Charter to the nobility and cities, liquidated the Secret Chancellery (Wikipedia)

• 1802-1807 - diplomatic and military efforts of Alexander, who tried to resist the aggressive policies of Napoleon
• 1807, July 7 - Peace of Tilsit, as a result of which Russia and France turned from enemies into allies
• 1808 January 13 - Alexei Arakcheev became the head of the Ministry of War. Russia annexed Finland.
• 1808, May - Elizaveta Alexandrovna, daughter of Alexander I and Elizabeth Alekseevna, died in infancy.
• 1811, 15 September - the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg was consecrated
• 1812, March 17 - the main reformer of Russia M. Speransky was sent into exile by Alexander
• 1812-1813 - from
• 1813, January 13 - Russian troops led by Alexander I and Kutuzov crossed the Neman. The beginning of the European campaign, victorious for Russian weapons
• 1814, July 25 - Alexander I returned to St. Petersburg
• 1814-1821 - Alexander I is busy with various affairs, concerns, problems (including family) in Russia and Europe
• 1821, May 24 - Alexander I received a denunciation by secret agent Gribovsky about a political conspiracy with a list of participants. Alexander said in French: "It is not for me to punish."
• 1825 September 13 - the royal couple arrived in Taganrog.
• 1825, October 27 - Alexander I suddenly fell ill
• 1825, November 19, 10 hours 50 minutes - the death of Alexander I

Reasons that demanded reforms from Alexander I

• serfdom
• the prevalence of arbitrariness over legality in everyday life
• fuzzy system of government

In (his first) decrees, as well as in private conversations, the emperor expressed the basic rule by which he would be guided: in place of personal arbitrariness, actively establish strict legality. The emperor more than once pointed out the main flaw suffered by the Russian state order; he called this defect "the arbitrariness of our government." To eliminate this deficiency, he pointed out the need for fundamental, i.e., fundamental, laws, which almost did not exist in Russia yet.

Reforms of Alexander the First. Briefly

Even before Alexander's accession to the throne, a group of "young friends" rallied around him, just like him, brought up on the ideals of Rousseau, Locke, Gibbon. They formed a so-called secret committee, which discussed plans for a liberal state reorganization of Russia. The committee included Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubei, Prince A. A. Czartorysky, N. N. Novosiltsev, M. M. Speransky. As a result of the work of Alexander and his associates

• December 12, 1801 - a decree was promulgated on the right to purchase land by merchants, bourgeoisie, state peasants
• September 8, 1802 - eight ministries were established, the heads of which - ministers - individually (and not collectively) made decisions and were personally responsible for them, and the Committee of Ministers was created - a meeting of the emperor with ministers and other high officials on matters of state importance
• September 8, 1802 - the rights of the Senate were expanded: it was declared a "keeper of laws", the highest court
• February 20, 1803 - decree "on free (free) farmers": landowners could release serfs with land for ransom
• 1803 - a new regulation "On the structure of educational institutions" was adopted: a unified system of schools - 4 levels: parish schools (at the church) - 1 year, county schools (for citizens) - 2 years, provincial gymnasiums - 4 years, universities (for noblemen)
• Universities were opened: in Dorpat (1802); in Vilna (1803), in Kharkov and Kazan (1804).
• 1804 - the university charter was adopted, establishing self-government of universities: the election of the rector and professors, its own court, non-interference of the higher administration in the affairs of universities
• Creation of privileged lyceums: Demidovsky in Yaroslavl (1805), Tsarskoselsky near St. Petersburg (1811), Rishilievsky in Odessa (1817), Nezhinsky in Nizhyn (1820).
• 1804 - publication of the liberal censorship charter
• 1809, March 10 - a decree forbidding landowners to exile peasants to Siberia; prohibition to publish advertisements for the sale of peasants
• 1810, January 1 - - established at the suggestion of M. M. Speransky State Council - the highest legislative body Russian Empire which existed until 1917
• 1816 - Decree on the liberation of the peasants of Estonia from serfdom without land
• 1817 - Decree on the liberation of the peasants of Courland from serfdom without land
• 1818 - decree on the liberation of the peasants of Livonia from serfdom without land
• November 27, 1815 - the introduction of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Poland, which was part of the Russian Empire

In 1818, 1819, Count Arakcheev, Admiral Mordvinov and the Minister of Finance and Appanages Guriev, at the behest of the tsar, prepared projects for resolving the peasant question. Approved by Alexander, but not implemented. In 1821, Novosiltsev, on behalf of Alexander I, prepared a draft constitution of Russia "State charter of the Russian Empire", but was not published, and, moreover, was not put into effect

The end of the reforms of Alexander I

Alexander I did not bring his reforms to their logical conclusion. Being between conservatives and liberals, as between a rock and a hard place, overcoming the discontent of progressives, then retrogrades, a fierce struggle with Napoleon undermined the forces of the emperor. After the victory over Napoleon, one feels fatigue and inconsistency in his actions: on the one hand, the desire for a constitution, on the other, military settlements, on the one hand, the return of Speransky from disgrace, on the other, the rise of Arakcheev, whom his contemporaries called "the cursed serpent", "the monster", “The most harmful person in Russia”, mysticism and a suddenly awakened religious zeal - all these character traits and actions brought to naught the reformatory activities of the tsar in his first years of rule.

Alexander I was raised by his grandmother Catherine II in the spirit of the ideas of enlightenment, because of which the emperor became an almost convinced republican. But over time, realizing Russian reality, his reform activities gradually faded away, washed out.

Until 1812, his reform activities were more clear-cut. From 1801 to 1803, he relied on the recommendations of his “young friends”, members of the Secret Committee (A.A. M.M. becomes an adviser to the emperor. Speransky. After the war, Alexander I began to move away from political activities, became interested in mysticism, fell into depression. AA Arakcheev played a significant role at the court at that time. Although reform measures continue during this period, they are significantly reduced.

Projects of liberal reforms M.M. Speransky:

• A To form the country's parliament - the State Duma
• A Apply the principle of separation of powers
• A Apply the principle of electivity in the formation of government bodies (property qualification)
• A The right to acquire real estate in the country and, as property accumulates, to receive broader political rights
• A Maintain the right of legislative initiative and dissolution of parliament for the tsar

According to Speransky, the implementation of his plan was to expand the social base of the monarchy, significantly strengthen the rule of law in the country, while retaining all the basic powers in the hands of the tsar. These transformations, according to the reformer, were to be introduced gradually. But of all the variety of ideas, only one was implemented - in 1810 the State Council was created, although later this body did not develop at all as Speransky had planned. The State Council became a legislative body that was supposed to become a link between the tsar and other branches of government.

But due to the pressure of the conservative nobility, Speransky had to be exiled.

In 1811, the ministries were transformed, namely, their functions and structure were clarified. These measures made it possible to complete the formation of the administrative machine of the Russian Empire.

In addition to Speransky, the development of reforms was entrusted to A.A. Arakcheev in 1818. He proposed to buy up the landowners' land, and from the formed fund to allocate 2 tithes per capita to the peasants. D.A. Guryev assumed the destruction of the peasant community and the creation of a farm. Despite the fact that all these projects remained only on paper, at the request of the Baltic provinces, the emperor abolished serfdom there, turning the peasants into tenants, this showed a certain process towards the emancipation of the Russian castians.

But in addition to the peasant question, Alexander I took up the organization of military settlements according to the Prussian example, work began under the leadership of A.A. Arakcheeva. But this undertaking turned out to be unsuccessful, uprisings broke out twice, the army only reduced its effectiveness.

Alexander I supported domestic economy... In 1807 he issued a decree "On the granting of new benefits to the merchants" - allowing the creation of joint stock companies, merchant meetings, ships. In 1818 he issued a decree on the right of peasants to establish factories and plants.

Thus, the ongoing reforms of Alexander I, although they were "Napoleonic", did not play serious weather.

1) The first quarter XIX v. was marked by the implementation of reforms, primarily in the field government controlled... These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

• Decree "On free farmers";
• ministerial reform;
• preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;
• the granting of the Constitutions to Poland and Bessarabia;
• preparation of the draft of the Russian Constitution and the program for the abolition of serfdom;
• establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration, to search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the public administration system, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant issue and the democratization of the country.

2 ) Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with Paul I's abrupt departure from Catherine's orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by conspirators and Alexander I, the eldest son of Paul and grandson of Catherine, was elevated to the throne. The short and harsh 5-year reign of Paul I is over. At the same time, a return to Catherine's order - the idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backward. The way out of the situation was the implementation of limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

3 ) To prepare reforms in 1801, an unspoken committee was created, which included the closest associates - "young friends" of Alexander I:

• N. Novosiltsev;
• A. Czartoryski;
• P. Stroganov;
• V. Kochubei.

This committee for 4 years (1801 - 1805) was the think tank of the reforms. Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecision of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue that the Secret Committee dealt with in the early years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, of which most of the committee members were supporters. However, after lengthy hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, in 1803, the emperor issued a decree "On free farmers" in 1803, which for the first time in the history of feudal Russia allowed landowners to release peasants for ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Secret Committee were:

• ministerial reform - instead of the Petrine collegia in Russia, ministries of the European model were created;
• reform of the Senate - the Senate became a judicial organ;
• educational reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parish) to gymnasiums, broad rights were given to universities.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was disbanded due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

4 ) In 1809, Alexander I instructed to prepare a new reform plan to Mikhail Speransky, the Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer-state scholar. The aim of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a "constitutional" appearance without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce the European principle of separation of powers in Russia;

to do this, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative branch), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive branch), the Senate (judicial branch);

To elect the State Duma through popular elections, to endow it with legislative functions; to give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

to divide the entire population of Russia into three estates - noblemen, "average state" (merchants, bourgeois, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);

to give suffrage only to nobles and representatives of the "average state";

introduce the system local government- in each province to elect a provincial duma, which would form a provincial council - an executive body;

Senate - supreme Judicial authority- to form from representatives elected by provincial councils, and, thus, to concentrate "popular wisdom" in the Senate;

The Cabinet of Ministers of 8 - 10 ministers should be provided to the emperor, who would personally appoint ministers and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

to make a special body - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of government and would be a "bridge" between them and the emperor, as a connecting link between the three branches of government - the State Duma, the Judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers;

at the top of the entire system of power was to be the emperor - the head of state endowed with broad powers and the arbiter between all branches of government.

Of all Speransky's main proposals, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

in 1810 the Council of State was created, which became a legislative body appointed by the emperor;

at the same time, the ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The rest of the proposals were rejected and remained a plan.

5 ) The turning point in the course of the reforms was the “Note on the Ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations ", sent in 1811 to the emperor famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin's "note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this "Note on Ancient and New Russia" N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, opposed the reforms that would lead to turmoil, and for the preservation and consolidation of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same 1811, Speransky's reforms were terminated. In March 1812 M. Speransky was appointed governor-general of Siberia - in fact, sent into honorary exile.

6 ) After Patriotic War In 1812, reform activities were resumed again. The reforms took place in two directions:

• improvement of the national state structure;
• preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

• Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
• autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - "Charter of the formation of the Bessarabian region."

In the framework of the second direction, in 1818, the preparation of an all-Russian draft of the Constitution began. The work on the preparation of the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - State Charter of the Russian Empire "- contained the following main provisions:

• a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
• a parliament was established - the State Seimas, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Ambassador Chamber;
• The ambassadorial chamber was elected by assemblies of the nobility, after which the deputies were confirmed by the emperor;
• The Senate was fully appointed by the emperor;
• the initiative to propose laws was reserved only for the emperor, but the laws had to be necessarily approved by the diet;
• the emperor single-handedly exercised executive power through the ministers appointed by him;
• Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorships, united on the basis of a federation;
• the governorships had their own self-government, which in many respects copied the all-Russian one;
• the fundamental civil liberties were consolidated - freedom of speech, press, the right to private property;
• serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its phased abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that impeded the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. For this purpose, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained the most different offers about this question. The first step in the implementation of these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, originally carried out in the Baltic States.

• in 1816, the emperor issued the "Statute on Estonian Peasants", according to which the peasants in the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
• in 1817 and 1819, similar provisions were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
• the Baltic peasants became personally free, but they were freed without land, which remained in the ownership of the landowners;
• the liberated peasants had the right to lease or buy out land.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years, until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was completely removed from the agenda. The main reasons for delaying the resolution of the peasant question (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecision of Alexander I and the opposition of the top of the nobility.

7) In the 1820s. surrounded by Alexander I, the conservative and punitive direction prevailed. He was personified by P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. who actually became the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called "Arakcheevshchina". It was during this period that plans to adopt a Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation in Russia of new cells of society - military settlements. Military settlements were an attempt to combine in one person and in one way of life the peasant and the soldier:

• since the maintenance of the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed to transfer the army to "self-financing";
• for these purposes, the soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, simultaneously with military service, engage in peasant labor;
• the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
• military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
• in these settlements, the peasants were engaged in drilling and military training, and part of the time - agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
• strict barracks discipline and semi-prison order reigned in the military settlements.

Military settlements under Arakcheev became widespread. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. The military settlements did not enjoy the authority of the people and aroused hatred among the majority of the settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the system of government, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

• abolition of serfdom;
• adoption of the Constitution;
• democratization of the country.

The accession to the throne of the young Emperor Alexander I was perceived in society as the beginning of a new liberal era in the history of Russia. Among the many problems inner life the question of the form of government was of particular importance. The peculiarity of the situation was that the monarch himself became the initiator of the restriction of autocracy. Back in 1809, Alexander I instructed M.M. Speransky to develop an extensive plan of state reforms. The author of the project presented two ways to solve the problem: the limitation of autocracy external forms law or "limit it by the internal and essential power of the institutions." He wrote that "political slavery is when the will of one or many is the law of all" / 1 /.

Supporting and guiding Speransky at first, the sovereign eventually changes his point of view and refuses large-scale transformations. A number of factors can be distinguished among the reasons. First of all, it should be noted that the development of projects was carried out by Speransky in deep secrecy, the public lived on rumors and could not receive reliable information and take part in the discussion of such an important problem. In addition, Speransky faced discontent and opposition from the aristocracy and high officials, who expressed the opinion of influential circles.

The response to the initiatives of the emperor was the note "On Ancient and New Russia" by N.M. Karamzin. According to a number of researchers, in it the historian embodied the aspirations of the so-called conservative circles. He criticized Alexander I for his reformist undertakings, and called for the abandonment of those reforms that could weaken the autocracy. Based on his knowledge of the country's historical past, Karamzin argued that only autocratic rule can save Russia. At the same time, the author noted that the sovereign should be more careful in new designs and think more about people than about forms. The historian's political platform presupposed not a refusal or rejection of the young emperor's plans, but a call for unification, a combination of Western European legal norms and Russian historical traditions.

Thus, in the first period of the reign, the issue of state reforms was designated by the authorities and met with caution in society. It was the reaction of the latter that did not allow Alexander I to go all the way in supporting the program of M.M. Speransky. The question of limits autocratic power remained open.

The next, already practical, decision was the promulgation of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Poland. Alexander I viewed this event as the first step towards the granting of legal order and Russia. Contradictory impressions were made by the emperor's statement on Russian society... Decembrist S.G. Volkonsky wrote: "... His words about his intention to spread the constitutional order of government introduced by him in Russia made a strong impression in my heart ..." / 2 /. Another author, AA Zakrevsky, wrote to PD Kiselev: “The sovereign's speech, spoken at the Diet, is wonderful, but the consequences for Russia can be terrible ...” / 3 /. Such judgments did not stop the emperor, and soon work began on a project for the constitutional reorganization of Russia.

In 1820, Alexander I came close to introducing a limited constitution. According to the document, the emperor was proclaimed the head of the executive branch. Legislative power was transferred to the All-Russian Diet. But this project has remained an example of frustrated hopes. The reason for this was both events within the country and in Europe. Pointing to the situation in Spain and Italy in 1820, Alexander I noted: “I love constitutional institutions and I think that every respectable citizen should love them, but can they be approved in all countries without exception? Not all peoples are equally ready to accept them ”/ 4 /.

During the same period, secret societies discussed and resolved in different ways the issue of the legal foundations of power, the fate of autocracy and the future political structure of Russia, documents were developed N. Muravyov in the draft "Constitution" wrote that the power of autocracy is destructive for rulers and for society. Therefore, in the author's opinion, Russia was to become a constitutional monarchy, while the people were proclaimed the source of all state life. According to P. Pestel's project "Russian Truth", Russia was declared a republic. As the author wrote, “the Russian people do not belong to any person or family. On the contrary, the government is the property of the people, and it was established for the good of the people, and not the people exist for the good of the government ”/ 5 /.
The problem of the need for state reforms and, above all, the limitation of autocratic power, was indeed urgent and urgent for the country. It was actively discussed in various social circles, giving rise to historical, philosophical and political writings. At the same time, the emperor, who considered public opinion to be the decisive force, mistakenly took for such a judgment of a narrow circle of nobles and abandoned reformist ideas. As noted by NI Turgenev, “Alexander, apparently, died a despot, but he was born to become something better” / 6 /.

Notes:

1. Speransky M.M. Projects and notes. M.-L., 1961.S. 837.
2. Cit. By: S.V. Mironenko Autocracy and reforms. Political struggle in Russia in early XIX v. M., 1989.
3. Cit. Quoted from: Eckshtut S.M.A. In Search of a Historical Alternative: Alexander I. His Companions. Decembrists. M., 1994.S. 123.
4. Cit. a
5. p: Hartley J.M. Alexander I. Rostov-on-Don, 1998.S. 213.
6. Selected socio-political and philosophical works of the Decembrists. M. 1951.Vol. 2.P. 145.
7. Turgenev N.I. Russia and Russians. M., 2001.S. 519.