Project participant.

Pupil 11 "B", class of Lyceum No. 17 of the city of Kostroma: Roman Kozlov.

purpose of work

Explain why there are international borders and barriers, how the systems of international relations were formed, by what methods and means international conflicts and contradictions were resolved and resolved, how the foreign policy of various states is formed.

Tasks

Acquisition of knowledge in the field of theoretical foundations of understanding the laws of formation, development and functioning of international relations and foreign policy. Explain why this happened and find out what the countries were thinking and what they wanted. Will reveal the mistakes that countries have made.

Hypothesis

International relations in the 1920s were so strained that this led to the First World War.

Participants:

Quadruple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria. Entente: Russia, France, Great Britain. Allies of the Entente: USA, Japan, Serbia, Italy, Montenegro, Belgium, Egypt, Portugal, Romania, Greece, Brazil, China, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Dominican republic, Peru, Uruguay, Ecuador.

Conflicts:

Long before the war, contradictions between the great powers - Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Great Britain, Russia - were growing in Europe. The German Empire, formed after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, did not initially strive for political and economic dominance on the European continent. As its creator Bismarck, who well understood the vulnerability of the geographical position of a state surrounded by economically and militarily strong neighbors, said: Strong Germany wants to be left alone and allowed to develop in the world, for which she must have a strong army, since no one dares to attack on the one who has the sword in the scabbard ... All states, with the exception of France, need us and, as far as possible, will refrain from forming coalitions against us as a result of rivalry with each other. But, contrary to Bismarck's assurance that "while he holds the post of chancellor, Germany will not have colonies", the country, which had become stronger economically and militarily, by the mid-1880s joined the struggle for colonies. Germany was in a hurry to occupy the disputed regions that did not fall into colonial dependence, and also posed a threat to the colonial possessions of England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal. At the same time, she began to threaten the very existence of the largest colonial empires in Europe: Great Britain, France, which were forced to unite in the "Heart of Concord" - the Entente. Austria-Hungary, being a multinational empire, due to internal interethnic contradictions, was a constant hotbed of instability in Europe. She tried to keep Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she received by decision of the Berlin Congress and annexed in 1908. At the same time, she opposed Russia, which for centuries carried out permanent territorial expansion, which shortly before that made significant acquisitions of land in Central Asia and took on the role of the defender of all Slavs in the Balkans. In addition, Serbia, an ally of Russia, claimed the role of a unifying center for the southern Slavs. In the Middle East, the interests of almost all powers collided, striving to have time to divide the crumbling Ottoman Empire (Turkey). At the same time, Russia's allies opposed in every possible way its desire to gain control over the straits between the Black and Aegean Seas, which would ensure its former presence in the Mediterranean Sea. The confrontation between the Entente countries on the one hand and Germany with Austria-Hungary on the other led to the First World War, where the opponents of the Entente (Russia, Great Britain and France) and its allies were the Central Powers bloc (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria), in in which Germany played a leading role. By 1914, two blocs were finally formed: the Entente Bloc: the Russian Empire, Great Britain, and France. Block Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Italy, however, entered the war in 1915 on the side of the Entente - but Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war, forming the Quadruple Alliance.

Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909

Bosnian Crisis 1908-1909 - an international conflict that was caused by the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in October 1908. This diplomatic clash inflamed the already tense relations between the Great Powers and during the first weeks of 1909 threatened to escalate into a major European war. Despite the apparent success of Austrian diplomacy, the annexation of new territories under pressure from the ruling circles of the Austrian part of the Habsburg monarchy ultimately proved to be a Pyrrhic victory. National, political, religious and linguistic conflicts in Austria-Hungary reached a critical point, which led to the disintegration of the country in 1918, just ten years after the annexation. Bosnian Crisis 1908-1909 led to the deepening of contradictions between the Entente and the Triple Alliance, being one of the stages on the way to the First World War. The crisis irreversibly spoiled relations between Russia and Serbia on the one hand and Austria-Hungary on the other and almost led to a major European war. Germany made it clear to Russia and the Entente that it would provide Austria-Hungary with any necessary assistance, including military assistance. Italy's departure from the Triple Alliance was outlined. Within the Entente, serious contradictions were also revealed: the allies did not provide Russia with significant support in the Bosno-Herzegovinian issue and were not ready to satisfy Russia's claims on the Eastern question as a whole, leaving Russia alone with Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, they themselves - "kept the powder dry."

Bosnian crisis.

Second Moroccan Crisis of 1911

In the late 1910s. France has increased its economic and military-political penetration of Morocco. Taking advantage of the murder of a French citizen there during a coup d'état in 1908, this power occupied part of the Moroccan territory located on the border with French Algeria. In 1911, a new conflict began between the two great powers, which arose due to the occupation of the Moroccan capital, Fez, by the French in May this year. This step by Paris was interpreted by the Germans as another proof of his desire to turn Morocco into his colony. In response, on July 1, 1911, the German gunboat Panther entered the Moroccan port of Agadir. In addition, Germany sent the light cruiser Berlin to the coast of Morocco. The German government proposed to the French ambassador to Germany J. Cambon to transfer to the Germans the entire territory of the Congo, which belonged to the French. But the French government rejected this proposal. His tough stance was largely due to the support of the UK. Ultimately, in November 1911, an agreement was reached between Germany and France on this issue.

A second Moroccan crisis broke out in the spring.

Italo-Turkish war 1911-1912

Having enlisted the support of Russia and France, in the fall of 1911 Italy embarked on colonial conquests in North Africa. The goal of the Italian government was the annexation of Tripolitania and Kirsnaica, which belonged to the Turks, control over which allowed Rome to strengthen its presence in the Western Mediterranean. Soon, Italian troops landed on the North African coast and occupied these lands.

However, the Italians did not manage to quickly end the military campaign, as they faced fierce resistance from the local Arab tribes, whom the Sultan's government called to fight against the Europeans. In order to force the Ottoman Empire to surrender, Italy captured the Dodecanese archipelago in the Aegean Sea and bombarded Beirut and other Turkish cities from the sea. Ottoman military fortifications in the Dardanelles area were also attacked. Nevertheless, Sultan Turkey continued to wage war against Italy and withdrew from it only at the beginning of October 1912. - after the attack on it by the member states of the Balkan Union.

R. Holden's 1912 mission

At the beginning of February 1912. British Minister of War R. Holden was sent to Berlin, who, at a meeting with German Chancellor Betmann-Hollweg and Minister of the Navy A. Tirpitz, suggested that the Germans suspend the construction of three dreadnoughts planned for 1912-1917. In response, London was ready to return to the question of expanding German possessions in Africa by dividing the Portuguese colonies. The Kaiser's government, however, refused to discuss the issue of naval weapons until Great Britain agreed to conclude a treaty of neutrality with Germany in the event of a war of one of these states with a third power. Holden, in turn, offered to conclude an Anglo-German non-aggression pact. As a result, both sides remained unconvinced. The unsuccessful completion of Holden's mission was another evidence of the deepening Anglo-German contradictions, which were almost impossible to resolve through negotiations.

First Balkan War 1912-1913

The First Balkan War is the war of the Balkan Union (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire from September 25, 1912 to May 17, 1913. The cause of the war was the desire of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece to expand their territories. The war ended with the London Peace Treaty.

First Balkan War.

Second Balkan War 1913

The Second Balkan War, the Inter-Allied War - a fleeting war on June 29 - July 29, 1913 for the partition of Macedonia between Bulgaria on the one hand, and Montenegro, Serbia and Greece on the other, as well as the Ottoman Empire and Romania that joined the military actions against Bulgaria. The war was provoked by the diplomats of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire, who sought to destroy the Balkan Union. Bulgaria, which unleashed the war, was defeated, as a result of which France, Austria-Hungary and Germany increased their influence in the Balkan Peninsula, undermining the positions of the Russian Empire. The territory conquered by Bulgaria in the First Balkan War was divided between the victorious countries.

European diplomacy and the Balkan Wars (1912 - 1913)

International relations in the Far East on the eve of the First World War.

After the end of the Russo-Japanese War and the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, relations between Japan and Russia began to gradually normalize. The decisive role in this process was played by the Russian-British rapprochement. Its result was the signing on August 31, 1907. agreement, which resulted in the completion of the formation of the Entente. Now Great Britain was interested in ensuring the security of its ally - Russia in the Far East, and for this reason helped to improve relations between Russia and Japan.

Germany was heading towards war at full speed. Therefore, attempts by St. Petersburg to establish rapport with Berlin have failed. In Potsdam in 1910, Nicholas II met with Kaiser Wilhelm II. An agreement was reached on a fairly wide range of mutual concessions to normalize relations. Russia promised not to participate in British intrigues against Germany, assumed non-aggression pledges, and withdrew a number of military units from the German-Polish border. Germany also had to commit itself not to take part in alliances hostile to Russia, not to support the expansion of Austria-Hungary in the Balkan Peninsula. The parties agreed on a number of issues related to the Ottoman Empire and Persia.

But in the end, when in August 1911 in St. Petersburg the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A.A.Neratov and the German Ambassador to Russia Count Friedrich von Pourtales signed an agreement, only the agreement on the Ottoman Empire and Persia remained in it. Russia pledged not to interfere with the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railroad by the Germans, and in addition pledged to obtain a concession from the Persian government for the construction of the Tehran-Khanekin railroad on the Iranian-Turkish border. Berlin recognized the existence of "special interests" of the Russian Empire in Northern Persia and pledged not to seek concessions there.

Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir Crisis)

In the spring of 1911, an uprising began in the vicinity of the then capital of Morocco - the city of Fez. Taking advantage of this situation, Paris, under the pretext of restoring order and protecting the citizens of France, occupied Fez in May 1911. It became clear that Morocco was coming under French rule and becoming its colony.

Then Wilhelm II sent the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir. On July 1, 1911, Berlin announced its intention to establish its own naval base in this city. This was a violation of the results of the Algeciras Conference in Spain (1906), a rude challenge against France. Europe was again brought to the brink of war. In France, which now felt much more confident (the alliance with Russia was strengthened), a stormy surge of revanchist, militant sentiments began. The French public remembered the selected provinces - Alsace and Lorraine. There was a complete rupture of German-French economic relations. French banks, with the permission of the government, withdrew their capital from Germany.

But the war did not start. Russia did not want to fight. Petersburg informed Paris that it would enter the war only if Germany attacked France itself, and colonial squabbles were the business of the French. Vienna (although Chief of the General Staff Konrad von Goetzendorff said that this was a convenient reason to strike at Serbia), reported that Moroccan affairs are far from the national interests of Austria-Hungary and because of them it is not worth starting a war. Refused to support Berlin and Italy (an ally in the Triple Alliance), the Italians hatched plans to occupy Tripolitania and did not want to quarrel with the French and British. And London, through the lips of Lloyd George, rather floridly expressed its support for Paris.

Therefore, the Germans lowered their tone and came with the French to an "amicable" agreement - on March 30, 1912, the Fez Treaty was concluded. It was signed by the Moroccan Sultan Abd al-Hafid and representatives of France, Germany and Spain. By this agreement:

The sultan renounced the sovereignty of Morocco, the country became a protectorate of France. Part of the country became a protectorate of Spain - a continuous strip of possessions in the north of Morocco (Spanish Morocco). Berlin recognized the legality of this step.

Paris gave Germany as compensation part of its possessions in Equatorial Africa - a piece of the French Congo.

The public in France and Germany was extremely unhappy. The French believed that nothing had to be given at all, and the Germans accused Reich Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (who headed the empire's government from 1909 to 1917) of making a bargain.

Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg

Growing aggressiveness in Germany

When the British tried once again to agree on a reduction in the arms race in the field of naval arms (it was a heavy burden on the country's economy), the Kaiser rejected their proposals, and rather rudely. He declared that his patience and the patience of the German people had run out. And he wrote to Admiral Tirpitz that in the struggle for existence in Europe, which will be waged by the Germans (Germany and Austria-Hungary) against the Romans (France) and the Slavs (Russia and Serbia), the British will support the Romans and Slavs.

And Tirpitz in February 1912 put the question squarely to London: "Our political demand is that Britain should not take part in the war between France and Germany, no matter who starts it." If Berlin does not receive such a guarantee, Germany will have to arm itself until it becomes as strong as France and England together.

Naturally, London could not take such a step, after the defeat of France, Britain would eventually have to cede world leadership to the German Empire. In 1912, Paris and London signed the Naval Agreement, according to which Britain in the event of a German-French war, took upon itself the task of defending the English Channel and the Atlantic coast. The French naval forces were able to concentrate their efforts on the Mediterranean. Consultations between the British and French General Staffs began.

Winston Churchill (from October 1911 First Lord of the Admiralty) in the same year, 1912, predicted that continuous armament "should lead to war within the next two years." But I was almost mistaken - the events associated with the Ottoman Empire and the Balkans led to large-scale conflicts that almost led to a common European war.

Italo-Turkish War (the Tripolitanian War lasted from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912)

Italy was not going to stay away from the division of the world and decided to seize Libya. Italians began diplomatic training at the end of the 19th century, and military training from the beginning of the 20th century. Italy enlisted the help of France (supporting it on the issue with Morocco) and Russia. Berlin and Vienna were allies in the Triple Alliance, so a benevolent attitude was also expected from them (they were not even warned not to demand compensation). It was believed that the occupation of Libya would be an easy "military walk", since the Ottoman Empire was in a difficult crisis, and the local population was hostile to the Turks.

The Italians did not philosophize, and the reason for the war was very frank: on September 28, 1911, an ultimatum was presented to the Porte, in which the Turks were accused of keeping Tripoli and Cyrenaica in a state of poverty and disorder, and hindering Italian entrepreneurs. Therefore, the Italians are forced (!) To occupy Libya in order to preserve their dignity and interests. The Turks were offered to help themselves in the occupation, and even to "prevent any opposition" of the Italian army (!). The Turks were not against the surrender of Libya, but offered to maintain the formal supreme power of the Port. The Italians refused and started the war.

But the "military walk" soon turned into a protracted conflict fraught with diplomatic complications. An Italian 20,000 expeditionary force, supported by the fleet, occupied Tripoli, Homs, Tobruk, Derna, Benghazi and the coastal oases (they were captured in October) with almost no resistance. But after that, the Italians got stuck, as a result, the corps had to be increased to 100 thousand army, which was opposed by 20 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Turks. The Italians suffered several defeats and could not establish control over the whole country, they had only the coast. They wanted to capture Libya in a month, spending 30 million lire, but they fought for more than a year, and every month it took 80 million. The country's finances were in disarray.

Only the beginning of the Balkan War, when several countries of the Balkan Peninsula opposed Turkey, forced the Turks to go to peace. On October 15, 1912, a preliminary secret treaty was signed in Ouchy (Switzerland), and on October 18, in Lausanne, a public peace treaty was signed. Turkish forces were withdrawn from Libya, the territory became "autonomous" under Italian rule.

This war was special due to the fact that aircraft were first used in combat - the first reconnaissance mission was carried out, and then the bombing from the air. Since this war, the Air Force began to confidently strengthen its position in the conduct of hostilities.

In addition, the Tripolitanian War split the Triple Alliance, Berlin and Vienna "cooled" to Italy, and the Italians began to compete with Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.

Balkan controversy

Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece decided to seize the moment and expand their lands at the expense of the dying Ottoman Empire, completing the reunification of their peoples. Moreover, the elites of these countries dreamed of “Great Bulgaria”, “Great Serbia”, “Great Greece”. They created the Balkan Union against the Turks.

Russia tried to stop this war: the head of the Foreign Ministry of the empire, Sazonov, conveyed to Belgrade that the Serbs should not count on the help of the Russian army in this war. But this did not stop Serbia, they decided that they themselves would cope. The Turkish forces were quickly defeated and already in November the Porta appealed to the great powers with a request for mediation. Austria-Hungary was not satisfied with the strengthening of the Serbs, so Vienna began to transfer troops to the border with Serbia. The Italians also made military preparations, claiming Albania.

In this situation, Russia has made every effort to preserve peace in Europe. On her initiative, a London conference was convened. Montenegro laid claim to Northern Albania, and Serbia to ports in the Adriatic - this was unacceptable for Italy and Austria-Hungary, and Germany stood behind them. They made it clear that such concessions to the Slavic countries would lead to an all-European war.

France expressed its readiness to fight, the French president proposed to Nicholas II to take a more decisive position, but the tsar did not agree to this. The Russian military attaché in France said: "We do not want to cause the conflagration of a European war and take measures that could cause a European conflagration." As a result, the big war was again postponed.

In the Balkans, the second Balkan War swept - now the victors of Turkey are fighting. They fought over the "Turkish legacy". A dispute arose between the former allies over the ownership of Macedonia, Thrace and Albania. All the founding states of the Balkan Union were disappointed with the outcome of the war with Turkey and the London Treaty. Serbs were denied access to the Adriatic. Due to the formation of the new state of Albania, Montenegro did not occupy the northern lands of this region, Greece did not annex Thrace. The Bulgarians were unhappy with Serbia's claims to Macedonia.

Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Bulgaria redistribute its territories. The Bulgarians refused, and the Second Balkan War began. The Serbs and Montenegrins were supported by the Greeks. Taking advantage of the moment, the Turks and Romanians joined the opponents of Bulgaria. Even during the First Balkan War, Romania demanded that Bulgaria revise the borders in Southern Dobrudja in its favor. All the main forces of Bulgaria were occupied on the Serbian-Bulgarian and Greco-Bulgarian fronts, so the Turkish and Romanian armies did not meet with serious resistance. The Bulgarian government, realizing the hopelessness of the situation, was forced to sign an armistice.

On August 10, 1913, the Bucharest Peace Treaty was signed. According to it, the Bulgarians lost most of the lands captured at the entrance of the First Balkan War and Southern Dobrudja.

The Russian public was shocked, if the first war in the Balkans was welcomed as a triumph of the ideas of Pan-Slavism, then the second war destroyed everything. In addition, all the Slavs were dissatisfied with the position of Russia - the Serbs and Montenegrins for the fact that St. Petersburg did not support their claims, and the Bulgarians for not standing up for them.

These wars did not solve the Balkan conflicts; all countries only whetted their appetites. Turkey and Bulgaria, as the most offended, began to seek support from Germany. The German bank, for a number of concessions (preemptive right to purchase state land, control of some taxes, etc.), gave Turkey a loan, which helped to stabilize the situation after two lost wars. Berlin began to help the Turks in reforming the army, sending a mission to Lyman von Sanders.

Europe stood over a precipice, all that was needed was a pretext for a mass slaughter ...

The world on the eve of the First World War.

The economic leader of the world at that time was the United States. Leaving America in 1917. and going to Russia to make a revolution with the money of the Rockefellers, Shif, etc. (ie with the money of the Federal System), Trotsky wrote: "I left for Europe with the feeling of a man who only looked with one eye inside the forge, where the fate of mankind will be forged."

In 1913. The US was already the leader. It cannot be said that in the world of 1913 people did not understand that some serious shock (war) was coming. But everyone thought that the war would be short-lived (5-6 months). Everyone was preparing for war. But the Germans were preparing in their own way: it is very interesting that the chief of staff of the Second Reich said to his Austro-Hungarian colleague: “I am convinced that the European war will break out sooner or later. And that the main issue is the struggle between the hetmanship and the Slavs. " The British managed to convince both the Russians and the Germans that the coming war is a war between them; although the main interested power in the war was Great Britain. But not just Great Britain. The fact is that already in the 1820s a very interesting alliance was formed in the West: the British crown, financiers, and various closed organizations. So, when we talk about the current Western elite, it typologically consists of three parts. First of all, these are the royal houses of Great Britain, Norway, Holland, Denmark. The second is various closed organizations. And the third is financial capital. Here is such a three-headed Serpent Gorynych.

The British were not at all going to fight seriously on someone else's side. Formally, they were allied with Russia. So, on the agenda of the western elite was the solution of several tasks:

Establish control over the world's resources that remained outside their reach at the end of the 19th century. These resource zones were southern Africa and Russia.

1. The number one task of the top of the world capitalist class, which had to be solved in the First World War (but was never solved), is to establish control over those zones that have not yet been included in the system;

2. Second, the destruction of the European and Eurasian empires. The point is that the imperial principle is fundamentally different from the globalist principle. Empires greatly interfere with the flow of goods;

3. Destroy Russia and especially Germany as potential competitors of Great Britain;

4. Destroy Germany not only as a state, but also as a framework of closed structures that challenged the British;

5. Create a single European political entity in place of the destroyed Eurasian empires. Venice was the ideal of the British elite. The Venetians have played a huge role in shaping the modern world. And the dream was to create Venice the size of Europe. This is a small state, which in fact played one of the main roles in the fact that England became England; that the modern world has become capitalist. This small country called Venice;

6. Take full control of the world's finances;

7. And finally, the last task, which solved all these six tasks taken together: to unleash a world war in which Germany and Russia were to destroy each other.

By itself, the Federal Reserve System (FRS) did not solve the problem; needed another 16th amendment to the US Constitution. She let the government levy income tax. Without such an amendment, the Fed's scheme would not have worked. By the way, this 16th amendment to the US Constitution is contrary to the US Constitution. I recommend searching the Internet for Viktor Friedman's book, The Socialist United States. Victor Fridman, in the early 90s, at the age of 7, left for America with his parents. He is a very inquisitive person. He believed that America is a democratic country, there is a Constitution ... And suddenly he discovered that the 16th Amendment to the US Constitution contradicts the Constitution. And as an adult, he stopped paying taxes. He was dragged to court and accused of refusing to pay taxes. To which Victor said: "I am ready to pay, but will you show me where the Constitution says that I have to pay?" He was told the "16th amendment". He said “no, this is not the Constitution; this is an amendment. " Three times he was dragged to court; he won the courts. He began to urge everyone not to pay income tax. The FBI opened a case against him. I also advise, a very interesting book about September 11; about the explosion of the twin towers.

There are two things to remember about 1913. about the United States, which played a large role on the eve of World War: the creation of the Federal Reserve System and the 16th amendment to the Constitution.

It must be said that the masters of the Federal Reserve System represent not only a network of business interests, but also a network of related interests. Those families (12-13 banks) that are formed by the FRS, their owners are relatives. Well, as an example: the Warburgs became related to the Rothschilds back in 1814; Schiff, who would later finance the Soviet revolution against the tsar, married Teresa, the eldest daughter of Solomon Leib, co-owner of Leib and Co, which allowed Schiff to buy out a stake in this company. Paul Warburg married the youngest daughter of Solomon. That is, the Fed is a network of people who have been reborn.

After the creation of the Federal Reserve, the owners could easily start a war. From whom did the Germans, the British, the American state receive all the loans? From the Fed!

War and revolutions were identified not only as the main source of income, but also as a means of destroying continental and Eurasian empires. Actually, the plan for the destruction of these empires (which was implemented during the First World War), in fact, was not particularly hidden. At the very end of the 19th century, the British newspaper Pravda, which belonged to a prominent Mason, published a pamphlet "The Dream of the Kaiser": William II had a dream that Germany and Austria-Hungary were defeated as a result of the war. Further, a map was attached to this pamphlet. On this map, in place of Austria and Austria-Hungary were Czechoslovakia, Poland. That is, everything that happened after the war. And in the place of Russia there was a desert. And Germany was also dismembered into parts. By the way, this plan was largely implemented.

Ironically, in December 1913. when the Fed acted as the terminator and gravedigger of Old Europe, Old Europe was throwing balls. These things are very symbolic. On the same day, December 2, 1913. celebrations were held in Europe. In Vienna, in honor of the 66th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Emperor Franz Joseph; and in Paris - to the part of the Bavarian princess Gisella. That is, it is very important to understand here that not only individual states (and not even so much states) were interested in the war - in the First World War - but transnational groups of financiers and aristocrats who pursued their own goals.

One of the controversial questions about the war of 1914-1918. - was this war an accident or a pattern? The fact that this war was accidental is written by many people who want to conceal the subject who organized the war. In fact, it was said about the possibility of war; but people, statesmen, had a poor idea of ​​the scale of the war. But next to the state, another subject arose: these are closed supranational groups that could influence the government.

Another question is closely related to the question of the accident or inevitability of the First World War: who is to blame? Since history is written by the victors, the 231 Treaty of Versailles laid the blame on Germany. The Germans believed that Russia was to blame for everything.

At the beginning of the 21st century, works by British authors appeared, where an attempt was indirectly made to place the blame on Russia. These works are in line with the anti-Russian information campaign, which is now being carried out in the West ...

The situation with the class interpretation of the mechanism of unleashing a war is very difficult. Primitive Marxists often said: "War is the class interest of the bourgeoisie." But the matter is more complicated. Not all groups of capitalists wanted war; and equally, not all politicians wanted this war. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century, French financiers wanted to cooperate with German capital; and the politicians were against it. Many financiers in Great Britain understood that without a war their country would turn from a creditor into a debtor; therefore they needed a war. Many German politicians welcomed the war; and the American ones are the same. That is, not everything is so simple with the class interpretation.

But this is what the First World War demonstrated: in almost all countries, statesmen were not adequate to the era. The war brought forward completely different military and political leaders. Those people who entered the war were people of the 19th century. And during the First World War, the 20th century was born.

What is the name of the First World War in the West? "Great War". In this respect, it is psychologically understandable. The fact is that the First World War fell upon the people of the 19th century, who were not psychologically ready for such a war. World War II was much more brutal and large-scale, but people of the 20th century had already fought in it; they were psychologically ready for it.

One more point, we do not quite accurately name - I and II World War. The fact is that world wars arose together with capitalism. These are wars for world hegemony. World War I was 30 years old; then followed the Anglo-French wars (7-year and Napoleonic); and finally, two world wars of the 20th century. Therefore, very often, when we say: “Will there be a Third World War?”, They mean that a new war (if it happens) will be similar to the First and Second. No! A new World War will be like a 30-year war. It was a combination of four local conflicts (remember Ukraine and Syria). It is necessary to pay attention to local conflicts in Syria, Afghanistan, Africa; they are very similar to the conflicts that preceded capitalism.

The world capitalist system is designed in such a way that wars for hegemony are waged in it. In these wars, as a rule, the Anglo-Saxons won. Germany found itself in a very difficult situation at the beginning of the 20th century. On the one hand, she became the economic leader of Europe; and the population grew sharply. The German population grew at a terrible rate (866 thousand people a year); and the territory of Germany was limited. Therefore, German philosophers were very fond of the topic of "living space". Over the last 20 years of the 19th century, Great Britain increased its colonies to 9.3 million square meters. miles; France increased its territory to 3.7 million square meters. miles for a population of 54 million; but Germany acquired only 1 million square meters. miles of colonies with a population of 14.7 million. That is, by the end of the 20th century, the German population "swelled", and it had nowhere to go. Colonial politics meant a lot. This is what they wrote about it: "If you want to avoid a civil war between the top and bottom, you should become imperialists." And further, according to English doctrine, racial unity was supposed to smooth out the class contradiction. That is, we are all British and oppose the world. At the same time, Great Britain was already seriously lagging behind the leaders (USA and Germany).

How the situation has changed in 13 years of the XX century:

1900 the British produced 5 million tons of steel, the Germans - 6.3 million; 1913 the British produced 7.7 million and the Germans 17.6 million; however, the USA produced 31 million tons; and Russia - only 5 million.

Energy consumption in 1890: Britain - 145 mil. metric tons of coal equivalent; Germany - 7.01 mil. In 1913: Britain - 195, the Germans - 187; but the USA has 541; in Russia - 54 million.

In all respects, the Germans were preparing very seriously for war. In general, it must be said that the Germans were much better prepared for the 1914 war than for the 1939 war. It is not surprising that 1890. in the UK, books are beginning to appear that show the explosive economic growth of Germany and the relative decline of Britain. The books led the reader to a very simple conclusion - "the German problem cannot be solved peacefully." That is, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, powerful anti-German propaganda began in Great Britain. The Germans began to be portrayed as some kind of wild people. That is, the same thing happened that happened from 1825 to 1855, when the Russophobic company was preparing public opinion for the Crimean War; and to the war that is now being waged against Russia. According to the intensity of the information war, such things happen when a serious war is started.

For the British, the most terrible and unbearable against German power was that the Germans began to build their powerful fleet. But besides the fleet, the Germans did one more thing: they built the BBB railway (Berlin, Byzantium, Baghdad). That is, they invaded directly into the zone of British interests in the Middle East. And this preparation made the British very nervous. She made them all the more nervous because they understood that Germany could only be defeated in a land war.

This is what a brilliant Russian military-strategic thinker wrote on the eve of World War II: “The main goal of the British strategy is to destroy the trade and military fund of Germany, to take on land such a blow, after which weakened spiritually and materially, she could not restore her marine enterprises. The main goal of England is to repel the German offensive against the oceanic empire in the Atlantic Ocean (as the offensive against Russia in the Pacific Ocean was repulsed from Japan). "

The destruction of Germany became a matter of the continued existence of the British Empire. The British decided to do this, having pitted Germany and Russia. Where to ignite the fuse fuse? In the Balkans! Bismarck said: "A new war in Europe will arise from some stupidity in the Balkans." At the same time, a common European war is possible only with the indispensable participation of Russia; and on the condition that the latter takes on all the burdens of war on land.

If the British were afraid of Germany, the Germans were afraid of Russia. Here is what one German politician wrote: “The future belongs to Russia. It grows and grows and looms over us like a nightmare. Another 20 years and Russia will crush Europe. "

Did Russia and Germany have economic contradictions? Yes they were! But they were not as sharp as the contradictions between Great Britain and Germany.

Why did Russia end up together with England and France? On the one hand, Great Britain maneuvered this way, but on the other hand, look ... foreign capital in Russia in 1914. owned 100% of the oil industry, 90% of mining, 50% of the chemical industry, 40% of the metallurgical industry, 30% of the textile industry. In addition, at the beginning of the 20th century, Russia among the major powers had the largest foreign debt (primarily to the French, Belgians, and British). Therefore, Nicholas II ended up in the Entente, and not with the Germans.

Were there smart people in Russia who understood that we should not interfere in the British-German conflict under any circumstances; and even more so in no case should you be allies of the British? Were! They were two very smart people. One of them, Nikolai Durnovo, wrote a special note to the tsar: “Russia, where the masses of the people undoubtedly profess the principles of unconscious socialism, provides a particularly fertile ground for social upheavals in the event of war. The Russian commoner, peasant and worker, are equally alien to political rights - unnecessary and incomprehensible. The peasant dreams of the allotment of foreign land to him, the workers of the transfer of all the capital of the manufacturer to him. One has only to throw these slogans at the population; if only the government authorities irrevocably allow agitation in this direction, and Russia will undoubtedly be plunged into anarchy. The war with Germany will create extremely favorable conditions for such agitation. As already noted, the war was fraught with enormous difficulties for us; and cannot be a triumphal march to Berlin. Military failures are also inevitable. With the extreme nervousness of our society, this circumstance will be assumed to be an exaggerated meaning. " The king did not react to his note.

In general, an amazing thing is that the ruling stratum of Russia did not react to the danger. The impression was that his sense of social self-preservation was denied.

That is, the smart people of Russia believed that in no case should they get involved in a war. But three factors influenced this: Great Britain and France dictated his policies to Nicholas II. He resisted as best he could, but he had little room for maneuver. Second: it was assumed that the revolutionary intensity that was in the country could be brought down by a short war (6 months). There is one more thing (one cannot but name it) - Europe experienced the most real demographic pressure at the end of the 19th century. There was a relatively agrarian overpopulation in Europe at that time (World War I); in the 30s there was a relatively urban overpopulation (World War II). These two world wars, they cut off the surplus of population in Europe, but they also created a shortage of population. And already from 50-60. Europe is starting to allow people from Asian and African countries to come to serve as cheap labor.

In other words, World War I had a huge number of prerequisites. There is a very important point: no matter how many preconditions there are, you need a subject who is ready to turn these prerequisites into reality, into a real war. Here we must say that in addition to the state, the capitalist system gives rise to another form and this is its peculiarity. It is a closed supranational voting and governance club. Sometimes these groups are not well called "behind the scenes". But capitalism cannot reproduce without them.

What were these structures? These were really closed structures that determined the policy of the same Great Britain, partly the United States (although there were very sharp contradictions between Great Britain and the States); and the members of this Group were not only British; there were French and Russians. For example, Russian Foreign Minister Izvolsky. Much attention of this group has been drawn to the United States. It was necessary to overcome the traditional negative attitude towards the Americans. In 1902. Great Britain created the "Pilgrim Society", whose main goal was to create friendly relations with the United States.

All these preparations, they went on for 25-30 years, but the specificity of the Anglo-American elite was that both of them have one big plus - they are from long-term planning.

It is very interesting that two people from Russia who were members of the group played a very large role in international affairs. It was the Minister of Foreign Affairs Izvolsky (in Russia they did not like him in much the same way as Chubais). But another person was even more important - Nikolai Hartwig. He was the Russian ambassador to Serbia. Serbia was simply riddled with British intelligence networks; they control terrorist organizations to push the button at the right time. Actually, such a button was pressed in 1914. when Gavrila Princip (student) shot Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, with a shot.

C Changes in borders in Europe following the First World War

Found an interesting map of Europe, published in the United States following the First World War. It shows the borders of European states that were established as a result of the war, and the inset to the map provides comments on changes in the borders of individual territories.

World War I European Border Changes - 1921 American Map

• Click on the image to view the map in detail or to compare this map with others.


• Click to view a description of the card.

Translation from English of the comments presented in the sidebar about the changes in the borders of European states that occurred as a result of the First World War, indicated by numbers on the map:

CHANGES IN THE BORDERS OF EUROPEAN STATES AS A RESULT OF WAR

Peace treaties

The new frontiers in Europe are established mainly on the basis of five major treaties developed by the Paris Peace Conference between the Allies and Associated Powers, as well as their former opponents:

With Germany: Treaty of Versailles of June 28, 1919.
With Austria: Treaty of Saint Germain of September 10, 1919.
With Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly dated November 27, 1919.
With Hungary: Treaty of Trianon of June 4, 1920.
With Turkey: Treaty of Sevres of August 10, 1920.

In addition, in the settlement of territorial disputes, other international treaties and decisions of the High Council and the League of Nations were used.

OLD STATES CHANGED BY WAR

1. Four small contiguous areas (Moresnet, Eupen, part of Montjoy, Malmedy), which were transferred to Belgium from Germany

2. Alsace-Lorraine - transferred to France from Germany.

Germany

3. Basin of the Saarland and coal regions of France; regulated by the League of Nations for 15 years; plebiscite in 1935.
4. Rhine zones: Allied occupation ends in 1935.
5. Heligoland Island: fortifications must be destroyed by Germany.
6. East Prussia, which is separated from the rest of Germany and transferred to Poland and Danzig

7. Part of Schleswig, which passes to Denmark from Germany on the basis of a plebiscite on February 10, 1920.

8. Parts of the former Austrian Empire that became the new Austrian Republic
9. The territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, which passes into the Austrian Republic.

10. Part of the former Hungarian Kingdom, left by the treaty of Hungary.

11. Region of Trentino - passed to Italy from Austria.
12. Gorizia and Istria - passed to Italy from Austria.
13. Obast Zara and some islands of Dalmatia, formerly the territory of Austria, passed to Italy under an agreement with Yugoslavia.
14. Rhodes Island - moved to Italy from Turkey.

15. Transylvania and part of Banat from Temisoara - passed to Romania from the Kingdom of Hungary.
16. Bukovina - passed to Romania from the Austrian Empire.
17. Bessarabia - passed to Romania from Russia.

Bulgaria

18. A small territory that was transferred to Bulgaria from Turkey in 1915.

19. Large and small parts of Thrace, which became part of Greece from Bulgaria.
20. Part of Thrace and the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, which were transferred to Turkey from Greece.
21. Dodecanese Islands, with the exception of Rhodes, and the area around Smyrna, which were transferred to Turkey from Greece.
22. Part of Epirus, which passed to Greece from Albania.

23. New country, Albania, which became independent from Turkey in 1912.
24. Territory transferred to the European part of Turkey.

25. European Russia and Ukraine, which are more or less under Soviet control. The borders of Georgia and other territories under Soviet influence are not fixed.

NEW STATES CREATED OR RESTORED AS A RESULT OF WAR

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

26. Bohemia, Moravia, parts of Teschen and lower Austria, which passed to Czechoslovakia from the former Austrian Empire.
27. Slovakia, Little Russia, and a few other small areas that passed to Czechoslovakia from Hungary.
28. A small part of upper Silesia, which passed to Czechoslovakia from Germany.

YUGOSLAVIA

29. The former Kingdom of Serbia, which is now part of Yugoslavia.
30. The former kingdom of Montenegro, which is now part of Yugoslavia.
31. Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia and parts of Dalmatia and other Austro-Hungarian territories, which passed to Yugoslavia from Austria and Hungary.
32. Four small districts that became part of Yugoslavia from Bulgaria.

33. The independent state of Fiume, created by an agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia. Area 8 sq. Miles

34. Former Russian territory returned to Poland.
35. Galicia, passed to Poland from Austria.
36. Two small areas of the former Hungary, passed to Poland.
37. Parts of Poznan, West Prussia, East Prussia and Silesia, returned to Poland from Germany. Part of Upper Silesia, which is also claimed by Poland.

38. Free City of Danzig in a single customs territory with Poland. The area is 709 square miles.

39. A small territory passed to Lithuania.

40. The Republic of Lithuania, created on the territory of the former Russian provinces.

41. The Republic of Latvia, created on the territory of the former Russian provinces.

42. The Republic of Estonia, created on the territory of the former Russian provinces.

Finland

43. The former Russian Grand Duchy of Finland, which made up most of the new Republic of Finland. Includes the Åland Islands, claimed by Sweden, but ceded to Finland in 1921.
44. The province of Petsamo, which has access to the Arctic Ocean, was transferred to Finland from Soviet Russia in 1920.

STATES THAT VANISHED FROM THE MAP AFTER 1914

Austro-Hungarian monarchy, including the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary and the territories of the joint possession of the "Double Monarchy". The New Austrian Republic and the Kingdom of Hungary are completely separate territories.
Montenegro, which is now part of Yugoslavia.
Serbia, united with Montenegro and the former Austro-Hungarian territory, formed the state of "Serbs, Croats and Slovenes" or Yugoslavia - the country of the southern Slavs.

STATES WHICH TERRITORIES HAVE NOT CHANGED AS A RESULT OF WAR

Andorra, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg. Luxembourg abolished customs formalities and merged railways with Belgium. It is a replacement for the former German protectorate.
Monaco, Netherlands (Holland), Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.