Generic relations among the South African Bantu do not constitute any exception, they are similar to the generic relations of all peoples at this stage of development. Just like among other peoples, the Zulu, for example, calls father not only his real father, but all his brothers, he calls his mother not only his own mother, but also his mother's sisters, wives, uncles, etc. All members of the clan have certain rights and are bound by various obligations. When a young man gets married, his relatives help him pay off the lobola; when he marries off his daughter, he will give some of the lobola received to his relatives. He has to give them gifts from time to time, and they help him with advice and, if necessary, feed him. They help him in case of trouble, when building a hut, harvesting, etc. Members of each clan have their own holidays and ceremonies.

The clan was exogamous: a man could not marry a girl of his own clan, even though she was a very distant relative of him, he had to marry a girl from a different clan. Each clan had its own name, which distinguished it from other clans, the history of its origin, the greeting formula, etc. The Mashon retained the totemic organization of the clan. Each genus had its own totem - an animal with which the genus considered itself related and by whose name the genus was named. This animal was considered inviolable. For example, people of the antelope genus believed that they were in a state of blood relationship with the antelope, the patroness of the genus; she was not killed and meat was not eaten. Violation of this rule was allegedly fraught with serious consequences: it was assumed, for example, that if you eat antelope meat, your teeth will fall out. In some genera, they found a way to circumvent this rule: if a special stone and bark of a certain tree are placed in the cauldron where the antelope meat is cooked, then the meat can be eaten.

The marriage union between people who had the same totem was strictly forbidden: it was believed that the spouses would lose the ability to produce offspring. But in a large totemic clan, this created difficulties in finding a wife. Therefore, totemic clans were split into smaller units that bore different family nicknames and united people descended from one not very distant ancestor. The totem in the Mashona language is called Mutupo, and the family nickname is Chidavo. A man could marry a woman with another chidavo, even if she belonged to the same mutupo.

The Herero tribal organization was original. They coexisted maternal and paternal account of kinship, two forms of organization of the clan. Each person, by birth, belonged to the maternal clan - eanda, with whom he did not break ties throughout his life. Each member of the eand had the right to inherit on the maternal side of his maternal uncle. At the head of the Eand was the elder brother of the eldest woman, Eanda. But each Herero belonged at the same time to another organization - Oruso; this affiliation was inherited through the male line - from father to son. When a woman married, she became her husband's Oruso. At the head of the Oruso was the eldest of the men, the Oruso, his ancestor and head. A special part of the property was inherited through the Ouso line. This duality created an extremely complex system of inheritance among the Herero. By the time the Europeans arrived, the leading principle of the Herero social organization was, of course, patriarchal, but the Eanda was still a strong, living relic of matriarchy.

However, the clan, as the main unit of the primitive communal system, has long ceased to exist, disintegrated into large patriarchal families. By the beginning of European colonization, only a few, more or less strong, remnants of the clan organization remained.

The land was still collectively owned by the tribes and their subdivisions, but the use of the land was already private. Livestock and tools were the private property of large patriarchal families. In their use were estates and cultivated land, they disposed of the products of their labor at their own discretion. It was already a society of small producers, bound by collective ownership of land and by the common interests of defense against external attacks. Property inequality already existed among ordinary members of the community: there were rich and poor. There was a livestock loan and hence the economic dependence of the poor on the rich. The tribal elite exploited their fellow tribesmen and held significant wealth in their hands. Tribal leaders and tribal elders were large livestock owners, and caring for their flocks was a heavy duty on ordinary members of the community. Communities were obliged to cultivate their fields free of charge, build dwellings, cattle pens, etc. This was a form of production relations characteristic of the period of transition from relations of cooperation and mutual assistance of people free from exploitation to relations of domination and subordination.

The highest form of social organization was the tribe. Each tribe was independent, but relations of dependence had already appeared, a hierarchy had developed, a subordination of the leaders of the tribes. Descriptions of the first European travelers and missionaries (late 18th - early 19th centuries) give us a kaleidoscopic picture of the fragmentation of some tribes, the unification of others and the disappearance of others. Stable forms and boundaries of tribes disappeared, an intensive process of mixing of tribes took place.

The principle of consanguinity was still at the heart of the resettlement of people: the neighbors were relatives. But tribal isolation and tribal endogamy were already a thing of the past. The productive forces had already outgrown the framework of production relations and did not fit into the boundaries of the tribal organization. The destruction of the tribal structure was an expression of the discrepancy between the relations of production and the nature of the productive forces.

The tribe was headed by an elected leader. The national assembly was preserved, which decided the most important issues of the life of the tribe, elected and dismissed the leader of the tribe. But the circle of candidates was already strictly limited, dynastic families stood out, and the struggle for the post of leader was reduced to the struggle of his heirs, and the people had only the opportunity to support one of them. "A person who does not belong to the ruling dynasty could be elected leader only in an exceptional case" 1. Engels wrote about this stage of primitive society: “the election of their (tribal leaders. - Auth.) Successors from the same families little by little, especially since the establishment of paternal law, passes into hereditary power, which is first tolerated, then demanded and finally usurp; the foundations of hereditary royal power and hereditary nobility are laid ”2.

Before us is a picture of the primitive communal system in its last phase of development: the tribal structure is still alive, but has already lost its former harmony and stability; there is private property, rich and poor have appeared, but society has not yet split into antagonistic classes; management of public affairs is concentrated in the hands of wealthy dynastic families, but the state apparatus of violence does not yet exist. The exception was the Mashona, who already had the Monomotapa state 3.

Startcolonization

European colonialists appeared in South Africa only in the 17th century, that is, three hundred years ago. The Portuguese lived the sea route from Europe around Africa: in 1486 1 Portuguese expedition under the command of Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope 2 and reached the mouth of the river. Great Fish. After that, however, another century and a half passed before the settlement of Europeans in South Africa.

The inhospitable sandy shores of South West Africa did not attract travelers; the shores of the southern tip of Africa seemed even less attractive: ships were constantly crashed near them, and the navigators tried to pass them as soon as possible. Only the east coast, with its mild climate and rich vegetation, could attract the Portuguese. But this coast was inhabited by the warlike Bantu tribes, and the Portuguese were content with short stops to replenish their supplies of fresh water and food. The main strongholds were the bays for the Portuguese, where ships entered on their way to Goa, to the center of the Portuguese possessions in India.

With the fall of the colonial power of Portugal, its possessions in southeast Asia passed into the hands of the Dutch. The Dutch East India Company took over the spice trade throughout Indonesia. The Dutch also had to look for convenient bays where their ships could stop on their way to Asia and stock up on food and drinking water. In 1652, the representative of the East India Company, Jan van Riebeck, with a small group of soldiers, workers and employees of the company landed in the bay near Table Mountain and founded a fortified settlement there, from which the city of Kapstadt, present-day Cape Town, later grew, thus initiating the creation of the Cape Colony.

Five years later (1657), the first group of immigrants - free burghers - from Holland arrived in South Africa. Since 1698, the French, the Huguenots, who fled from religious persecution, began to move to a new colony; settlers from Germany came after them, etc. The national composition of the colonists was rather complex, although most of them were still Dutch. The descendants of these first colonists later received a common name - Boers (from the Dutch Loer - peasant). Now they prefer to call themselves Afrikanders.

The number of settlers, at first small, a hundred years later, in 1750, amounted to about 5 thousand; by the end of the 18th century. Europeans numbered more than 15 thousand people. As the population grew, the colony gradually expanded its territory. Newly arriving colonists moved deeper and deeper into the country, seizing the lands of the Hottentot tribes. The Hottentots tried to resist, but could not resist the colonists armed with firearms. The Dutch exterminated entire tribes, and the surviving Hottentots and Bushmen were turned into slaves.

In 1776, Dutch colonists appeared in the valley of the river. Great Fish, inhabited by the Bantu - Kosa tribes. The Kos did not represent unity at that time, individual clans fought for the division of pastures, their leaders Ndlambe and Gaika were at enmity with each other. But nevertheless, the scythe were able to delay the further advance of the colonists, and r. Great Fish remained the border between the Bantu and the Dutch colony for 40 years.

Slave labor in the Cape Colony was very widespread. A large territory, about 650 thousand km 2, completely cleared of Hottentots and Bushmen, was at the disposal of 15 thousand Europeans. Each colonist was a large landowner. The estates of up to 10 thousand hectares have survived to this day. For example, General Botha, a descendant of the first Dutch colonists, owned 12 thousand hectares of land, and this was no exception. Together with the land, the colonists seized from the Hottentots, and then also. the scythe has livestock. Therefore, each colonist became a large livestock owner. He was also a slave owner. The economy of the colonists was based on the labor of slaves. Due to the mass extermination of the Hottentots in the first period of colonization and the lack of local labor, slaves were imported from Madagascar, from East Africa and Malaya. By the beginning of the 19th century. in the colony there were about 30 thousand imported slaves and about 20 thousand Hottentots. The first English missionaries, trying to justify the British conquests in South Africa, collected a lot of material testifying to the plight of the slaves and the arbitrariness of the slave owners in the Cape Colony. The indignation of the slaves was suppressed with extreme cruelty. The slave-owning orders of that time are preserved, as we will see later, in a modified form after the establishment of English rule in modern South Africa.

At the beginning of the XIX century. The Cape Colony was captured by England. At this time, the British were at war with Napoleonic France. French troops won victories over their opponents in Europe, while England, meanwhile, gradually seized the French colonies in America, Africa and India. When Bonapartist France annexed Holland and, having declared it the Batavian Republic, actually incorporated it into their possessions, England in 1806 seized the Cape Colony.

The history of New America is not so many centuries old. And it began in the 16th century. It was then that new people began to arrive on the continent discovered by Columbus. The immigrants from many countries of the world had different reasons for coming to the New World. Some of them just wanted to start a new life. The latter dreamed of getting rich. Still others sought refuge from religious persecution or government persecution. Of course, all these people belonged to different nationalities and cultures. They were distinguished from each other by their skin color. But all of them were united by one desire - to change their lives and create a new world practically from scratch. This is how the history of the colonization of America began.

Pre-Columbian period

People have settled in North America for more than one millennium. However, information about the indigenous inhabitants of this continent before the period of the appearance here of immigrants from many other parts of the world is very scarce.

As a result of scientific research, it was found that the first Americans were small groups of people who moved to the continent from Northeast Asia. Most likely, they mastered these lands about 10-15 thousand years ago, passing from Alaska through the shallow or frozen ones. Gradually, people began to move inland, to the continent. So they reached Tierra del Fuego and the Strait of Magellan.

Also, researchers believe that in parallel with this process, small groups of Polynesians moved to the continent. They settled in the southern lands.

Both those and other settlers who are known to us as Eskimos and Indians are rightfully considered the first inhabitants of America. And in connection with long-term residence on the continent - the indigenous population.

Discovery of a new continent by Columbus

The first of the Europeans to visit the New World were the Spaniards. Traveling to a world unknown to them, they marked India and the western coastal territories of Africa on a geographical map. But the researchers didn't stop there. They began to look for the shortest path that would bring a person from Europe to India, which promised great economic benefits to the monarchs of Spain and Portugal. The result of one of these campaigns was the discovery of America.

It happened in October 1492, when a Spanish expedition led by Admiral Christopher Columbus landed on a small island in the Western Hemisphere. So the first page in the history of American colonization was opened. Immigrants from Spain flock to this outlandish country. Following them, the inhabitants of France and England appeared. The period of colonization of America began.

Spanish conquerors

The colonization of America by Europeans initially did not provoke any resistance from the local population. And this contributed to the fact that the settlers began to behave very aggressively, enslaving and killing Indians. The Spanish conquerors were especially cruel. They burned and plundered local villages, killing their inhabitants.

Already at the very beginning of the colonization of America, Europeans brought many diseases to the continent. The local population began to die from epidemics of smallpox and measles.

In the mid-16th century, Spanish colonists dominated the American continent. Their possessions stretched from New Mexico to Cape Gori and brought fabulous profits to the royal treasury. During this period of colonization of America, Spain beat off all attempts by other European states to gain a foothold in this territory rich in natural resources.

However, at the same time, the balance of power began to shift in the Old World. Spain, where the kings unwisely spent huge flows of gold and silver coming from the colonies, began to gradually give up its positions, yielding them to England, in which the economy was developing at a rapid pace. In addition, the decline of the previously powerful country, and the European superpower, was accelerated by the long-term war with the Netherlands, the conflict with England and the Reformation of Europe, on the fight against which huge funds were spent. But the last point of Spain's withdrawal into the shadows was the death in 1588 of the Invincible Armada. After that, England, France and Holland became the leaders in the process of colonizing America. Immigrants from these countries created a new wave of immigration.

Colonies of France

Immigrants from this European country were primarily interested in valuable furs. At the same time, the French did not seek to seize land, since in their homeland the peasants, despite being burdened with feudal duties, still remained the owners of their allotments.

The colonization of America by the French began at the dawn of the 17th century. It was during this period that Samuel Champlain founded a small settlement on the Acadia Peninsula, and a little later (in 1608) - In 1615, the possessions of the French extended to the lakes of Ontario and Huron. These territories were operated by trading companies, the largest of which was the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1670, its owners received a charter and monopolized the purchase of fish and furs from the Indians. Local residents became "tributaries" of companies, falling into a network of obligations and debts. In addition, the Indians were simply robbed, constantly exchanging the valuable furs they obtained for worthless trinkets.

British possessions

The colonization of North America by the British began in the 17th century, although the first attempts were made by them a century earlier. The settlement of the New World by subjects of the British crown accelerated the development of capitalism in their homeland. The source of the prosperity of the British monopolies was the creation of colonial trading companies that successfully operated on the foreign market. They brought in fabulous profits.

Features of the colonization of North America by Great Britain consisted in the fact that in this territory the government of the country formed two trading companies, which had large funds. They were London and Plymouth firms. These companies had royal charters according to which they owned lands located between 34 and 41 degrees north latitude, and without any restrictions stretching inland. Thus, England appropriated the territory that originally belonged to the Indians.

At the beginning of the 17th century. a colony was established in Virginia. The Virginia commercial company expected large profits from this venture. At its own expense, the company delivered settlers to the colony, who spent 4-5 years working off their debt.

In 1607 a new settlement was formed. This was the Gemstown colony. It was located in a swampy place where many mosquitoes lived. In addition, the colonists turned the indigenous population against themselves. Constant clashes with Indians and illness soon claimed the lives of two-thirds of the settlers.

Another English colony - Maryland - was founded in 1634. British settlers received allotments of land there and became planters and large entrepreneurs. The workers in these plots were the British poor, who worked out the cost of moving to America.

However, over time, instead of enslaving servants in the colonies, the labor of Negro slaves began to be used. They began to be brought mainly to the southern colonies.

Over the course of 75 years after the formation of the colony of Virginia, the British created 12 more similar settlements. These are Massachusetts and New Hampshire, New York and Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Maryland.

Development of the English colonies

Poor people in many countries of the Old World sought to get to America, because in their view it was the promised land, giving salvation from debt and religious persecution. That is why the European colonization of America was widespread. Many entrepreneurs have ceased to confine themselves to recruiting migrants. They began to arrange real raids on people, soldering them and sending them to the ship until they sober up. That is why there was an unusually rapid growth in the English colonies. This was also facilitated by the agrarian revolution carried out in Great Britain, as a result of which there was a massive landlessness of the peasants.

The poor, robbed by their government, began to look for the possibility of buying land in the colonies. So, if in 1625 there were 1980 settlers in North America, then in 1641 there were about 50 thousand immigrants from England alone. Fifty years later, the number of inhabitants of such settlements was about two hundred thousand people.

Displaced behavior

The history of the colonization of America is overshadowed by a war of extermination against the native inhabitants of the country. The settlers took the land from the Indians, completely destroying the tribes.

In the north of America, which was called New England, immigrants from the Old World took a slightly different path. Here, lands from the Indians were acquired through "trade deals". Subsequently, this became the reason for the approval of the opinion that the ancestors of the Anglo-Americans did not encroach on the freedom of the indigenous people. However, immigrants from the Old World acquired huge tracts of land for a bundle of beads or for a handful of gunpowder. At the same time, the Indians who were not familiar with private property, as a rule, did not even know about the essence of the contract concluded with them.

The church also made its contribution to the history of colonization. She raised the massacre of the Indians to the rank of a godly cause.

One of the shameful pages in the history of American colonization is the scalp prize. Before the arrival of the settlers, this bloody custom existed only among some tribes inhabiting the eastern territories. With the arrival of the colonialists, such barbarism began to spread more and more widely. The reason for this was the unleashed internecine wars in which firearms began to be used. In addition, the scalping process was greatly facilitated by the proliferation of iron knives. After all, wooden or bone tools that the Indians had before colonization greatly complicated such an operation.

However, the relations of the settlers with the indigenous people were not always so hostile. Ordinary people tried to maintain good neighborly relations. Poor farmers adopted and learned from the Indians, adapting to local conditions.

Immigrants from other countries

But be that as it may, the first colonists who settled in North America did not have uniform religious beliefs and belonged to different social strata. This was due to the fact that people from the Old World belonged to different nationalities, and, therefore, had different beliefs. For example, English Catholics have settled in Maryland. Huguenots from France settled in South Carolina. The Swedes settled in Delaware, and Virginia was full of Italian, Polish, and German artisans. The first Dutch settlement appeared on Manhattan Island in 1613. Its founder was the center of which was the city of Amsterdam, became known as the New Netherlands. Later, these settlements were captured by the British.

The colonialists were entrenched on the continent, for which they still thank God every fourth Thursday in November. America celebrates Thanksgiving. This holiday is immortalized in honor of the first year of life of the settlers in a new place.

The emergence of slavery

The first black Africans arrived in Virginia in August 1619 on a Dutch ship. Most of them were immediately ransomed by the colonists as servants. In America, blacks became slaves for life.

Moreover, this status even began to be inherited. The slave trade began to be carried out constantly between the American colonies and the countries of East Africa. Local leaders willingly exchanged their young people for weapons, gunpowder, textiles and many other goods brought from the New World.

Development of the southern territories

As a rule, settlers chose the northern territories of the New World for their religious reasons. In contrast, the colonization of South America pursued economic goals. The Europeans, having little ceremony with the indigenous people, resettled them to lands that were poorly suitable for existence. The resource-rich continent promised large incomes to the settlers. That is why in the southern regions of the country they began to cultivate plantations of tobacco and cotton, using the labor of slaves brought from Africa. Most of all goods were exported to England from these territories.

Migrants in Latin America

The territories south of the United States, Europeans began to develop also after the discovery of the New World by Columbus. And today the colonization of Latin America by Europeans is regarded as an unequal and dramatic collision of two different worlds, which ended in the enslavement of the Indians. This period lasted from the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century.

The colonization of Latin America led to the death of ancient Indian civilizations. After all, most of the indigenous population was exterminated by immigrants from Spain and Portugal. The inhabitants who survived fell under the control of the colonialists. But at the same time, the cultural achievements of the Old World were brought to Latin America, which became the property of the peoples of this continent.

Gradually, European colonists began to turn into the most growing and important part of the population of this region. And the bringing of slaves from Africa began a complex process of forming a special ethnocultural symbiosis. And today we can say that the colonial period of the 16-19 centuries left an indelible imprint on the development of modern Latin American society. In addition, with the arrival of Europeans, the region began to get involved in world capitalist processes. This has become an important prerequisite for the economic development of Latin America.

1 the crisis and collapse of the Mughal empire
Persian conqueror
Nadir Shah
Akbar's successors failed
continue the policy of creating a strong centralized state. Indian society was divided by a caste system, different
living standards of numerous
peoples and endless wars of conquest. Necessary
was to grant more and more lands, always ready for revolts of the nobility. And the treasury received less and less taxes, and the Mughals again unleashed wars of conquest. But the larger the territory of the Mughal empire became, the weaker - the central authority.

1. Crisis and collapse of the Mughal empire
Cavalry
Nadir Shah
Since the beginning of the XVIII century. the power of the padishahs becomes symbolic.
The provinces were separated one by one. Emperors lost
real power, but it was acquired by the princes. In 1739 the cavalry
Persian conqueror Nadir Shah plundered Delhi and destroyed most of the inhabitants of the capital. Then the northern part
Afghans flooded India.
In the first half of the 18th century. India actually returned to a state of fragmentation, which facilitated European colonization.

Opening
marine
the way
to India
Vasco
da gama
The penetration of European colonialists into India began
since the 16th century. Opening a sea route to India, the Portuguese captured several bases on the Malabar coast. But they did not have sufficient forces to advance into the interior of the country. The Portuguese were replaced by the Dutch, who became in
export large quantities of spices from India and were engaged in
exclusively by trade, completely without interfering with life
Indians. The French were next. Finally to India
the British arrived, pushing back all other Europeans.

10.

2. The struggle of Portugal, France and England for India
In 1600, the British founded the East India Company, which established trading posts in various parts of India. In 1690 the British
built on the land provided to them by the Great Mogul, the fortified city of Calcutta. The company has acquired large
land owned by the Governor-General, and
to protect them, she built fortresses and created troops from hired
Indian soldiers (sepoys), armed and trained in a European manner. These troops were commanded by British officers.

11.

2. The struggle of Portugal, France and England for India
In 1757 the British captured
Bengal, which marked the beginning of the systematic conquest of the entire country by troops
East India Company, its possessions turned into a real colonial empire.
England's main rival in
India was France, but she
lost her fortresses on
territory of India and led only
negligible trade.
The British exported from India
fabrics, spices, porcelain

12.3 Colonization of India by Britain

Internal conflicts between Indian
kingdoms allowed European
traders gradually establish
political influence and land acquisition.

13.3 Colonization of India by England

Although the European powers and
managed to keep under their
control of various Indian
regions throughout the 18th century,
later they were forced
cede almost all of these territories
the British, with the exception of
French outposts
Pondicherry and Chandernagore,
Dutch port city
Coromandel (until 1825), and
Portuguese colonies Goa, Daman
and Diu.

14. 4. British India

British East India Company monopolized
trade in Bengal. The British introduced a special
land tax system called the "permanent
settlement ", which established the neo-feudal
social structure.

15. British India

By the early 1850s, the East India Company
controlled most of the Indian
subcontinent, including modern Pakistan and
Bangladesh. The British in their colonial
policies followed the principle of "divide and conquer",
taking advantage of the state fragmentation of India
and conflicts between different principalities,
and between different social and religious
in groups.

16. British India

In 1857, dissatisfaction with the rule of the British
East India Company was the reason for the First
War of Independence, also known as
"Rise of the Sepoys". After a year of hostilities
the uprising was suppressed. Actual leader
uprising, the last Mughal padishah Bahadur
Shah II, was sent into exile in Burma, his children
were beheaded and the Mughal dynasty ceased
its existence.

17. British India

As a result, the British East India Company was
liquidated, and India came under
direct control of the British
crown as a colony of the British Empire.
The various territories were ruled by either
directly, or were in
subordination as vassal principalities.
The exploitation of the Indian colonies was
the most important source of accumulation of English
capital and industrial revolution in England

18. Colonization of India by Europeans

19.

CHINA

20.

1. Manchu Qin dynasty
Palace life
Qing Dynasty
The Manchus secured themselves an isolated and privileged position. By the form of government Qing China in the XVII-XVIII
centuries was a despotism. The emperor was at the head of the state -
bogdykhan, endowed with unlimited power.
The Qing dynasty waged endless wars of conquest. TO
the middle of the 18th century. she conquered all of Mongolia, then annexed the Uyghur state and the eastern part of Tibet to China.
Repeatedly undertaken campaigns of conquest during
Vietnam and Burma.

21.2 China and Russia in the 18th century

Seeing a threat to his dominion,
Manchu rulers led a hostile
policy towards China's neighbors, in
in particular, sought to stop trading with
Russia, to start a war with her.
Only in 1689 was it possible to conclude Nerchinsky
a treaty on borders and trade. He was followed by
Burinsky and Kyakhtinsky treaties (1727). Russia
was the first and perhaps the only
a European state that has established with China
mutually beneficial contractual relationship.

22. 3. "Closed doors"

Holland, Portugal, France, and England were aiming for
penetrate China only for colonial purposes.
This became clear soon after, in 1516.
Portuguese ships visited Canton. With the aim of
prevent foreign infiltration, which clearly wore
predatory nature, Minsk court forbade
Europeans entering the country.
The Qing dynasty rulers went further in isolating the country:
they forbade the building of large ships. Chinese maritime
trade declined sharply, and in 1757 access
foreign ships were closed at all ports except
Canton.

23.

3. "Closed doors"
Bogdykhan of the Qing dynasty
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. English and French merchants began to appear in Chinese ports. Chinese
with fear and respect
looked at the arriving foreigners, seeing them
superiority over oneself
in military affairs and entrepreneurship.
But in 1757, by decree of the Qing emperor, all ports, except for Guangzhou, were closed to external
trade.

24.

3. "Closed doors"
Sculptural image of Buddha
It was supposed to be
the beginning of China's isolation.
The reasons for the
closure policies
China is that they reached the Manchu court
information about the colonialist policy of Europeans in neighboring countries.
Contacts with foreigners, it seemed
authorities, undermined the traditional foundations of Chinese society.

25. 3. "Closed doors"

The closed door policy seems to embody this
the inglorious era of China, which lasted almost three hundred years.
Not only European science is banned, but also
every attempt by Chinese scientists to introduce something new
in any area of ​​expertise.
"Literary prisons" are being created in the country, where
throw everyone who dares to even timidly express
views contrary to the ideology of the ruling circles, their
Confucian religion in its medieval form. So,
for the faithful recreation of the history of China in the 14-17 centuries
the scientist Dai Ming-shi was executed. A medic Ba Do-min,
who translated into Manchu the six-volume
anatomy with an atlas, was severely punished, and his work -
burned.

26. China in the XIV - XVII centuries

27.

JAPAN

28.1Political structure of Japan in the 18th century

Japan in the 18th century was
federation. Management Center,
who was in Edo, led
all internal processes in
country. On the outskirts, local authorities
held on the shoulders of the daimyo - heads
provinces. Total
there were about 300 daimyo.
Local managers could
pursue an independent policy,
however, they did not have their own
army and treasury.

29.2 Köhb reforms

J. Hardy - English merchant and writer:
"We
saw
country
extraordinary
beauty
with
highly developed culture. She
possessed a strong army and
national idea, however, in
the economic sphere have already started
trace
the first
problems: the people were poor,
the ruling elite bathed in
gold. Japan in the 18th century. "

30.2 Köhb reforms

First attempt to deal with
unstable socio-economic
the position of the country belongs to the shogun
Yoshimune (1716-1745) He entered
history as the author of Koechb's reforms:
Administrative reform.
The shogun decided to leave the administration
without changes. Supreme lord
ordered to replace about 80% of the composition
administration, making it more
civil (fired samurai and daimyo).

31.2 Köhb reforms

Financial reform. The post of minister appeared
finance.
Fighting excess. Shogun ordered to remove from the palace
luxury, rich food, lazy samurai, gambling
games and banned lavish celebrations.
Fight against corruption. A mortal was appointed for a bribe
execution. In addition, all relatives were taken
a huge fine for not teaching your neighbor
morality and honesty.
The policy of saving public funds. Yoshimune
reduced the number of managers who were
supported by the state. He ordered to increase the area
sowing rice ..

32.3. Development of science and culture

in 1742 allowed the import of European
books on natural and applied sciences.
Shogun invited Europeans to the capital - the city of Edo
(mostly Dutch) who
interested in the culture and history of Japan.
at the court, he organized centers of cultural
exchanges between Japanese and foreigners.
Japanese scholars quickly mastered English and
began to raise domestic knowledge from
mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
in other areas, the culture of Japan remained
conservative.
the national
idea, Buddhism and Shinto became stronger.
Foreign culture and customs were perceived
ordinary Japanese as strangers and strange

33.4. Japan in the second half of the 18th century

natural disasters: earthquakes, hurricanes and
two droughts in 1770 and 1771. The country began
the famine that killed several hundred thousand Japanese.
In 1772, the list of disasters was supplemented by a large
fire, and in 1773 a typhus epidemic began, which
claimed 140 thousand lives. Natural disasters
negatively affected the revenues to the treasury.
The government tried to patch the holes by
increase in taxes. Notable successes in this matter
achieved Tanuma Okitsugu, who introduced the policy
mercantilism. The shogun understood that other important
the source of replenishment of the treasury is trade, therefore
gave the go-ahead for the creation of trade associations, which
quickly began to transform into monopolies.

34.4. Japan in the second half of the 18th century

Japan of the late 18th century almost completely
lost the monarchical system. Power
the ruler has become nominal.
Domestic political power
concentrated in the hands of bureaucrats.
All affairs in the state began
to be in charge of state advisers -
RBJU.

35.

4. Japan in the second half of the 18th century
The imperial family was
devoid of real power, she
it was not allowed to own land, but on it
the content stood out for a small rice ration.
At the imperial court
there were always officials who watched everything
happening. To the emperor
honors were given, but it was emphasized that the divine emperor should not "condescend" to communion
with subjects.
Imperial palace

36.

5. "Closing" Japan
In the 30s. 17th century were published
expulsion orders
Europeans and prohibition
Christianity. Shogun Iemitsu Tokugawa's decree read: “In future times, as long as the sun illuminates the world, no one
dares to stick to the shores
Japan, even if it was
ambassador, and this law will never
cannot be canceled under
fear of death. "
Any foreign ship
arrived on the shores of Japan,
was subject to destruction, and his
the crew - death.
Shogun Iemitsu Tokugawa's decree

37.

5. "Closing" Japan
Okusha - tomb of the first
Shogun of the Edo Period,
Tokugawa Ieyasu
What are the consequences of the "closure" of Japan? The oppressive regime of the Tokugawa dynasty tried to prevent
destruction of traditional society. Although the "closure" of Japan and
was incomplete, it caused significant damage to merchants,
connected with the external market. Having lost the traditional
occupations, they took up the purchase of land from ruined peasant owners, set up enterprises in the cities. Anchored
Japan's technical lag behind Western countries

Algeria spanish occupation corsair

The defeat of Abd al-Qadir was a turning point in the conquest of Algeria, which allowed France to begin the violent modernization and Europeanization of the life of Algerian society. In economic terms, colonial conquest meant, above all, the seizure of land. In accordance with the official decrees of the 1840s, the French administration confiscated the lands of the dey, the beys, part of the land property of Muslim spiritual institutions, as well as the lands of the tribes that "raised arms against France." During the agrarian reforms of 1843-1844. the tribes were asked to document their rights to the lands they occupied. However, most of the tribes used the land on the basis of customary law, and did not have such documents. The French authorities recognized their lands as "ownerless" and expropriated them. Along with the "official" redistribution of property, the fund for colonization was also replenished by the purchase of private land holdings by Europeans. The redistribution of land was especially accelerated after the defeat of Abd al-Qadir, but in 1863 the Emperor Napoleon III, who disliked the colonists and feared a catastrophic loss of land for the Algerians, declared the tribes collective and irreplaceable owners of their lands. Nevertheless, the area of ​​the land fund of colonization grew rapidly: in 1850 the colonists owned 115 thousand hectares, in 1860 - 365 thousand hectares, and in 1870 - 765 thousand hectares. As a result of the conquest and colonization, half of the best lands in Algeria were at the disposal of the French authorities and private individuals, not counting forests, mines and other economically valuable territories.

In parallel with the seizure of land, the French state began intensive economic development of the country. Large concession companies established in Algeria began in the 1860s to develop the country's natural resources (coal, phosphorites, metal ores). For their removal, the first railways and highways were built, and telegraph communication was being established. The processing of agricultural products was gradually launched. In the 50s - 60s of the XIX century. Algeria has become an important sales market for the metropolis and a source of cheap mineral raw materials and food products (fruits, vegetables, wine). During these years, the orientation of local and European landowners to marketing products in the metropolis contributed to the gradual transformation of Algeria's subsistence economy into a commodity one.

However, for all the significance and scale of the economic reorganization of Algeria, the main result of the French conquest was nevertheless resettlement colonization. After the landing of the French expeditionary corps in Algeria, all kinds of adventurers began to enter the country, seeking to profit from the robbery of the indigenous population. In the 1840s, they were joined by impoverished peasants and townspeople in France, Spain, Italy, hoping to create a better life in a new place. Germans, Swiss, Greeks, Maltese, Corsicans also poured into this multi-lingual stream. As a result, the European presence developed at an ever-increasing pace: in 1833 there were 7.8 thousand Europeans in Algeria, in 1840 - 27 thousand, and in 1847 - already 110 thousand people. At the same time, the French themselves constituted no more than half of all immigrants. The French colonial authorities strongly encouraged the entry of non-French Europeans in order to replenish the ranks of the European minority. In addition, Algeria in the 19th century. was considered a reliable place of exile for convicts and political prisoners, most of whom, after serving their sentences, remained in the country. Finally, the metropolitan government forcibly resettled the unemployed here and gave refuge in Algeria to internally displaced persons who turned to them for help.

European immigrants who settled in the Algerian coastline took root relatively quickly on the local soil. Most of them were quite poor, and their immigration was caused not by the greed for profit, but by economic and political turmoil in their homeland. Unlike other colonies in France, Algeria is home to a large, socially diverse and ethnically diverse European population. A mosaic combination of languages, customs and customs of the newcomers

settlers were soon supplemented by mixed marriages in the French and non-French European environment. As a result, already 20-30 years after the start of colonization, a special social and ethnocultural type of “Algerian-European” began to form. This circumstance played an important role in the further development of Algeria.

The establishment of the colonial order in Algeria soon received political and legal formalization. The regime of the Second Republic (1848-1851) officially proclaimed Algeria part of the national territory of France. The governor now had only military power, and the areas inhabited by Europeans were divided into three special departments. They received civil self-government and the right to send three deputies to the French parliament. However, with the formalization of the power of Napoleon III (1851), the attitude of Paris towards the Algerian colony changed markedly. Among the colonists there were many political opponents of the newly-minted ruler of France, and already in 1852 he deprived Algeria of representation in parliament. Then, during the Second Empire, Napoleon II replaced the military governor with the "minister of Algeria and the colonies", and in 1863 he even proclaimed Algeria an "Arab kingdom", thereby trying to oppose the Arab-Berber traditional elites to the colonists. The new policy of Paris in Algeria was carried out by the "Arab bureaus" created in 1844 - intermediary institutions between the French military command and the Arab-Berber leaders. In the 50s - 60s of the XIX century. the role of the "Arab bureaus" was twofold - on the one hand, they limited the powers of local Arab sheikhs, and on the other, they suppressed the aspirations of European colonists to directly intervene in the management of "native affairs".

The victory over Abd al-Qadir went to the colonial authorities at a high price: the conquerors lost in 1830-1847. 40 thousand soldiers and were forced to keep in Algeria at least x / 3 of the armed forces of France. In addition, the abuses and violence that accompanied the colonization of Algeria constantly aroused anti-French sentiments among the Algerians.

The defeat of Abd al-Qadir marked the end of organized resistance, but the hard-to-reach regions of the Sahara and mountainous Kabylia remained centers of frequent local uprisings. Throughout the 1850s, the French struggled to conquer Kabilia (1851-1857). The riots in the Saharan oases - Zaadzha (1848-1849), Laguat (1852), Tuggurt (1854) - generally subsided by the beginning of the 60s. In the west of the country, the rebel movements of the tribal unions Banu Snassen (1859) and Ulad Sidi Sheikh (1864-1867) posed a considerable threat to the colonial administration. Fearing war with tribes on two or more fronts, the colonialists suppressed these uprisings with particular cruelty. Algeria became a school of punitive operations for prominent French military leaders - Pelissier, Saint-Arno, Bujot, Cavaignac, MacMahon. In fact, the entire flower of the French military command went through many years of experience of barbaric intimidation of the indigenous inhabitants of Algeria. It. the circumstance later affected the methods they chose to suppress political opponents in the metropolis itself, especially during the defeat of the Paris Commune.

If the scattered actions of the tribes were relatively easily suppressed by the colonialists in the 1860s, then in 1870 the situation changed dramatically. The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the proclamation of the Paris Commune created favorable conditions in Algeria for a new surge of anti-colonial movements. On the one hand, a significant part of the colonial troops was transferred to France - first to conduct hostilities against Prussia, and then to suppress the Paris Commune. The colony remained relatively small (45 thousand people) and less combat-ready units. On the other hand, the defeat of the French army at Sedan and the surrender of Napoleon II gave the Algerians back the hope of liberation. The capture of Paris by the Prussians was perceived in cities and tribes as a sign of the complete defeat of France and the exhaustion of her forces.

At the same time, among the European population of Algeria (especially among the colonists and exiled republicans), the collapse of the Second Empire caused a storm of enthusiasm. In 1870-1871. in Algeria, proponents of democratic change even set up self-governing defense committees. For six months they opposed the actions of Paris, demanding greater independence of Algeria from the metropolis. However, when a major Arab and Berber uprising broke out in Algeria in 1871, the Republican leaders quickly abandoned their autonomous aspirations and chose to stand under the protection of the French army.

The liberation uprising of the Algerian Berbers in 1871 turned out to be a brief but determined attempt by some of the local leaders to take advantage of a rare moment of weakness and disorganization in the management of the colony. It was headed by Muhammad Mukrani - the ruler of one of the districts of Kabylia (Eastern Algeria), a descendant of an old Berber family - and his brother Ahmed Bu Mezrag. With the active support of the Muslim brotherhood of Rahmaniyya, they were able to create a real rebel army of up to 25 thousand soldiers. In March - July 1871, Eastern Algeria became the theater of violent guerrilla warfare. Algerian tribes seized communications, destroyed the posts of the French army, besieged garrisons, and smashed the colonists' farms. The situation of the French troops in eastern Algeria was almost as serious as during the struggle against Abd al-Qadir.

Aware of the danger of an uprising, the authorities of the metropolis took radical measures. The colonial corps, weakened during the years of the Franco-Prussian war, was strengthened, and its number was brought to 86 thousand people, and an armed militia was created from among the colonists. Systematic actions in the spirit of the tactics of "mobile columns" allowed the French command to defeat the main forces of the rebels by the summer of 1871. In 1872, a complete disarmament of the population was carried out, and the most active leaders of the uprising were exiled to New Caledonia. The uprising of 1871 was the last major outbreak of anti-French resistance in Algeria, although sporadic clashes between tribal militias and the colonial army continued until 1883.

Following the Homeric, Greece entered a period that is often conventionally called archaic. This period, covering the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., primarily characterized by a number of major shifts in all major branches of the material life of Greek society. The extraction of ore minerals, primarily iron and copper, is expanding, the processing of metal and the tools made of it are improving, significant progress is being observed in agriculture, and in various branches of handicraft production, and in construction, and shipbuilding, which is especially important for such a sea people. what the ancient Greeks were like.
The growth of production also contributed to further progress in the social and technical division of labor. The labor of farmers is becoming more and more isolated from the labor of artisans, and a number of new previously undifferentiated specialties are emerging. Trade exchange is growing, as evidenced by the appearance in the 7th century. monetary systems and then their rapid and widespread distribution.
The rapid pace of development of the productive forces of Greek society forced a further increase in social and property inequality and the formation of production relations of a new type, which led to the formation of a class society and state in a specific ancient one. Greece is the form of a policy - a city-state. Slave-owning relations were developing more and more. Thus, over the course of the VIII-VI centuries. in Greece, the transition to the slave system was taking place. But, of course, this process took different forms, and the pace of its development was not the same, which is explained by the variety of conditions in which the population of Greece lived.
By the 8th century, over the four hundred years that have elapsed since the Dorian resettlement, three main branches into which the Greek people split were clearly identified: 1) northeastern -
Aeolian branch, 2) Eastern - Ionian, 3) Southern - Dorian. The Aeolians lived in Thessaly, Boeotia, Arcadia, the island of Lesbos and the region of Aeolis in Asia Minor. The Ionians lived in Attica, on most of the islands of the Aegean Sea (Chios, Samos, Naxos) and the middle part of the western coast of Asia Minor (the cities of Ephesus, Miletus, etc.). The third (Dorian) group included the Greeks who lived on the territory of Corinth, Aegina, Megar, Sikion, Argos, Sparta, Crete, the island of Rhodes and the southern part of Asia Minor coast (Halicarnassus). The Ionians seemed to wedge themselves between the Aeolians and the Dorians, they had their centers on the mainland, and on the islands, and in Asia Minor. Each of the named groups of the Greek people spoke their own dialect: Ionians - Ionian, Dorians - Dorian, etc. In the northeastern group there was a large admixture of Illyrian-Thracian elements, in the Dorian - Achaean and various Aegean, the Ionians represented is a complex mixture of pre-Greek inhabitants of the Mediterranean, Achaeans and possibly Dorians.
The most advanced were the Ionians, especially the population of the western Ionian coast of Asia Minor, which was famous for its flourishing cities. Here, earlier than in other places, the transition to more progressive slave-holding relations for that era was outlined and carried out, the remnants of the clan system disappeared faster and the rule of the clan aristocracy was overthrown. Gradually, other parts of the Hellenic world were drawn into this process. Greek colonization played a very important role in its further development.
Colonization of the 8th-6th centuries was a continuation of the migrations and settlements that took place in the previous centuries, but its scale was incomparably wider and the historical consequences were more significant. Therefore, in the scientific literature of our time, the name "great colonization" has been established for it.
The main reasons for the colonization of that time are rooted in the changed, in the VIII-VI centuries. historical conditions. Further growth of the productive forces leads to the development of new relations of production - slaveholding. Simultaneously with the growth of the population, property inequality and landlessness of the free grew. In the cities, the class struggle intensified, accompanied by political upheavals. The factions defeated in this struggle left their homeland forever and settled in new places.
The development of colonization also stimulates trade. A number of colonies at this time were created on the basis of temporary trading posts.
The population of the colonies further combines trade with crafts and agriculture. The most ancient agricultural colonies, in connection with the development of commodity production and the growth of trade, are involved in trade activities and become large trade centers.
Thus, colonization was a rather complex phenomenon. It is characterized by several stages of development. In the early period, colonization was an episodic phenomenon and went like this: brave, enterprising people from different cities went to foreign distant countries in search of a better life and enrichment. Subsequently, colonization becomes more systematic.
The founding of new colonies becomes a matter of not only private, but also state initiative. In a number of cities that took an active part in colonization, special positions of the so-called oikists were created, whose duties included the organization of the colony. The political structure of the colonies was basically the same as that of the metropolises, with the exception, of course, of those cases when the founders of the colonies were political emigrants. Having emerged, the colony soon turned into the same independent state - a city-polis, like its metropolis. Lively economic, political, cultural and religious ties were usually established between colonies and metropolises, which were in the nature of relations between independent from each other, but usually friendly policies. These ties were often sealed by special agreements.
The entire Greek world, both its western and eastern parts, took part in the great colonization to varying degrees. The initiative came from the most developed cities of Asia Minor, some islands of the Greek archipelago * and Balkan Greece, especially cities: Miletus (in Asia Minor), Chalkis (on Euboea), Megar (Megara) and Corinth (in mainland Greece).
The colonization movement basically developed in three directions: 1) westward - along the coasts of Italy and Sicily and further to the west; 2) southern - along the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea and 3) northeastern - along the banks of the Hellespont, Propontis and Pontus Euxine.
The colonies of the Greeks, thus, spread along the entire Mediterranean coast, as well as the coasts of the Marmara and Black Seas. Like the ancient Phoenicians, the Greeks, as a rule, established their settlements within the coastal strip, without going far inland. In the words of Cicero, the Greek colonies were like a border, sewn to the vast fabric of "barbarian fields."

Greek colonies of the 8th-6th centuries BC NS.

The colonization advance in the western direction began with the development of the coasts of the Apennine Peninsula and the coasts of Sicily. In the first half of the VIII century. On the western coast of Italy, the most ancient Greek colony of Kima (lat. Kuma) arose, founded by immigrants from the island of Euboea and the Asia Minor Kim. Excavations at the Kim site have uncovered traces of pre-Greek settlements. The Kims were both an agrarian and a trading colony, a conductor of Greek culture in Italy and Etruria. Subsequently, the Kumans founded Naples. The entire coast south of Kim was dotted with Greek colonies.
The pioneers in Sicily were also the Chalkidians, who, together with people from the island of Naxos, founded the colony of Naxos on the volcanic soil of Etna (in 735). At the beginning of the VII century. BC NS. The Kumanians, together with the Chalkidians who lived in Italy, created the Zanklou colony, located on the shores of a narrow strait separating Italy from Sicily. Subsequently (at the beginning of Vb.) The inhabitants of Zankla were driven out by the Samians, who were soon expelled by the tyrant of the Chalcis colony of Rhegium, which lay on the opposite bank of the strait; he named this settlement Messana (now Messina). The Corinthians established themselves on the island of Kerkyra and in Sicily, they founded Syracuse. In the VI century. in the south of Sicily, Acragant arose. In this way, step by step, in a relatively short time, the entire coast of southern Italy and Sicily was colonized, while the local population was pushed out of the coastal strip.
In the western part of Sicily, the Greek colonization wave met with a wave emanating from Carthage, the Phoenician colony in Africa. Carthage claimed the western part of Sicily. In the future, Sicily turned into a bone of contention, first between Carthage and the Greeks, and then between Carthage and the Romans.
In southern Italy, on the shores of the Gulf of Tarentum, the colonies of Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton and others were founded. Tarentum is the only colony bred by Sparta. Tradition names the Parthenians (born from illegal ties of the Spartiats with Periekian women) as the first inhabitants of Tarent. The southern Italian colonies were located in extremely fertile areas, had excellent bays, and therefore soon turned into flourishing cities (polis) of the Hellenic world.
South Italian cities connected the western (Italic) world with the Greco-eastern. This is the reason for the rapid and brilliant cultural flourishing of "Magna Graecia", as the southern part of Italy inhabited by the Greeks is called. From the Italic and Sicilian colonies, bread, timber, wine, olive oil, wool, hides of domestic animals and other products and products began to be exported.
West of the Apennine Peninsula at the end of the 7th century. immigrants from Phocaea (cities in Asia Minor) founded at the mouth of the Rhone
Massalia (modern Marseille). Due to its favorable geo * graphic position, Massalia played the role of an intermediary and was further famous as the richest and cultural center of the Mediterranean West. The sea, on the one hand, and the fertile Rhone valley, inhabited by the Ligurs, on the other, were the basis for the material and cultural prosperity of Massalia. Artifacts indicate that the influence of the Massali reached not only the regions of modern France and the Iberian Peninsula, but also the British Isles, from where they brought tin. Natives of Massalia founded colonies on the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The attempts of the Greeks to establish themselves in the south of Spain were unsuccessful: the Phoenicians from Carthage competed with them.
The southern Mediterranean coast turned out to be less favorable for Greek colonization. The best areas on this coast were already occupied by the Phoenician colonies. The Greeks managed to establish themselves only in the Nile delta, in the territory assigned to them by the Egyptian pharaohs, where the city of Navcratis was founded, and in the territory west of Egypt, where Cyrene arose, which played an important role in the spread of Greek culture among the local Libyan tribes. The region of Cyrene (Cyrenaica) was renowned for its exceptional fertility. Agricultural products were exported from here, as well as sylphium, a plant widely used as a medicine and as a seasoning in the manufacture of food, and, in addition, livestock (especially horses).
Another colonization stream in the same VIII century goes to the northeast. At the end of the VIII and the beginning of the VII century. Halkidika (a peninsula in the north of the Aegean Sea) was colonized. It received this name from the city of Chalkida on the island of Euboea, from which, according to legend, 32 colonies were founded. A century later, colonists from other cities also came here. Potidgya, founded by Corinth, acquired particular importance later. Halkidika was famous for its fertile soil and forests. From here timber was exported in large quantities. In addition, metals were sent to Greece from this island, as well as from the Thracian coast. Following Halkidiki, the Thracian coast is also colonized. The penetration of the Greeks to this coast influenced the local tribes, and at the same time, the Greeks themselves adopted some features of the Thracian way of life, customs and beliefs.
In the VII century. BC NS. there is an intensive settlement by the Greeks of the shores of the Hellespont, Propontis and Pontus. A number of colonies appear here: Abydos - on the Hellespont, Cyzicus - on the Propontis; in the same century, on the Asian coast of the Bosporus, Calhedon was founded, or, as it was otherwise called, Chalcedon. In European

the Megarian colony of Byzantium arose on the coast of the strait * on the peninsula separating the Golden * Horn from the Sea of ​​Marmara. The Milesians and the settlers who later joined them from other cities established themselves on the southern, Asian, coast of Pontus. Sinop becomes a strong point here. On the western, Thracian, Black Sea coast, the most important colonies were Odessa, Tomy, Istria (south of the Danube), at the mouths of the Tyra River (modern Dniester) - Tupac.
The main role in the colonization of the Northern Black Sea region belonged to the Ionian Greeks, who came from the cities of the Asia Minor coast, primarily Miletus. In the VI century. BC NS. at the mouth of the Bugo-Dneprovsky estuary, they founded Olbia and a number of colonies on the eastern coast of the Crimea and along the shores of the Kerch Strait, which in ancient times was called the Cimmerian Bosporus. The largest of them are: Panticapaeum (on the site of present-day Kerch), Feodosia (on the site of modern Feodosia), Phanagoria, Hermonassa and Kepa on the coast of the Taman Peninsula, which in ancient times was a group of islands formed by the Kuban delta. The northernmost Greek settlement was Tanais, which arose on the coast of Meotida (Sea of ​​Azov) at the mouth of the Don. The only Dorian colony on the northern Black Sea coast was Chersonese, founded by settlers from the Megarian colony of Heraclea Pontic in the 5th century. It was located 3 kilometers from present-day Sevastopol, on a rocky peninsula between Pesochnaya and Karantinnaya bays. It is not excluded that a small Ionian settlement existed in this place before the invasion of the Heraclian colonists.
In the further development of the northern Black Sea colonies of the Greeks, along with agriculture and local handicrafts, trade began to play a very important role. In the VI century. the need for raw materials from the Black Sea, and especially for bread, was already felt by many Greek cities. Greek artisans also needed a market for their products. Thus, in the VI century. Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea, in particular the northern Black Sea ones, are acquiring exceptional importance in the economic life of Greece. They become suppliers of raw materials, bread and labor - slaves. The material well-being of many Greek cities depends on their activities.
A significant part of the bread and other items of export exported from the Black Sea coasts fell into the hands of Greek merchants, who conducted trade exchanges with local tribes. Lively trade relations are established between the Greek colonial cities and the local population, equally beneficial to both sides. The tribal nobility was especially interested in trade with the Greeks. By the time of colonization, it possessed significant stocks of marketable grain and huge herds of livestock. The products of Greek craft, in particular artistic, were in great demand in this environment. The close ties of local tribes with the Greek colonial cities created favorable conditions for the spread of Greek culture and the Hellenization of the local population. At the same time, constant communication with the local population left an imprint on all aspects of the life of the Greek colonies. Of course, in some cases, military clashes took place between Greek colonists and local tribes. However, in the first centuries of colonization, peace prevailed over war in the relationship between the newcomer and the local population.
The interest of the Greeks in the Black Sea and the tribes and nationalities inhabiting its coast is quite understandable, and it is not surprising that many ancient writers reflected in their works the life and life of the population of the Black Sea region. It is to them that we owe the first detailed information about the ancient inhabitants of our country and its historical fate in the ancient era.