Ufa State Aviation
Technical University
Department of Fatherland History and Cultural Studies

Culture of the Novgorod principality.

INEC student
NIN-127 group
Kirillova E.S.
supervisor
Feklina O.B.

Ufa 2013

Introduction ……………. ………………………………………. .............................. page 3

Architecture ………. ……………………………………………………. ……………………… ... page 4
Bookness, education, literacy ………………………………………… .. …… .page 10
Military glory of Novgorod …………………………………………………………………… ..page 15

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………… page 18

Introduction.
Target:
The purpose of the abstract is to study the culture of the Novgorod principality.

Tasks:
This work examines the architecture of Novgorod: St. Sophia Cathedral built in 1045-1050, St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery, the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Pole and others. The economic, spiritual and cultural life of Novgorodians is also considered.

During the period of fragmentation in the North-West of Russia, an independent state formation appeared - the Novgorod principality. This principality differed from others in a very original political structure: the supreme power belonged not to the prince, but to the veche, therefore it is legitimate to call Novgorod a republic, the nature of the economy: here, in the highest degree for Russia of that time, craft and trade were developed, and an original culture. The study of these features makes it possible to explain many of the problems of our time.
But since three features of the Novgorod Republic can be distinguished, then the presentation of information about Novgorod in the main part of the abstract is divided into three parts: state structure, economy and culture. The point about the geographical location and preliminary historical information in the introduction are needed in order to show in what space and at what time the Novgorod Republic existed.

Novgorod has long become one of the most popular objects of historical research in our historiography and continues to remain so to this day. This is fully justified by the general outstanding significance of it in our history and the particular circumstances of its historical fate.

Novgorod is one of the oldest Russian cities, the date of its foundation is not recorded by reliable written sources: they found the city already existing. It is to such cities, in the absence of accurate information about them, that the inquisitive thought of the ancient chroniclers tied wandering international legends. The shovel of modern archaeologists must search for their "bottom" at the colossal depth of the cultural layer, on the order of several meters in thickness.

Novgorod is a satellite and witness to our entire history. Along with Kiev, it was the center of an independent pre-feudal state formation on the territory of Russia. Having entered the Kievan state, he made a common path of historical development with other Russian cities. In the period of the XIII-XIV centuries, when the normal development of these cities was disrupted by the Tatar invasion, Novgorod continued it and for a certain time is for us an indicator of the direction and course of development of Russian culture.

The art of the Novgorod Republic occupied one of the most prominent places in the culture of medieval Europe. Great Russian art was largely formed in the Novgorod land. For a long time the Novgorod Republic has been a treasure house and keeper of the original, original Great Russian culture. “In the history of Russian art of the Middle Ages (XIII-XV) Novgorod holds the first place. Here the Great Russian type was formed and preserved in the greatest purity, far from the Tatar captivity and serfdom. Here and now, folklorists find the best songs and epics, ancient costumes and the most interesting monuments of wooden architecture ”(170).
By its originality, the Novgorod culture differed from the cultures of both the West and the East. “For the whole world, Novgorod is a brilliant center of world culture, no less important than many cities in Italy. It is one of the centers of the Proto-Renaissance, a center of renowned painting and architecture. Its significance lies in the fact that it protected Russia not only militarily, but even more so in cultural terms: from dissolution in the cultures of the East and West ”(171). The originality distinguished the Novgorod culture among the cultures of other Russian lands.
From the beginning of the XIV century, the struggle for primacy in Russia flared up between Tver and Moscow. “Novgorod for a long time tried to defend its independence from the great princely power, using the rivalry between Tver and Moscow. That is why in architecture, as well as in painting, Novgorod continued to follow its own path, not only developing old artistic traditions, but also emphatically opposing its art to those new artistic movements that arose in the art of Tver and Moscow ”(172).
* * *
Novgorodians were subtle connoisseurs of art. Their chronicles, unlike other domestic and foreign chronicles, are replete with information about all at least some significant events. cultural life Veliky Novgorod. “I will not allow exaggeration,” wrote D.S.Likhachev, “if I say that the main character literary works Novgorod had monuments of architecture and painting. A rare large building in Novgorod did not have a legend about its origin, did not have its own history, recorded in the annals of information about itself. On the other hand, a rare work of Novgorod literature was not associated with one or another monument ”(173).
“If we take a close look at the Novgorodian writing, we will see that it is all permeated with an interest in art ... In none of the literatures of other Russian regions do writers show themselves to be such connoisseurs of the art of construction and painting techniques” (174).
In Novgorod literature, there was a genre dedicated to the description of distant countries. The authors of the so-called "walks" have always told in detail about the cultural achievements of other peoples. In their works, travelers from Novgorod devoted a significant place to a detailed description of foreign art monuments. At the same time, they showed an amazing artistic flair and professional knowledge of the masters.
“Literary historians have repeatedly noted in the literature of Novgorod its simplicity, efficiency, lack of adornment, love of everyday vernacular, sober practical mind and soundness of concepts. Indeed, in comparison with the literatures of other areas, the literature of Novgorod is one of the simplest, just as simple and natural are the monuments of Novgorod architecture. However, behind this external simplicity lies the real feeling of artists, art connoisseurs, craftsmen and experts in their field. It was the efficiency of artists, craftsmen, architects, icon painters, craftsmen, for whom art was a matter of life. In their approach to the monuments of art, there is a professional interest and a real understanding of them.

Literature.

1. Klyuchevsky V.O. Collected Works. Course of Russian history. "Thought". 1987, p. 74.
2. Vernadsky, Russia in the Middle Ages (p. 37)
3. Vasily Fedorovich Andreev 1983. Essays on the history of medieval Novgorod. Northern guardian of Russia.
4, http: //fictionbook.ru/ author / mizun_yuriyi_ gavrilovich / haniy_i_knyazya_ zolotaya_orda_i_russkie_ knyajestva / read_online.html? page = 3
5.http: //www.spsl.nsc.ru/ history / descr / kn02.htm
6.http: //www.bibliotekar.ru/ rusNovgStrazh / 8.htm
7. Artsikhovsky A. V. Archaeological study of Novgorod // Proceedings of the Novgorod archaeological expedition. M., 1956.Vol. 1.
8. Gordienko E. A. Novgorod in the XVI century and its spiritual life. SPb., 2001.

ARCHITECTURE.
Since ancient times, Novgorodians throughout Russia were famous as the most skillful carpenters. Novgorod masters have created many architectural masterpieces from wood. Novgorodians were among the first in Russia to master the construction of stone. The history of the city begins in the 9th century with the construction of a wooden fortress-Kremlin, which later became the heart of the Novgorod principality. In the original wooden version, the fortress was round and half the size of what can be seen now. Already in 1044, the walls of the Kremlin were gradually replaced with stone ones, but this construction stretched out for almost 4 centuries. Only in the 20s of the 15th century, the Novgorod Kremlin-Detinets became completely stone. This is the oldest of all the kremlin on the territory of Russia, which has survived to our times. Inside it is the Vladychnaya Chamber and the courtyard, the residence of the archbishop and temples. The Vladychnaya, or as it is also called the Faceted Chamber, is the only building of the 15th century in Russia that belongs to the Gothic style. The Vladychny Yard is the oldest part of the Kremlin. Originally wooden, it was surrounded by stone in the 12th century and was a kind of fortress inside the fortress.
The Novgorod Sofia, like the Kiev prototype, was a ceremonial building that stood out sharply among the wooden dwellings of the townspeople surrounding it. The emphasized monumentality of the princely ceremonial buildings is characteristic of the art of feudal society. In this respect, the organization of the internal space of the temple is also extremely expressive, sharply divided into two parts - the lower half-dark, as if suppressed by low vaults, a choir, accessible to all citizens, and the upper one - luxurious floors (choirs) flooded with light, intended only for the prince and his family. and the nearest circle of courtiers who entered the stairs through the staircase tower.

Despite its proximity to the Kiev cathedral, Novgorod Sophia differs significantly from it not only in design features, but also in the originality of the artistic concept: it is simpler, more laconic and stricter. The whole composition of the masses of the building is solved in a simpler way. The complex completion of the Kiev cathedral with thirteen chapters was replaced by a more strict five-chapter. The architectural forms of Novgorod Sophia are more monolithic and somewhat more static than the dismembered dynamic masses of Sophia of Kiev, with a pyramidal growth of the architectural composition directed upward.

The character of the interiors of both cathedrals is also different: in Novgorod Sophia some departure from the complex "picturesque space" of Sophia of Kiev is outlined. In the Novgorod cathedral there is more simplicity and more dismemberment, disunity of the spatial cells of the building, the decor is much stricter. Rejection of marble and slate, mosaics in favor of frescoes makes the interior of Novgorod Sofia more austere.

At the beginning of the 12th century, Novgorod became a veche republic. The boyars take possession of the state apparatus, pushing the prince into the role of a hired military leader of the city. The princes move to the Settlement, near which the princely Yuriev Monastery appears, and a little later - the Spaso-Nereditsky.

During the twelfth century, the princes made a number of attempts to oppose new buildings to the Sophia they had lost. Back in 1103, Prince Mstislav laid the foundation for the Church of the Annunciation on the Settlement; part of the walls was discovered in 1966-1969. excavations. Judging by the remains, this temple, the oldest after Sofia, was a large ceremonial building. In 1113, the five-domed church of St. Nicholas was built on the Yaroslav's courtyard, which was a princely palace temple. By type and artistic characteristics Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral is a large city cathedral church, which, apparently, is caused by the deliberate opposition of the new princely church to the temple of Sophia.

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery, built in 1119 by Prince Vsevolod, in terms of size and construction skill, takes first place in Novgorod architecture after Sofia. The prince of Novgorod strove to build a building that could, if not overshadow the Cathedral of Sophia, then at least compete with it. The late Novgorod chronicle preserved the name of the Russian architect who built the cathedral - "Master Peter". St. George's Cathedral, like the Cathedral of St. Nicholas on the Dvorishche, retains the image of a large ceremonial building. To its northwestern corner, the master attached a high rectangular tower with a staircase located inside, leading to the floor of the cathedral. The outstanding Russian architect achieved exceptional expressiveness in this building, bringing to the limit the laconicism of forms, the rigor of proportions and the clarity of the constructive concept. All this gave the cathedral the character of a monolithic whole.

In an extremely tense political situation, the last two princely churches were being built - the Church of Ivan on Opoki in 1127 and the Church of the Assumption on Torga in 1135 (founded by Prince Vsevolod shortly before his expulsion from Novgorod). Both buildings are based on a simplified plan of the Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral: there are no towers, the entrance to the choir is arranged in the form of a narrow gap in the thickness of the western wall.

After 1135, the princes, who felt extremely uncomfortable in the city, did not build a single building. Often escaping from the "Novgorodian table", and even more often being driven out by the veche decision, they did not dare to undertake large-scale construction, which required time and money.

Only in the midst of such new political conditions can the last monument of princely construction in Novgorod be understood - the Church of the Savior Nereditsa, founded in 1198 by Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich near the new prince's residence on the Gorodishche.

It is a cubic building, almost square in plan, with four pillars inside, bearing a single dome. Narrow slit entrance to the choir in the west wall. It does not at all shine with the beauty of proportions - its walls are prohibitively thick, the masonry is rough, although it still repeats the old system of "striped" masonry. The curvature of the lines, the unevenness of the planes, the sloping corners give this building a special plasticity that distinguishes the Novgorod and Pskov architecture from the monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal architecture and the architecture of early Moscow, which inherited the Vladimir-Suzdal traditions.

In the second half of the twelfth century, a new type of temple was formed in Novgorod. Instead of grandiose, but few structures, buildings appear small and simple, but under construction in large numbers.

The character of the interior is drastically changing. Lush open balconies - choirs - are replaced by closed on all sides corner chambers on the vaults, connected to each other by a small wooden platform.

Outside, the mass of the temple also becomes more monolithic and simpler. The towers for the entrance to the choir are replaced by a narrow slit-like passage in the thickness of the western wall. The ceremonial multi-domed structure, so characteristic of earlier architecture, disappears completely from the end of the twelfth century. Facades are becoming more laconic.

The first building of a new type that has come down to us is the Church of the Annunciation near the village of Arkanzhi near Novgorod, built in 1179. It is a square, four-pillar, one-domed temple with three semicircular apses on the east side.

The Church of Peter and Paul on Sinichya Gora, built in 1185-1192, completely coincides with the type described above, has one remarkable feature: it is built of one brick, without rows of stones, moreover, the rows of bricks lying in the plane of the facades alternate with rows, immersed in a solution, the surface of which is smoothly rubbed. This feature is typical for the Polotsk architecture of the twelfth century and is explained, apparently, by the direct influence of the Polotsk tradition.

Do not forget the Church of St. Cyril in the St. Cyril Monastery, completely destroyed during the Second World War, built by the brothers Konstantin and Dmitry in 1196. The chronicle has preserved the name of the architect - the master Korov Yakovlevich from Lubyana Street. The building itself is the closest analogy to the Church of the Savior Nereditsa.

Some typical changes appear in the church of Paraskeva Friday on Torgu, built in 1207. The middle semicircular apse was adjoined on both sides of the apse, which had a semicircular shape only inside. Outside, they were rectangular. On three sides, lowered porches adjoined the main cube of the building, the corners of which, like the corners of the main cube, were decorated with stepped (beam) blades, also unusual for Novgorod. The facades of the main cube had three-bladed ends, respectively, which made the coverings of the temple. It is interesting to compare this feature with similar features of the perfectly preserved monument of Smolensk architecture of this period - the Church of Archangel Michael (1194). Here one can feel the direct influence of the traditions of architecture of Smolensk.

In the XIII century, a new masonry technique appeared: from a rough-hewn Volkhov slab on a solution of lime and sand. In the laying of pillars and vaults, bricks were used in the form of large oblong bars. This masonry is typical for Novgorod in the 12th-19th centuries. This technique gives the surface an extremely uneven appearance and sculptural plasticity.

Such is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345). It also has a zakomarnoe covering (a little later it will be pinched), however, in the absence of three blades on the facades, with one apse and three vestibules.

Church of the Assumption on the Volotovo field (1352). One-domed, cubic, four-pillar temple. But the dome pillars are pushed up to the walls. The lower parts of the posts are rounded. The latter technique, first applied in Russian architecture in the Volotovskaya church, later became a characteristic feature of the Novgorod and Pskov architecture of the XIVXV centuries.
Subsequent historical periods did not bring such significant architectural objects to the image of the city as the period of its foundation and domination. The city no longer played such a big role in the life of the country, and it did not receive due attention. The attention of the rulers was now riveted to Moscow, and subsequently to St. Petersburg, while Novgorod turned from the center political life to the average Russian fortress city. The situation was aggravated by the fact that he was repeatedly attacked and destroyed.
Despite the fact that it was the center of the Novgorod province, in architectural terms the city continued to degrade, both in the pre-revolutionary and in the Soviet period. After the next destruction during the Great Patriotic War, the city was practically rebuilt. Surprisingly, despite the great trials that fell to the lot of this great Russian city, most of the architectural monuments have survived and have come down to us almost in their original form.

BOOKBOOK

Epos

The Russian Empire, led by a German dynasty and a largely foreign aristocracy, was finally formed in the 18th century. From the middle of this century, researchers began to show interest in the history, as they say now, of the state-forming nation, that is, the Russians. The material of interest to historians, in addition to chronicles, was contained in folk legends - epics. But here's the bad luck, by this time in the primordially Great Russian lands the people under the yoke of the Western European culture imposed from above had almost completely forgotten their epic heritage. Rescued the north and east of the Novgorod land. “In addition to the great role of participation in the creation of the Russian national epic, Novgorod played an invaluable role in its preservation. The fact of the predominant preservation of the Russian epic in the north is well known. The historical life of the vast majority, if not all, epic works created in different regions of the Russian land turned out to be connected with the north ”(182).
Researchers, from the 18th century to the present day, collect and record ancient Russian epics in the Olonets, Pomor, Pechora and Ural-Siberian regions of the former Novgorod Republic. Here, and not in the center of the Novgorod land, the historical Russian epic has been preserved in its most complete form. In Novgorod itself, due to the measures taken by the Moscow government, there were almost no indigenous Novgorodians left at the end of the 16th century. Therefore, the preservation of the historical memory of the Russian nation Veliky Novgorod once again served as its distant regions, where the imperial government did not manage to finally uproot the ancient Russian culture.

Education

Prince Yaroslav the Wise opened the first school in Russia in Veliky Novgorod. Three hundred young men acquired in it the knowledge necessary for activities in various ecclesiastical and civil positions.
NI Kostomarov wrote that the inhabitants of the Novgorod land in the Middle Ages were more educated than the population of Eastern Russia. Schools, where children were taught to read and write, existed not only in the cities of the Novgorod Republic, but also in the villages.
Our ancestors have always borrowed the best achievements of the West and the East. If somewhere it was possible to acquire the necessary knowledge, they received it. Long before Peter I, Russian young people acquired education at the best European universities. So, in the 15th century, Novgorod youths usually studied at the University of Rostock, and the university in Bologna was even headed by a rector, a Russian by nationality.

Literacy

Very valuable material for historians contains birch bark letters, which, since the middle of the last century, archaeologists have found in abundance during excavations in Novgorod. The earliest letters date from the 11th century, the latest - from the 15th century.
“Most of the letters,” writes A. V. Artsikhovsky, “are private letters, the very existence of which in medieval Russia was unknown before the excavations. All sorts of everyday and business issues are touched upon. Many certificates were business documents. There are also complaints addressed to the government. There are school notes, comic texts and more.
Before the excavations, many scientists believed that literate people in medieval Russia belonged mainly to the clergy. Excavations finally refuted this even before the discovery of birch bark letters. Many items found in Novgorod (barrels, vessels, fishing weights, floats, arrows, bathing gangs, etc.) are marked with the names or initials of their owners. This means that not only these owners were literate, but also their neighbors, for whom the notes were intended.
Birch bark letters also speak of widespread literacy. Almost all of their authors and addressees are secular people, moreover, not only rich, but also poor, not only men, but also women. There are very few pops among them. And in some cases it can be proved that the authors wrote their letters with their own hands. The hypothesis about the use of hired scribes is refuted by the content and expressions of many letters ”(183). Thus, we can safely say that Novgorod society was a society of universal literacy.
And what about the literacy of the population in Moscow, which conquered Novgorod? Only the clergy and the upper stratum of society were literate there. In the Russian Empire, even by the beginning of the 20th century, almost 70% of the population remained illiterate. But even this figure demonstrates the enormous success of the educational policy of post-reform Russia. According to the data for 1863, in the Pskov province, which is closest to Novgorod, among the male peasant population there were literate at that time only 1.3%, and among the female less than 0.2%. There was 1 literate peasant in 4 villages, and one literate woman in 29 villages (184).
German rulers Russian Empire a competent Russian man was not needed.

Language

The Novgorod ethnos was not only genetically more ancient than the Great Russian, Little Russian and Belorussian, but also preserved the Old Russian language in relative purity.
“The bookishness of Novgorod,” emphasized DS Likhachev, “is distinguished by a single, common feature: the closeness of the written language to the spoken language. This testifies to the long path of cultural development traversed by the Russian language in Novgorod in previous eras. Thanks to this, despite the abundance of works of Church Slavonic writing that flooded into Novgorod after his baptism, the Russian literary language of Novgorod remained pure of Church Slavism and retained all its Russian characteristics ”(185).

Literature

All the oldest monuments of Russian writing are associated with the name of Veliky Novgorod. “The oldest Russian manuscript with a date, the Ostromir Gospel, was written in 1057 by order of the Novgorod mayor Ostromir. The oldest Russian letter, which has come down to our time in the original, is also of Novgorod origin. This is the charter of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, given by him to the Yuryev Monastery near Novgorod around 1130. The oldest private act also has a Novgorod origin - Varlaam Khutynsky's contribution at the end of the 12th century. The most ancient testament of Novgorod origin is the spiritual one of Clement of the 13th century. Novgorod's services are great in the preservation of the monuments of Russian chronicle writing. Two of the oldest copies of the Russian chronicle were written in Novgorod ”(186).
The Novgorod written heritage is a link between the Old Russian and Byzantine literature.
“Veliky Novgorod has preserved and passed on by inheritance to future generations also translated church and civil literature borrowed from Byzantium. The significance of this literature is not yet fully understood; it is often treated with disdain as translated, and not original works of writing. Meanwhile, Greek works translated into Russian in Ancient Rus sometimes have an independent meaning. Their Greek originals are sometimes lost. In other cases, Russian texts have retained an older version of Greek writings. The possibility is not excluded that translations were made from earlier editions and earlier manuscripts than the Greek manuscripts known to us ”(187).
Novgorod literary culture possessed colossal spiritual and cultural potential. Even in the era of the destruction of the republic, she “found sufficient strength to carry out literary enterprises of a huge scale, which made up two monumental monuments of the all-Russian medieval culture - this is, firstly, the Gennady Biblical Code, undertaken and carried out at the very end of the 15th century - the first in Russia and in for the entire Slavic world, a complete collection of biblical books in Slavic translation, and secondly, the so-called Makaryevsky Great Chetya of the Menaion, carried out in the middle of the 16th century, is a grandiose collection of hagiographic, narrative and instructive literature ”(188).
In fact, during the Middle Ages in the entire Slavic world, only Veliky Novgorod possessed the necessary strength to carry out such a great literary feat. The significance of this feat is invaluable for the entire Russian and general Slavic culture.

Book collections

“The collection and storage of manuscripts was carried out at the“ House of St. Sophia ”, as the entire political and economic complex subordinate to the Novgorod archbishop was called in Novgorod. Correspondence of books at the court of the Novgorod ruler was put on a grand scale, money and labor were not spared for this. Monasteries and churches, prince and boyars also collected manuscripts ”(189).
Novgorod was the leading center of Old Russian book-writing. According to the researchers' estimates, the Novgorod writing monuments make up no less than half of the entire collection of preserved ancient Russian books of the 11th-14th centuries. Sometimes they try to explain this fact by the fact that Novgorod was allegedly avoided by cataclysms, disastrous for culture. However, “it is known that Novgorod did not represent a complete exclusion from other Rus in respect of the preservation of its written monuments. They perished here, just as elsewhere in ancient Russia, from a common scourge - fires, perished from a local disaster - floods ”(190).
Numerous Novgorod monasteries possessed large book collections. And the Sofia library was one of the most ancient, famous and extensive repositories of the book treasures of Russia.
“The largest Russian cultural center during its heyday, Novgorod in the 17th century remained the largest concentration of book wealth. When in the second half of the 17th century it was necessary to collect books of the old corrected letter in the Moscow Printing House, requests for them, first of all, were sent to Novgorod and Pskov ”(191).
* * *
The totality of achievements in the field of culture, art, social and state structure and spiritual life makes it possible to say that the Novgorodians created one of the most highly developed civilizations of their time. From the point of view of the general Russian civilization, it can be called the Novgorod sub-civilization of the Russian nation.
It should be noted that the peak of the Novgorod sub-civilization fell on that period of Russian history, when Kievan Rus with its sub-civilization of the Russian nation had already ceased to exist, and the Moscow sub-civilization of the Russian nation was in the stage of formation. In fact, for a fairly long period of time, Veliky Novgorod alone represented Russian civilization to the eyes of the whole world surrounding Russia. I presented it brightly and with dignity.
MILITARY GLORY OF NOVGOROD
For many centuries, Novgorod pursued a completely independent foreign policy. At first, its main goal was to expand the state territory. In the 13th - 15th centuries, the main task was to preserve the inviolability of the borders of the Novgorod state and protect the state independence of the Novgorod republic. In order to achieve the fulfillment of these tasks, Novgorod had to wage wars, send embassies, conclude treaties, enter into an alliance and terminate allied relations. On the whole, despite some setbacks, the strength of the Novgorod army and the skill of the Novgorod diplomats ensured the fulfillment of both tasks.
Novgorod withstood especially severe tests in the XIII century. The role of the Novgorodians in repelling the crusading aggression from the West was outstanding. The attempts of the German and Swedish knights to seize the Russian lands in the future did not stop. During the first centuries of Novgorod's existence, there were no strong enemies at its borders, so the Novgorod army mainly made campaigns to the north, east and southeastern Baltic in order to expand the territory of the Novgorod lands. At the same time, Novgorodians sometimes took part on the side of one or the other prince. Let us remember how the Novgorod army helped Yaroslav the Wise to seize the grand-princely throne.
In the second half of the XII century - the first quarter of the XIII century, the Novgorodians faced with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, who sought to subordinate Novgorod to their influence. For example, in 1170, a huge army sent by Andrei Bogolyubsky approached the then unfortified Novgorod. The victory of the Novgorodians at the city walls seemed a miracle to the victors themselves. They believed that they won the battle only thanks to the help of the Most Holy Theotokos. Since then, the icon of the Sign of the Virgin, which, according to legend, saved Novgorod, has become one of the most revered relics.
In 1216, the Novgorodians intervened in the struggle between the sons of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod Big Nest... The army, which was based on the Novgorodians under the leadership of Prince Mstislav Udaliy, utterly defeated the numerous Vladimir army in the battle on the Lipetsy River. What was the Novgorod army like, what is the secret of its victory? The basis of the Novgorod army was the militia: boyars, zhizni and people, artisans, peasants. It did not include only non-free residents and clergy. People who were better off went to fight on horseback. The poor fought on foot. Ahead of the troops were archers, who showered the enemy with a hail of arrows.
Together with the militia, the prince also went on campaigns. The presence in the Novgorod army of several hundred princely warriors, well armed and trained, strengthened its combat capability. The total number of troops that the Novgorod land could put up was 30-40 thousand people. But this was only in the last period of Novgorod independence, and moreover at critical moments. The usual number of troops during the campaign was 5-10 thousand people.
Of the protective weapons, chain mail and a shield were especially common, many samples of which were found by archaeologists. In the XIII century, chain mail began to be replaced by "armor" - a shirt with metal plates firmly attached to it, overlapping each other, like scales. Judging by the chronicles, every free Novgorod citizen had "armor" and used it on occasion. A variety of helmets were used to protect the head. Offensive weapon there were two types - ranged and melee. The main melee weapon was straight two-edged swords and spears. In the XIV-XV centuries, the saber began to gradually replace the two-handed sword. Spears were mainly shock weapons. The most powerful of them, with a tip in the form of a laurel leaf, were called spears. There were also light javelins - sulitsy. In hand-to-hand combat, they used knives, axes, daggers, maces, flails, and six-pins. In ranged combat, bows were used when the enemy approached. The bow often helped the riders - they could shoot up to ten arrows per minute. Less high-speed, but more accurate and powerful were crossbows or, as they said in Russia, crossbows. A lever was already used here to pull the bowstring, but steles with a metal tip could "pierce" through even heavy armor.
However, often it did not come to the battles themselves. The party making the campaign carried out "weakening" - that is, it penetrated the territory of the enemy, gabila, killed or took civilians into slavery. The opposite side often performed reciprocal "feats" in such cases. However, along with such "wars" there were real, especially fierce ones.
From the middle of the XII century, the feudal neighbor of Novgorod, the Swedish state, began to pursue a policy of conquest in the eastern direction. The territory of modern Finland and Karelia became the object of aggression of the Swedish feudal lords. At that time, the Novgorodians were collecting tribute from the Emi tribe, who lived in central Finland. The campaigns of the Swedish feudal lords were united by one reason - the Catholicization of the Sumi and Emi tribes (modern Ugrians, Finns and Izhorians). However, the reason was completely different - the seizure of lands, the establishment of collecting tribute from them, and with luck, moving on to the Russian Land.
The first "crusade" was undertaken by the Swedish king Eric in 1157 in the land of the Sumy tribe. Despite the resistance of local residents, the Swedes managed to seize part of the territory and christen the existing population. Not limited to this, in 1164 the Swedes attacked the Novgorodian lands. A flotilla of 55 Swedish ships, having passed the Gulf of Finland, the Neva and Lake Ladoga, ended up at the walls of the Novgorod fortress of Ladoga at the mouth of the Volkhov. The inhabitants of the city burned the posad and took up the defense of the fortress, while sending messengers to Novgorod. The Swedes tried to storm the fortress, but suffered heavy losses. After 5 days, the army of Prince Svyatoslav Rostislavich, who arrived, utterly defeated the Swedes. Their remnants on the 12 remaining ships fled.
After that, the Swedes made no more attempts to take Novgorod until 1313. However, all the time between the XI-XV centuries there was a fierce struggle between Novgorodians and Swedes for the territories from which tribute was collected - the Karelian Isthmus and the modern territory from the northwest of Russia to Novgorod. At the same time, both sides made campaigns, but the Novgorodians even got to the deep territory of the Swedes, making numerous pogroms there. The Novgorod army could have successfully defeated the Swedes as a state, but, consisting of free Novgorodians, was forced to return to their native lands without fighting for a long time on foreign territory.
In the late XII - early XIII century, German crusaders conquered Lithuania and fortified there, building several large fortresses. Moving further east, they collided with the interests of the Novgorodians - the inhabitants of the southeastern part of Estonia, where the Germans went, paid tribute to Novgorod. The Novgorodians made several campaigns to Lithuania (1210, 1212, 1217, 1221, 1223). Despite the success of some of these expeditions, the Novgorodians then were not able to stop the movement of the crusaders: the German knights founded fortified castles, while Novgorod, after the capture of Yuriev by the sword-bearers in 1224, had no other strong points.
In 1234, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich with the Novgorod and Pereyaslavl troops invaded the territory of Livonia and inflicted a heavy defeat on the German army near Yuryev. According to the concluded agreement, Yuryev stayed with the Germans, who undertook to pay tribute.
Three years later, the Tatar-Mongol invasion began and Novgorod had to put up with the loss of the Baltic. Apparently, according to a preliminary agreement, the Livonian Germans attacked Russia in the 1240s at the same time as the Swedes. The situation was favorable for that - Russia was greatly weakened by the Mongols. They (the Germans and Swedes) managed to capture Izborsk, and then Pskov. Danger loomed over northwestern Russia - the Germans tried to seize Novgorod and other Russian cities. Advanced knightly detachments began to appear already 30 miles from Novgorod.
In a critical situation, it was possible to eliminate the danger exclusively thanks to the heroism of the Novgorod soldiers and the talent of Alexander Nevsky as a general. With several strong blows, Nevsky drove the Germans out of Pskov and Koporye. But the main battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi on April 5, 1242. It was the legendary Battle on the Ice that brought fame to Alexander Nevsky. The Rakovor battle was no less important, but unlike the Ice one, this one is much less known. The battle took place on February 18, 1269 near the town of Rakovor (present-day Estonian Rakvere). German and Danish knights opposed the Novgorodians, but the Novgorodians won and destroyed most of the army. And although later the Livonian Order more than once threatened the northwestern Russian lands, its most powerful onslaught was stopped. Russia did not fall prey to German knighthood.

Conclusion

The history of the Novgorod Republic, like all Russian history, is very instructive.
The history of Novgorod the Great tells us that Russia has experience in building a democratic state that goes back at least three and a half centuries. Of course, no one in the Middle Ages talked about human rights and freedom of speech, but the basic principle, embodied in the very name of democracy (democracy), was decisive in the Novgorod state system; Novgorodians were called free citizens
etc.................

Novgorod with its power stood out from the cities northwest... “Lord Great Novgorod” - they called him. Due to its geographical location, Novgorod has become a trade intermediary between the West and the East.

The power of the prince in Novgorod was limited to the veche, revered as the supreme state body. It was a boyar republic, but the voice of the people at the veche was also heard.

Since ancient times, Novgorodians have been famous as the builders of wooden temples, fortresses and palaces.

In 1045-1050, they erected the first stone cathedral - St. Sophia Cathedral in the center of Detinets (Novgorod Kremlin), on the banks of the Volkhov. Its founder is Prince Vladimir, the son of Yaroslav the Wise. It is a five-aisled temple with five apses to the east. It is simpler and more severe than the Kiev Sophia, it has five chapters (instead of thirteen). A composition depicting the first Christian emperor Constantine and his mother Helen has survived from the murals in the temple. Near her head is the inscription "Olepa", which speaks of the Novgorod origin of the author of the fresco.

At the beginning of the XII century, Novgorod turns into a veche republic, the princes are expelled from Detinets. They settle in the Settlement, where they build monasteries-fortresses with temples, asserting their authority.

The largest monument of this time is the St. George Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery. It combined monumentality, epic power and simplicity. The impenetrable steps are dissected by powerful shoulder blades. The cathedral has three asymmetrically located domes, towards which the entire inner space of the temple is directed.

In the painting of the beginning of the XII lawsuit, there were two directions: the Grekofnlian, which was influenced by Byzantium (the painting of the Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral and others), and the direction that was influenced by Western Europe (the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Anthony Monastery).

Of particular importance were the frescoes of the Church of Spa-sa na Nereditsa, which once covered the walls, vaults, and the dome of the temple with a single carpet. Opp testify that Novgorod has its own school of frescoes. In the dome is the link of the Ascension of Christ, in the apse is the Mother of God of rank with the depicted on the chest of Christ in a circle, and under her there are two rows of saints. On the western wall, the Last Judgment is depicted, on the steppes - the Gospel story about the passion of Christ. Art: Lo is harsh and even formidable. The images of the saints breathe a truly popular, strong-willed and courageous strength.

Icon painting reached a high level. In the icon "Angel Golden" weasels "(end of the 12th century), the influence of Byzantine is still felt, but" the sadness in the eyes, so radiant and deep "(L. Lyubimov), already reflects the state of the Russian soul. Expressively depicting Christ in the icon "Savior not made by hands". The icon "Dormition" (first half of the 13th century) strikes with its life truth in the depiction of the grief of the saints mourning Mary.

The icon "Christ on the Path" (XIII century) belongs to the Novgorod school, which is distinguished by a bright, folk character of painting, ornamental decoration. In the local, Novgorodian manner, the icon "Nicholas the Wonderworker" (\ 29 / \ g.) Was painted, the first work of easel painting with the artist's signature - Alexey Petrov. The face of the saint is rounded, Russian, kind-hearted, affectionate.

Testimony high level culture of Novgorod are birch bark letters that have retained the features of the colloquial speech of Novgorodians, their way of life, way of life.

A trade and craft center similar to Novgorod was Pskov, where the veche also ruled and life was distinguished by great democracy.

Pskov is the front line of defense from the Livonian knights, from Lithuania. Powerful fortifications are being erected here. Cathedrals resemble fortresses. Architectural structures of this period: Pskov-Pechersky Monastery, Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral of the Mirozh Monastery. The art of Pskov was influenced by the folk principle. It is not cinnabar that predominates in icon painting, as in

Novgorod icons, and green color: "Cathedral of Our Lady", "Descent into Hell" and others.

The Mongol-Tatar yoke led to the destruction of many art monuments of North-Eastern Russia, the master died or was taken prisoner. In the first half of the XIV century, the revival of Russia begins, the northeastern principalities are united. Cultural centers - Novgorod, Pskov, at the end of the XIV century - Moscow.

In the XIV century, Novgorod experienced a rise in culture. Tense philosophical thought is evidenced by heretical teachings, which were a kind of protest against the official church. Novgorodians travel, there is a rapprochement with the southern Slavs.

New features appear in architecture. The churches of Fyodor Stratnlat (1360s) and the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin (1374) are being erected, they are characterized by an eight-sided roof and one apse in the east. These are single-domed high temples with elegant decor. In the 15th century, especially outstanding structures were the stone walls and towers of the Novgorod Kremlin, the episcopal palace, as well as the building that later received the name of the Faceted Chamber.

The flourishing of monumental painting of the XIV century is associated with the activities of Theophanes the Greek, an artist who came to Russia from Byzantium. In 1378 he painted the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin. The subjects of the frescoes are traditional: the formidable Christ Pantokrator, prophets and forefathers. Theophanes was a master of the sharp individual characteristics of saints who are endowed with severe and strong characters. One of the most striking plots is the Trinity, next to it are the figures of the saints. Here the pillars were the first holy hermits who tortured the flesh and lived on pillars; and ascetics who retired into the wilderness. The Saints of Theophapus are wise philosophers, as was the artist himself.

The general reddish-brown tone, dark outlines, folds of clothes, sometimes forming lightning-like zigzags, masterfully thrown bleaching "engines" - "nervous, extremely dynamic painting, conveying (...) human passions, doubts, thoughts, impulses" (L. Lyubimov ).

Novgorod icons of the 15th century are a brilliant page in the history of world painting. They are marked by a vivid identity. Ego, basically, the image of the saints popular in Novgorod - the prophet Elijah, Paraskeva with Anastasia, the patroness of trade, St. George, slaying the dragon. St. Dahlia is revealed as a fighter for the victory of light over darkness.

Interesting is the icon "Battle of the Suzdal people with the Novgorodians", the earliest pictorial work in Russian art. historical theme... The composition is three-tiered, where the story about the transfer of the nkopa from the Church of the Savior on Ilyin to Detinets, about the treachery of the Suzdal people and the victory of the Novgorodians, unfolds in sequence. The beauty of the icon lies in its graphic clarity, in the rhythm of what is depicted, in the utmost expressiveness of its color.

One of the famous Novgorod nkoi of the 15th century is Depsus and Praying Novgorodians, commissioned by the Kuzmins boyars, and they are presented on the lower tier of the icon. Episodes of the Gospel legend are depicted in the icon "The Nativity of Christ" (in the center, the Mother of God and the Child are painted in bright cinnabar). The icon "Flor and Laurus", which goes back to Slavic pagan art, is unusual. The plot of the "Entombment" icon is dramatic and has an emotional and expressive character. The Mother of God, clung to the body of Christ, shows the image of inconsolable suffering. This is the traditional Russian lamentation over the deceased, this is the mother's grief, so familiar to Russian women.

The Slavic state known as Novgorod Rus was formed around the 9th century, even before the centralization of power in Kiev. Historians traditionally associate its appearance with the vocation of the Varangians, namely Rurik, to power in the lands of the Russians.

Pre-state period

Before the state called Novgorod Rus appeared in the north-west of modern Russia, scattered Slavic tribes lived in these lands. Due to the lack of a centralized, unified government, they constantly clashed, could not run an efficient economy and fully trade with each other.

In order to unite all the tribes in these lands and create a centralized state, the Varangians (Scandinavians), who had a more developed culture, were invited to Novgorod.

Rurik's coming to power

According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" (the first chronicle), which is almost the earliest written source of events of that period, Rurik came to power in 862.

Based on this scripture, it can be concluded that in the 9th century in northwestern Russia there was an extremely strong Scandinavian influence, therefore statehood came here a little earlier than on the main territory.

With the advent of Rurik to power, Novgorod Rus became a powerful state with a vast territory. Under his leadership, numerous tribes united, among which the largest were Slovene and Krivichi.

The very vocation of the Varangians, as a historical fact, is questioned by many historians, since there is no exact confirmation of this.

Novgorod Rus

After Rurik, Prince Oleg began to rule the country, who left V. Novgorod and went south. He imposed a tribute on Novgorodians.

Prince Oleg was a successful commander and united almost all disparate tribes Eastern Slavs into a single state. Further, in the 10th century, under Prince Vladimir, his son Vysheslav began to rule in Novgorod, who soon died.

His place was taken by another son of the Kiev prince named Yaroslav, who did not want to pay tribute to his father. In this regard, Kiev began to prepare an armed campaign against Novgorod, which was unsuccessful.

From that moment on, Novgorod Rus received a significant share of freedom from the Kiev oppression. Her historical path becomes more distinctive and detached from the rest of Russia.

Novgorod Republic

Having received considerable freedom from Kiev, the rulers of the city decided to rebuild their state in a new way. Management began to differ greatly from what was implemented in the rest of Russia.

A ruling body was created - the veche, which decided all important state issues by voting, including the prince, too, could be elected by voting.

In fact, the country ceased to be a monarchy and became the Novgorod Republic. The head of state was elected at the veche for life. However, in the same way, an unwanted ruler could be replaced by another.

Period of fragmentation

In the XII century, Russia entered a new historical period, through which at different times all major European states passed. It is usually called the period of fragmentation.

The fragmentation of Russia for the Novgorod Land became a period of its highest prosperity. These events allowed the city to finally separate from the Kiev princes and become sovereign. By the way, the Novgorod Republic was the largest state of the Eastern Slavs, it had a powerful economy.

Of course, there were also significant disadvantages, but the country's rulers acted successfully, defending themselves against rivals and external enemies. This can be judged by the fact that only the Novgorodians managed to avoid the Mongolian Tatar yoke.

Foreign invaders

In the 13th century, Novgorod Rus, along with all other states, came under repeated attacks from foreigners. The first blow was struck by the Tatar-Mongols, who invaded Kievan Rus and, like a tornado, swept across its entire territory, except for Novgorod.

Only this city managed to almost completely avoid the invasion of the Tatars. At this time, Novgorod acquired the highest power among the principalities of the Rus.

However, having escaped serious attacks from the Tatars, the Novgorodians faced invaders in the West. The Catholic knightly state of the Livonian Order led an active aggressive policy aimed at Veliky Novgorod. The aim of the war was to convert Russians to the Catholic faith.

Despite the fact that the Russians were Christians, they belonged to the Orthodox Church, and the Livonians to the Catholic Church. Under the auspices of the Pope, the Livonians sought to annex the vast lands of Novgorod to their church, taking advantage of the weakening of Russia due to the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars.

Alexander Nevskiy

Despite the fact that Novgorod was surrounded on both sides by powerful invaders, it managed to resist and maintain relative freedom and independence. This was largely due to the skillful policy and military strategy of Prince Alexander, who later became known as Nevsky.

He realized that a confrontation with the Tatars now would be a fatal mistake for Novgorod, so he went to the world with them. And threw all his strength to fight knightly order... He managed to defeat the Teutons in a clash on Lake Peipsi, in which he acted as an experienced military strategist.

He realized that the knights, dressed in heavy armor, would not be able to cross to the other side of the lake on the ice, which was still too thin. Therefore, having taken the German knights to death, he was able to win. Thus, the prince preserved Novgorod Rus, culture, faith and ethnos. No wonder he is considered one of the greatest rulers. The influence of Alexander Nevsky is recognized not only in Russia, but also in the West, where he is considered a great commander and military strategist.

Sunset Novgorod

Since the XIV century, there has been a tendency in Russia to unite into one large, centralized state. The main contenders for the role of the center of the union were Tver and Moscow.

Novgorod kept itself apart, although it was the strongest state.

Until the complete unification of Russia under the domination of Moscow, Novgorod remained on the sidelines, not seeking to unite the Russians around him, but not wanting to join the Moscow princes.

As a result, the story ended Novgorod Rus joining a single state Moscow in 1478 The capture of the largest principality of Russia allowed the prince of Moscow Ivan III to challenge the weakened Golden Horde and defeat them in 1480, thus freeing the Russian people from a three-hundred-year yoke.

From now on, Novgorod ceased to exist as a separate state and became part of a single country. In connection with the accession to the Moscow state, Novgorod began to quickly lose its trade and economic significance, and then cultural. Subsequently, it ceased to be the key center of the country, giving way to Moscow, Tver and other large cities. Despite this, the city still remains an important cultural and historical center even today.

Art of Novgorod

Novgorod was one of the largest cities and centers of culture of Russia and all of Eastern Europe... There was a concentration of trade, crafts, painting and architecture.

Christianity (Orthodoxy) had a significant impact on the painting and culture of the city as a whole, thanks to which the art of Novgorod Rus received a powerful impetus to development. Icon painting began to develop, which was very widely developed here.

Due to the fact that Novgorod was a large maritime, trade center, it closely interacted with European culture, and primarily with Scandinavian. Hence, many trends in art from the West fell into the culture of Russia.

Architecture

In Novgorod Russia, architecture has reached high development... The city significantly surpassed in splendor and wealth other cities of fragmented Russia. This was due to the fact that the Novgorodians did not pay tribute to the Tatars, avoided their raid and actively traded.

The availability of opportunities and channels of communication with the Western peoples allowed the Novgorodians to adopt the advanced achievements of Europe at that time much faster. This was especially evident in architecture.

In Novgorod, structures built of white stone appeared earlier than other Russian cities. Many churches and chapels were built, as well as icon-painting workshops. In addition, jewelry, weaving and sewing workshops appeared. There were also many other craft workshops.

Trade

It is no secret that Novgorod was the largest commercial sea port in Ancient Rus... Almost all trade with Western Europe was conducted from here. They entered into profitable alliances primarily with the Swedes, Germans and Poles. Thanks to this, the city was richer than the rest, which immediately caught the eye. It was enough to look at its white-stone buildings, which at that time were not in any other city of Ancient Russia.

The ability to trade with Europeans stimulated the rapid development of crafts. Craftsmen from all over the city created their creations, which were then sold at bazaars and fairs.

Fairs were common in Novgorod. Here they were held regularly and on a large scale. Merchants from all over Russia came here to sell their goods and buy outlandish things from other cities and countries.

Thus, Novgorod was a key center of trade and crafts throughout Russia. He stood on a par with Kiev, Vladimir and Chernigov, and later Moscow and Tver.

Agriculture

If trade and crafts, art and architecture were well developed in Novgorod Rus, less attention was paid to agriculture. This is due to the swampy area. The small amount of suitable for growing cereal lands led to the fact that the Novgorodians were forced to buy bread, flour and other agricultural products from other principalities, as a rule, from Vladimir-Suzdal.

It was this dependence in bread from Suzdal that caused the pressure of the princes of Suzdal in the XIV century on the Novgorodians in order to persuade them under their rule. However, this policy of the Suzdal princes was not crowned with success, and Novgorod retained its sovereignty.

Despite all the difficulties of growing cereals, agriculture in the principality was very well developed. Winter rye and wheat grew here. For cultivation of the soil, a multi-toothed or three-toothed plow was used, which appeared here somewhat earlier than in the rest of the territory of Russia. They reaped bread using traditional sickles.

Conclusion

The formation of Novgorod Rus had a huge impact and importance on the culture, history and formation of the Russian ethnos. Thanks to Novgorod, the originality of the Russian people was preserved, which at one time was under threat due to the Tatar yoke. Architecture, painting and craft became widespread.

In fact, Novgorod was the ancestor of Russian statehood, without which Kievan Rus could not have appeared at all. The importance of this city in the all-Russian history can hardly be overestimated. It was one of the largest centers on the basis of which the entire Russian culture, trade and economy were built and formed.

Velikiy Novgorod. Or Mr. Veliky Novgorod, as his contemporaries called him, occupied a special place among other Russians principalities... As the center of the Slavic lands in the northwestern corner of Russia, Novgorod by the end of the 9th century. becomes a rival of Kiev. He defeated Kiev, but after the transfer of the capital of united Russia to the south, the Kiev princes began to send to Novgorod principality their governors, as a rule, the eldest sons.

And yet Novgorod retained its special position, princely power did not take root here, as in other cities of Russia. The reason for this was the whole system of life in ancient Novgorod. From the very beginning, the city grew primarily as a trade and craft center. It was located on the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

From here went the way to the South Baltic, to the German lands, to Scandinavia. Through Lake Ilmen and the Metu River, the path ran to the Volga, and from there to the countries of the East.

Novgorodians had something to trade. They exported primarily furs, which were harvested in the northern forests. Craftsmen of Novgorod supplied their products to the domestic and foreign markets. Novgorod was famous for its masters of blacksmithing and pottery, gold and silver crafts, armourers, carpenters, tanners. Streets and "ends" (districts) of the city often bore the names of handicraft professions: Carpentry end, Kuznetskaya, Goncharnaya, Shchitnaya streets. In Novgorod, earlier than in other cities of Russia, associations of large merchants appeared. Rich merchants had not only river and sea ​​vessels, but also warehouses, barns. They built rich stone houses and churches. Many foreign merchants came to Novgorod. The "German" and "Gothic" courtyards were located here, which indicated the close trade relations of the city with the German lands. In Novgorod, not only merchants, artisans, but also boyars and representatives of the church were involved in trade.

Confident economic development Novgorod was largely due not only to beneficial natural and geographic conditions, but also by the fact that for a long time he did not know a serious external danger. Neither the Pechenegs nor the Polovtsians reached these places. German knights appeared here later. This created favorable conditions for the development of the region.

Great strength in Novgorod principality eventually received large boyars-landowners. It was their land holdings, forests, fishing grounds that provided the main trade products - furs, honey, wax, fish, other products of the land, forests, and water. It was the boyars and large merchants who often organized long-distance expeditions of the ushkuiniks, river and sea, in order to seize new commercial lands and forage for furs. The interests of the boyars, merchants, and churches were intertwined, which is why the top of the city, the so-called aristocracy, relying on their untold wealth, played such a big role in the political life of Novgorod.

The aristocracy in political life led artisans and other people. Novgorod acted as a united front against political pressure either from Kiev or from the Rostov-Suzdal principality. Here all Novgorodians were together, defending their special position in the Russian lands, their sovereignty. But in inner life There was no such unity in the city: there were often violent clashes of interests of ordinary townspeople and the city elite, which resulted in open protests, uprisings against the boyars, wealthy merchants, usurers. More than once the insurgent townspeople burst into the archbishop's court. The urban aristocracy also did not represent a single whole. Separate boyar and merchant groups competed with each other. They fought for land, income, privileges, to put their protégé at the head of the city - a prince, a mayor or a thousand.

Similar orders developed in other large cities of the Novgorod land - Pskov, Ladoga, Izborsk, where there were strong boyar-merchant clans, their own handicraft and working mass of the population. Each of these cities, being part of the Novgorod principality, at the same time claimed relative independence.

Novgorod competed with Kiev not only in terms of economic, trade, but also in terms of external appearance cities. Here, early on the left bank of the Volkhov, on the hill, a Kremlin of its own, surrounded by a stone wall, appeared, unlike many other Russian detachments, fenced off with wooden and earth fortifications. The son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, built the St. Sophia Cathedral here, which competed in beauty and majesty with Kiev Sophia. Opposite the Kremlin there was a bargaining, where the city veche usually took place - the gathering of all politically active Novgorodians. Many decided at the veche important questions life of the city: the city authorities were elected, the candidacies of the invited princes were discussed, the military policy of Novgorod was determined.

Illustration. Novgorod principality

A bridge was built between the left-bank and right-bank Novgorod over the Volkhov, which played important role in the life of the city. Fistfights between various warring factions often took place here. From here, on the verdict of the city authorities, criminals sentenced to death were thrown into the depths of Volkhov.

Novgorod was for its time a city of high culture of everyday life. It was paved with wooden pavements, the authorities closely monitored the order and cleanliness of the city streets. A sign of the high culture of the townspeople is the widespread literacy, manifested in the fact that many Novgorodians mastered the art of writing on birch bark letters, which archaeologists find in abundance during the excavation of ancient Novgorod dwellings. Birch bark letters were exchanged not only between boyars and merchants, but also ordinary townspeople. These were promissory notes and requests for loans, notes to wives, petitions, wills, love letters, and even poetry.

As the power of the Kiev princes weakened, the development of political separatism Novgorod principality becomes more and more independent from Kiev. This was especially evident after the death of Mstislav the Great. His son Vsevolod was then in Novgorod. When he left Novgorod and tried unsuccessfully to get himself the throne of Pereyaslavl, more honorable in the princely family, the Novgorodians did not let him back. But the city needed a prince - to command the army, to defend the possessions. Considering, apparently, that Vsevolod Mstislavich received good lesson, the boyars brought him back, but Vsevolod again tried, relying on Novgorod, to get involved in the inter-princely struggle for power. He dragged Novgorod into a confrontation with Suzdal, which ended in the defeat of the Novgorod army. This overflowed the patience of the Novgorodians. The boyars and "black people" opposed the prince; neither the church nor the merchants, whom he infringed on their rights, supported him. In 1136, Vsevolod and his family, by the verdict of the veche, in which representatives from Pskov and Ladoga took part, were taken into custody.

Then he was expelled from the city, accused of "not keeping an eye on the stink," that is, not expressing interests ordinary people, poorly led the army during the war with the Suzdal people and was the first to flee from the battlefield, dragging Novgorod into the struggle in the south.

After the events of 1136, the city aristocracy finally came to power in Novgorod - the large boyars, the wealthy merchants, the archbishop. The city became a kind of aristocratic republic, where several large boyar and merchant families, the mayor, the thousand, the archbishop determined the whole policy. Veche invited princes as military leaders and supreme judges. Disagreeable princes were expelled. Sometimes several princes were replaced during the year.

Over time, Novgorod in its economic ties was less and less oriented to the south, its ties with the South Baltic world, the Scandinavian and German lands became closer. The strongest ties among the Russian lands Novgorod kept with its neighbors: Polotsk, Smolensk and Rostov-Suzdal principalities.

§Vladimir-Suzdal land
§Battle on Kalka
§Culture of Russia X - XII centuries
§Kievan Rus X-XII century
§Yaroslav the Wise

Novgorod land (Republic)

The power of one person over another destroys, first of all, the ruler.

Lev Tolstoy

The largest principality of the era of specific fragmentation of Russia was the Novgorod land, which was ruled in the form of a boyar republic. The principality flourished due to the development of trade and crafts, because Novgorod, the center of the earth, was located on the most important trade routes... Novgorod maintained its independence from Kiev for a long time and managed to maintain its independence and identity.

Geographical position

The Novgorod principality or Novgorod land (republic) was located in the northern part of Russia from the Arctic Ocean to the upper Volga, and from the Baltic Sea to Ural mountains... The capital is Novgorod. Large cities: Novgorod, Pskov, Staraya Russa, Ladoga, Torzhok, Korela, Pskov and others.

Map of Novgorod land in the 12-13th centuries.

Specificity geographic location was in the almost complete absence of agriculture, since the soil was unsuitable for Agriculture, as well as remoteness from the steppes, due to which Novgorod practically did not see Mongol invasion... At the same time, the principality was constantly exposed to military invasions from the Swedes, Lithuanians and German knights. Thus, it was the Novgorod lands that were the shield of Russia, which guarded it from the North and West.

Geographic neighbors of the Novgorod Republic:

• Vladimir-Suzdal principality
• Smolensk principality
• Polotsk principality
• Livonia
• Sweden

Economic features

The lack of good arable land led to the fact that in Crafts and trade actively developed in the Novgorod Republic... Among the crafts, the following stood out: iron production, fishing, hunting, salt production and other crafts characteristic of the northern regions. Trade was mainly carried out with neighboring regions: the Baltics, German cities, Volga Bulgaria, Scandinavia.

Novgorod was the richest trading city in Russia. This was achieved by the advantageous geographical position, as well as the presence of trade relations with various regions, including with Byzantium, and with the Caucasus. Basically, Novgorodians traded in furs, honey, wax, iron products, pottery, weapons, and so on.

Political structure

The Novgorod feudal republic was formally ruled by a prince, but in reality the system of government can be represented in the form of an inverted triangle.

Veche and the boyars had real power. Suffice it to say that it was the veche who appointed the prince, and it could also expel him. In addition, at the city council, which functioned within the framework of the boyar council (300 golden belts), the following were appointed:

• Prince - was invited together with the retinue. His residence was outside the city. The main task is to protect the Novgorod land from external threats.
• Posadnik is the head of the city administration. His tasks are to monitor the prince, court in cities, and manage cities. He was subordinate to the elders of the streets of the city.
• Tysyatsky was the head of the city administration and the city militia (assistant to the mayor). He was in charge of population management.
• The archbishop is the head of the Novgorod church. Tasks - storage of archives and treasury, responsibility for external relations, monitoring trade, compilation and preservation of chronicles. The archbishop was confirmed by the Moscow metropolitan.

The prince could be summoned by the Novgorodians, but he could also be expelled, which happened often. A gift (contract) was concluded with the prince, in which the rights and obligations of the prince were indicated. The prince was considered only as a defender against foreign invaders, but had no influence on domestic policy as well as the appointment / removal of officials. Suffice it to say that in the 12-13 centuries the princes in Novgorod changed 58 times! Therefore, we can safely say that the real power in this principality belonged to the boyars and merchants.

The political independence of the Novgorod Republic was formalized in 1132-1136 after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich. After that, the Novgorod land liquidated the power of Kiev and became a de facto independent state with a republican form of government. Therefore, it is customary to say that the Novgorod state was a boyar republic with elements of a system of urban self-government.

Novgorod the Great

Novgorod, the capital of the Novgorod land, was founded in the 9th century as a result of the unification of the villages of three tribes: Chud, Slavic and Meryan. The city was located along the Volkhov River and was divided by it, as it were, into 2 parts: east and west. The eastern part was called Torgovaya, and the western part was called Sophia (in honor of the cathedral).

Novgorod was one of the largest and most beautiful cities not only in Russia, but also in Europe. The population of the city was quite educated compared to other cities. This was largely due to the fact that crafts and trade developed in the city, which required specific knowledge.

Culture

Novgorod is one of the largest cities of its time. It is no coincidence that he is often called Lord Novgorod the Great. Sophia Cathedral was located in the center of the city. The pavements in the city were cobbled logs and were constantly updated. The city itself was surrounded by a moat and wooden walls. Wood and stone construction was practiced in the city. As a rule, churches and temples were erected in stone, one of the functions of which was to store money.

Chronicles, fairy tales and epics were created in the Novgorod land. Much attention was paid to icon painting. The brightest canvas of that era is "Angel with Golden Hair", which today can be seen in the Russian Museum of St. Petersburg.

Developed in the principality and architecture with fresco painting. The main direction of development is realism.

Main events

Main events in the principality in the 12-13th century:

• 1136 - the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, after which the Novgorodians independently elected a prince for themselves.
• 1156 - self-election of the Novgorod Archbishop
• 1207-1209 - social movements in Novgorod against the boyars
• 1220-1230 reign of Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest
• 1236-1251 - reign of Alexander Nevsky