Astronomy is a science that studies the movement, structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems... The knowledge she has accumulated is used for the practical needs of mankind.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, it arose on the basis of the practical needs of man and developed along with them. Elementary astronomical information was already known thousands of years ago in Babylon, Egypt, China and was used by the peoples of these countries to measure time and orientation along the horizon.

And in our time, astronomy is used to determine the exact time and geographical coordinates (in navigation, aviation, astronautics, geodesy, cartography). Astronomy helps the exploration and exploration of outer space, the development of astronautics and the study of our planet from space. But this does not exhaust the tasks it solves.

Our Earth is part of the Universe. The moon and the sun ebb and flow on it. Solar radiation and its changes affect the processes in the earth's atmosphere and the vital activity of organisms. Astronomy also studies the mechanisms of influence of various cosmic bodies on the Earth.

Modern astronomy is closely related to mathematics and physics, biology and chemistry, geography, geology and astronautics. Using the achievements of other sciences, it, in turn, enriches them, stimulates their development, putting forward new tasks for them. Astronomy studies matter in space in such states and scales that are impracticable in laboratories, and this expands the physical picture of the world, our ideas about matter. All this is important for the development of a dialectical-materialist concept of nature. Having learned to predict the onset of eclipses of the Sun and Moon, the appearance of comets, astronomy laid the foundation for the struggle against religious prejudices. By showing the possibility of a natural-scientific explanation of the emergence and change of the Earth and other celestial bodies, astronomy contributes to the development of Marxist philosophy.

An astronomy course completes the physics, mathematics and science education you receive in school.

When studying astronomy, you need to pay attention to which information is reliable facts, and which are scientific assumptions that can change over time. It is important that there is no limit to human cognition. Here is one example of how life shows it.

In the last century, one idealist philosopher decided to assert that the possibilities of human cognition are limited. He said that although people measured the distances to some stars, they would never be able to determine the chemical composition of stars. However, spectral analysis was soon discovered, and astronomers not only established the chemical composition of stellar atmospheres, but also determined their temperature. Many other attempts to indicate the boundaries of human cognition also proved untenable. So, scientists first theoretically estimated the temperature on the Moon, then measured it from the Earth using a thermoelement and radio methods, then these data were confirmed by the instruments of automatic stations, made and sent by people to the Moon.

Etymology

The structure of astronomy as a scientific discipline

Extragalactic astronomy: gravitational lensing. Several blue loop-shaped objects are visible, which are multiple images of the same galaxy, multiplied by the gravitational lens effect from a cluster of yellow galaxies near the center of the photo. The lens is created by the cluster's gravitational field, which bends the light rays, resulting in an enlargement and distortion of the image of a more distant object.

Modern astronomy is divided into a number of sections, which are closely related to each other, therefore, the division of astronomy is somewhat arbitrary. The main sections of astronomy are:

• Astrometry - studies the apparent positions and movements of the stars. Previously, the role of astrometry was also in the highly accurate determination of geographic coordinates and time by studying the movement of celestial bodies (now other methods are used for this). Modern astrometry consists of:
  • fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are the determination of the coordinates of celestial bodies from observations, the compilation of catalogs of stellar positions and the determination of the numerical values ​​of astronomical parameters - quantities that allow taking into account the regular changes in the coordinates of the stars;
  • spherical astronomy, which develops mathematical methods for determining the visible positions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems, as well as the theory of regular changes in the coordinates of the stars with time;
• Theoretical astronomy provides methods for determining the orbits of celestial bodies from their visible positions and methods for calculating ephemeris (visible positions) of celestial bodies from the known elements of their orbits (inverse problem).
• Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies under the action of the forces of universal gravitation, determines the masses and shape of celestial bodies and the stability of their systems.

These three sections mainly solve the first problem of astronomy (the study of the motion of celestial bodies), and they are often called classical astronomy.

• Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and chemical composition of celestial objects. It is divided into: a) practical (observational) astrophysics, in which practical methods of astrophysical research and the corresponding instruments and devices are developed and applied; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which, on the basis of the laws of physics, explanations of the observed physical phenomena are given.

A number of sections of astrophysics are distinguished according to specific research methods.

• Stellar astronomy studies the regularities of the spatial distribution and movement of stars, stellar systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical characteristics.

These two sections mainly address the issues of the second problem of astronomy (the structure of celestial bodies).

• Cosmogony examines the origin and evolution of celestial bodies, including our Earth.
• Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the Universe.

Based on all the knowledge gained about celestial bodies, the last two sections of astronomy solve its third problem (the origin and evolution of celestial bodies).

The course of general astronomy contains a systematic presentation of information about the main methods and the main results obtained by various branches of astronomy.

One of the new trends that emerged only in the second half of the 20th century is archaeoastronomy, which studies the astronomical knowledge of ancient people and helps to date ancient structures based on the phenomenon of the Earth's precession.

Stellar astronomy

Planetary Ant Nebula - Mz3. The ejection of gas from a dying central star shows a symmetrical pattern, in contrast to the chaotic patterns of conventional explosions.

Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium are formed in stars.

Astronomy items

Astronomy tasks

The main tasks astronomy are:

1. The study of the visible, and then the actual positions and movements of celestial bodies in space, determination of their size and shape.
2. Study of the structure of celestial bodies, study of the chemical composition and physical properties (density, temperature, etc.) of the substance in them.
3. Solving the problems of the origin and development of individual celestial bodies and the systems they form.
4. Study of the most general properties of the Universe, construction of a theory of the observable part of the Universe - the Metagalaxy.

Solving these problems requires the creation of effective research methods, both theoretical and practical. The first problem is solved through long-term observations, begun in ancient times, as well as on the basis of the laws of mechanics, which have been known for about 300 years. Therefore, in this area of ​​astronomy, we have the richest information, especially for celestial bodies relatively close to the Earth: the Moon, the Sun, planets, asteroids, etc.

The solution of the second problem became possible due to the advent of spectral analysis and photography. The study of the physical properties of celestial bodies began in the second half of the 19th century, and the main problems - only in recent years.

The third task requires the accumulation of observable material. At present, such data are still insufficient for an accurate description of the process of the origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems. Therefore, knowledge in this area is limited only by general considerations and a number of more or less plausible hypotheses.

The fourth task is the most ambitious and most difficult. Practice shows that existing physical theories are no longer sufficient to solve it. It is necessary to create a more general physical theory capable of describing the state of matter and physical processes at the limiting values ​​of density, temperature, and pressure. To solve this problem, observational data are required in regions of the Universe located at distances of several billion light years. Modern technical capabilities do not allow detailed exploration of these areas. Nevertheless, this task is now the most urgent and is being successfully solved by astronomers from a number of countries, including Russia.

History of astronomy

Even in ancient times, people noticed the relationship between the movement of heavenly bodies in the sky and periodic changes in the weather. Astronomy was then thoroughly mixed with astrology. The final separation of scientific astronomy took place during the Renaissance and took a long time.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences that arose from the practical needs of mankind. By the arrangement of the stars and constellations, primitive farmers determined the onset of the seasons. The nomadic tribes were guided by the Sun and the stars. The need for chronology led to the creation of the calendar. There is evidence that even prehistoric people knew about the main phenomena associated with the rising and setting of the Sun, the Moon and some stars. The periodic recurrence of eclipses of the Sun and Moon has been known for a very long time. Among the oldest written sources, there are descriptions of astronomical phenomena, as well as primitive calculation schemes for predicting the times of rising and setting of bright celestial bodies and methods of counting time and keeping a calendar. Astronomy developed successfully in Ancient Babylon, Egypt, China and India. The Chinese chronicle describes the eclipse of the Sun, which took place in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Theories that, on the basis of advanced arithmetic and geometry, explained and predicted the movement of the Sun, Moon and bright planets, were created in the Mediterranean countries in the last centuries of the pre-Christian era and, together with simple but effective instruments, served practical purposes until the Renaissance.

Astronomy was especially developed in ancient Greece. Pythagoras first came to the conclusion that the Earth has a spherical shape, and Aristarchus of Samos suggested that the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC e. compiled one of the first stellar catalogs. In the work of Ptolemy "Almagest", written in 2 tbsp. n. e., set out by the so-called. the geocentric system of the world, which has been generally accepted for almost one and a half thousand years. In the Middle Ages, astronomy achieved significant development in the countries of the East. In the 15th century. Ulugbek built an observatory near Samarkand with precise instruments at that time. Here the first catalog of stars after Hipparchus was compiled. From the 16th century. the development of astronomy in Europe begins. New requirements were put forward in connection with the development of trade and navigation and the emergence of industry, contributed to the liberation of science from the influence of religion and led to a number of major discoveries.

The birth of modern astronomy is associated with the rejection of the geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy (2nd century) and its replacement by the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus (mid-16th century), with the beginning of studies of celestial bodies with a telescope (Galileo, early 17th century) and the discovery of the law of universal attraction (Isaac Newton, late 17th century). The 18th-19th centuries were for astronomy a period of accumulation of information and knowledge about the solar system, our Galaxy and the physical nature of stars, the sun, planets and other cosmic bodies. The advent of large telescopes and the implementation of systematic observations led to the discovery that the Sun is part of a huge disk-shaped system consisting of many billions of stars - a galaxy. At the beginning of the 20th century, astronomers discovered that this system is one of millions of similar galaxies. The discovery of other galaxies was the impetus for the development of extragalactic astronomy. The study of the spectra of galaxies allowed Edwin Hubble in 1929 to reveal the phenomenon of "recession of galaxies", which was later explained on the basis of the general expansion of the Universe.

In the 20th century, astronomy split into two main branches: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomy focuses on observations of celestial bodies, which are then analyzed using the basic laws of physics. Theoretical astronomy is focused on the development of models (analytical or computer) for describing astronomical objects and phenomena. These two branches complement each other: theoretical astronomy seeks explanations for the results of observations, and observational astronomy is used to confirm theoretical conclusions and hypotheses.

The scientific and technological revolution of the 20th century had an extremely great influence on the development of astronomy in general, and especially astrophysics. The creation of high-resolution optical and radio telescopes, the use of rockets and artificial Earth satellites for extra-atmospheric astronomical observations led to the discovery of new types of cosmic bodies: radio galaxies, quasars, pulsars, X-ray sources, etc. systems. The achievement of astrophysics of the 20th century was relativistic cosmology - the theory of the evolution of the Universe as a whole.

2009 was declared by the UN as the International Year of Astronomy (IYA2009). The main focus is on increasing public interest and understanding of astronomy. It is one of the few sciences where lay people can still play an active role. Amateur astronomy has contributed to a number of important astronomical discoveries.

Astronomical observations

In astronomy, information is mainly obtained from the detection and analysis of visible light and other spectra of electromagnetic radiation in space. Astronomical observations can be divided according to the region of the electromagnetic spectrum in which measurements are made. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth (that is, its surface), while other observations are carried out only at high altitudes or in space (in spacecraft orbiting the Earth). Details of these study groups are provided below.

Optical astronomy

Historically, optical astronomy (also called visible light astronomy) is the oldest form of space exploration - astronomy. The optical images were first hand-drawn. In the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, research was carried out on the basis of images that were obtained using photographs taken with photographic equipment. Modern images are obtained using digital detectors, in particular charge coupled device (CCD) detectors. Although visible light covers the range from about 4000 Ǻ to 7000 Ǻ (400-700 nanometers), the equipment used in this range can be used to study the ultraviolet and infrared ranges close to it.

Infrared astronomy

Infrared astronomy concerns the research, detection and analysis of infrared radiation in space. Although its wavelength is close to the wavelength of visible light, infrared radiation is strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, in addition, the Earth's atmosphere has significant infrared radiation. Therefore, observatories for studying infrared radiation should be located in high and dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to emit visible light from objects such as planets and around stellar disks. Infrared rays can pass through dust clouds that absorb visible light, allowing young stars to be observed in molecular clouds and galactic nuclei. Some molecules emit powerful infrared radiation, and this can be used to study chemical processes in space (for example, to detect water in comets).

Ultraviolet astronomy

Ultraviolet astronomy is mainly used for detailed observation at ultraviolet wavelengths of about 100 to 3200 Ǻ (10 to 320 nanometers). Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so this range is explored from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet astronomy is better suited for studying hot stars (OF stars), since most of the radiation falls within this range. This includes studies of blue stars in other galaxies and planetary nebulae, supernova remnants, active galactic nuclei. However, ultraviolet radiation is easily absorbed by interstellar dust, therefore, during the measurement, a correction should be made for the presence of the latter in the cosmic environment.

Radio astronomy

Very Large Array in Cirocco, New Mexico, USA

Radio astronomy is the study of radiation with a wavelength greater than one millimeter (approximately). Radio astronomy differs from most other types of astronomical observations in that the investigated radio waves can be considered exactly as waves, and not as individual photons. So, you can measure both the amplitude and the phase of a radio wave, and this is not so easy to do in the short wave bands.

Although some radio waves are emitted by astronomical objects as thermal radiation, most of the radio waves observed from Earth are synchrotron radiation in origin, which occurs when electrons move in a magnetic field. In addition, some spectral lines are formed by interstellar gas, in particular the spectral line of neutral hydrogen 21 cm long.

A wide variety of space objects are observed in the radio range, in particular supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars and active galactic nuclei.

X-ray astronomy

X-ray astronomy studies astronomical objects in the X-ray range. Objects typically emit X-rays due to:

Since X-ray radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray observations are mainly performed from orbital stations, rockets or spacecraft. Known X-ray sources in space include X-ray binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, galaxy clusters, and active galactic nuclei.

Gamma Astronomy

Astronomical gamma rays appear in studies of astronomical objects with a short wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays can be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Telescope or specialized telescopes called Cherenkov atmospheric telescopes. These telescopes do not actually measure gamma rays directly, but record flashes of visible light that are generated when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, due to various physical processes that occur with charged particles that occur during absorption, such as the Compton effect or Cherenkov radiation.

Most gamma ray sources are actually gamma ray burst sources, which only emit gamma rays for a short period of time ranging from a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before dissipating into space. Only 10% of gamma radiation sources are not transient sources. Stationary gamma sources include pulsars, neutron stars and black hole candidates in active galactic nuclei.

Astronomy of fields that are not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

Based on very large distances, the Earth receives not only electromagnetic radiation, but also other types of elementary particles.

Gravitational-wave astronomy, which seeks to use gravitational wave detectors to collect observational data on compact objects, may become a new direction in a variety of methods of astronomy. Several observatories have already been built, such as the laser interferometer of the LIGO gravitational observatory, but gravitational waves are very difficult to detect and still remain elusive.

Planetary astronomy also uses direct study by spacecraft and Sample Return missions. These include flight missions using sensors; descent vehicles that can conduct experiments on the surface of objects, and also allow remote sensing of materials or objects and missions to deliver samples to Earth for direct laboratory research.

Astrometry and Celestial Mechanics

One of the oldest subsections of astronomy, it is concerned with measuring the position of celestial objects. This branch of astronomy is called astrometry. Historically accurate knowledge of the location of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars is extremely important in navigation. Careful measurements of the position of the planets led to a deep understanding of gravitational disturbances, which made it possible to accurately determine their positions in the past and provide for the future. This industry is known as celestial mechanics. Now tracking near-Earth objects allows predicting the approach to them, as well as possible collisions of various objects with the Earth.

Measuring stellar parallaxes of nearby stars is the foundation for determining distances in deep space, which is used to measure the scale of the universe. These measurements provided the basis for determining the properties of distant stars; properties can be compared to neighboring stars. Measurements of radial velocities and proper motions of celestial bodies allow us to study the kinematics of these systems in our galaxy. Astrometric results can be used to measure the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.

In the 1990s, astrometric methods for measuring stellar oscillations were applied to detect large extrasolar planets (planets in the orbits of neighboring stars).

Extra-atmospheric astronomy

Research using space technology occupies a special place among the methods of studying celestial bodies and the space environment. The beginning was laid by the launch in the USSR in 1957 of the world's first artificial Earth satellite. Spacecraft have made it possible to carry out research in all ranges of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, modern astronomy is often called all-wave. Extra-atmospheric observations make it possible to receive radiation in space that is absorbed or greatly alters the earth's atmosphere: radio emissions of certain wavelengths do not reach the Earth, as well as corpuscular radiation from the Sun and other bodies. The study of these previously inaccessible types of radiation from stars and nebulae, the interplanetary and interstellar medium has greatly enriched our knowledge of the physical processes of the Universe. In particular, previously unknown sources of X-ray radiation - X-ray pulsars - were discovered. A lot of information about the nature of bodies distant from us and their systems has also been gained thanks to research carried out with the help of installed spectrographs on various spacecraft.

Theoretical astronomy

Main article: Theoretical astronomy

Theoretical astronomers use a wide range of tools, which include analytical models (for example, polytropics for the approximate behavior of stars) and numerical simulations. Each method has its own advantages. An analytical model of a process tends to provide a better understanding of why this (something) is happening. Numerical models can indicate the presence of phenomena and effects that would probably not have been seen otherwise.

Astronomical theorists strive to create theoretical models and investigate the implications of those simulations in research. This allows observers to look for data that might disprove the model, or helps in choosing between several alternative or conflicting models. Theorists are also experimenting with creating or modifying the model based on new data. In case of inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal changes to the model and to correct the result. In some cases, a large amount of conflicting data over time can lead to a complete rejection of the model.

Topics studied by theoretical astronomers: stellar dynamics and evolution of galaxies; large-scale structure of the Universe; the origin of cosmic rays, general relativity and physical cosmology, in particular the cosmology of stars and astrophysics. Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool for assessing the properties of large-scale structures for which gravity plays a significant role in physical phenomena and as a basis for research on black holes, astrophysics and the study of gravitational waves. Several widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy are now included in Lambda-CDM models, the Big Bang, space expansion, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics.

Amateur astronomy

Astronomy is one of the sciences in which the contribution of amateurs can be significant. In general, all amateur astronomers observe various celestial objects and phenomena to a greater extent than scientists, although their technical resource is much less than the capacity of state institutions, sometimes they build equipment for themselves (as it was 2 centuries ago). Finally, most scientists came out of this environment. The main objects of observation for amateur astronomers: the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers and various objects of the deep sky, namely: star clusters, galaxies and nebulae. One of the branches of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, provides for photographing areas of the night sky. Many hobbyists would like to specialize in observing specific objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.

Amateur astronomers continue to contribute to astronomy in the future. Indeed, it is one of the few disciplines where the contribution of amateurs can be significant. Quite often, they carry out point measurements, which are used to clarify the orbits of minor planets, in part they also show comets, perform regular observations of variable stars. And advances in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive advances in astrophotography.

see also

Codes in knowledge classification systems

• State rubricator of scientific and technical information (SRSTI) (as of 2001): 41 ASTRONOMY

Notes (edit)

1. , with. 5
2. Marochnik L.S. Physics of space. - 1986.
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4. Moore, P. Philip "s Atlas of the Universe. - Great Britain: George Philis Limited, 1997. - ISBN 0-540-07465-9
5. Staff... Why infrared astronomy is a hot topic, ESA(September 11, 2003). Archived from the original on July 30, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
6. Infrared Spectroscopy - An Overview, NASA / IPAC... Archived from the original on August 5, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
7. Allen "s Astrophysical Quantities / Cox, A. N .. - New York: Springer-Verlag, 2000. - P. 124. - ISBN 0-387-98746-0
8. Penston, Margaret J. The electromagnetic spectrum. Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council (14 August 2002). Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved August 17, 2006.
9. Gaisser Thomas K. Cosmic Rays and Particle Physics. - Cambridge University Press, 1990. - P. 1-2. - ISBN 0-521-33931-6
10. Tammann, G. A .; Thielemann, F. K .; Trautmann, D. Opening new windows in observing the Universe. Europhysics News (2003). Archived from the original on September 6, 2012. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
11. Calvert, James B. Celestial Mechanics. University of Denver (28 March 2003). Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved August 21, 2006.
12. Hall of Precision Astrometry. University of Virginia Department of Astronomy. Archived from the original on August 26, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
13. Wolszczan, A .; Frail, D. A. (1992). "A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257 + 12". Nature 355 (6356): 145-147. DOI: 10.1038 / 355145a0. Bibcode: 1992Natur.355..145W.
14. Roth, H. (1932). "A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability." Physical Review 39 (3): 525-529. DOI: 10.1103 / PhysRev. 39.525. Bibcode: 1932PhRv ... 39..525R.
15. Eddington A.S. Internal Constitution of the Stars. - Cambridge University Press, 1926. - ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3
16. Mims III, Forrest M. (1999). Amateur Science-Strong Tradition, Bright Future. Science 284 (5411): 55-56. DOI: 10.1126 / science.284.5411.55. Bibcode: 1999Sci ... 284 ... 55M. "Astronomy has traditionally been among the most fertile fields for serious amateurs [...]"
17. The Americal Meteor Society. Archived from the original on August 22, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
18. Lodriguss, Jerry Catching the Light: Astrophotography. Archived from the original on September 1, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
19. Ghigo, F. Karl Jansky and the Discovery of Cosmic Radio Waves. National Radio Astronomy Observatory (7 February 2006). Archived from the original on August 31, 2006. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
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22. Edgar Wilson Award. IAU Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. Archived from the original on October 24, 2010. Retrieved October 24, 2010.

More than once, raising our eyes to the night sky, we wondered - what is in this infinite space?


The universe is fraught with many secrets and mysteries, but there is a science called astronomy, which has been studying space for many years and trying to explain its origin. What kind of science is this? What do astronomers do and what exactly do they study?

What does the word "astronomy" mean?

The term "astronomy" appeared in ancient Greece in the III-II centuries BC, when such scientists as Pythagoras and Hipparchus shone in the scientific community. The concept is a combination of two ancient Greek words - ἀστήρ (star) and νόμος (law), that is, astronomy is the law of the stars.

This term should not be confused with another concept - astrology, which studies the impact of celestial bodies on the Earth and man.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the science of the Universe, which determines the location, structure and formation of celestial bodies. In modern times, it includes several sections:

- astrometry, which studies the location and movement of space objects;

- celestial mechanics - determining the mass and shape of stars, studying the laws of their movement under the influence of gravitational forces;


- theoretical astronomy, within the framework of which scientists develop analytical and computer models of celestial bodies and phenomena;

- astrophysics - the study of the chemical and physical properties of space objects.

Separate branches of science are aimed at studying the laws of the spatial arrangement of stars and planets and considering the evolution of celestial bodies.

In the XX century, a new section appeared in astronomy called archaeoastronomy, aimed at studying astronomical history and clarifying knowledge in the field of stars in ancient times.

What does astronomy study?

The subjects of astronomy are the Universe as a whole and all objects in it - stars, planets, asteroids, comets, galaxies, constellations. Astronomers study interplanetary and interstellar matter, time, black holes, nebulae, and celestial coordinate systems.


In a word, under their close attention is everything that is connected with the cosmos and its development, including astronomical instruments, symbols, etc.

When did astronomy appear?

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences on Earth. It is impossible to name the exact date of its appearance, but it is well known that people have been studying the stars at least from the VI-IV millennia BC.

Many astronomical tables left by the priests of Babylon, calendars of the Mayan tribes, Ancient Egypt and Ancient China have survived to this day. Ancient Greek scientists made a great contribution to the development of astronomy and the study of celestial bodies. Pythagoras was the first to suggest that our planet has the shape of a ball, and Aristarchus of Samos was the first to draw conclusions about its rotation around the Sun.

For a long time, astronomy was associated with astrology, but during the Renaissance it became a separate science. Thanks to the advent of telescopes, scientists were able to discover the Milky Way galaxy, and at the beginning of the 20th century they realized that the Universe consists of many galactic spaces.

The greatest achievement of our time was the emergence of the theory of the evolution of the universe, according to which it expands over time.

What is amateur astronomy?

Amateur astronomy is a hobby in which people who are not related to scientific and research centers observe space objects. I must say that such entertainment makes a significant contribution to the overall development of astronomy.


Many interesting and rather important discoveries were made by amateurs. In particular, in 1877 the Russian observer Evgraf Bykhanov was the first to express modern views on the formation of the solar system, and in 2009 the Australian Anthony Wesley discovered traces of the fall of a cosmic body (presumably a comet) on the planet Jupiter.

For some time, the school curriculum did not include such a subject as astronomy. Now this discipline is included in the compulsory curriculum. Astronomy begins to be studied in different schools in different ways. Sometimes this discipline first appears in the schedule of seventh graders, and in some educational institutions it is taught only in the 11th grade. Schoolchildren have a question about why they need to learn this subject, astronomy? Let's find out what kind of science it is and how knowledge about space can be useful to us in life?

The concept of the science of astronomy and the subject of its study

Astronomy is the natural science of the universe. The subject of her study is space phenomena, processes and objects. Thanks to this science, we know planets, satellites, comets, asteroids, meteorites. Also, astronomical knowledge gives an idea of ​​space, the location of celestial bodies, their movement and the formation of their systems.

Astronomy is the science that explains the incomprehensible phenomena that make up an integral part of our life.

The origin and development of astronomy

The very first ideas of man about the Universe were very primitive. They were based on religious beliefs. People thought that the Earth is the center of the universe, and that the stars are attached to the solid sky.

In the further development of this science, several stages are distinguished, each of which is called the astronomical revolution.

The first such coup took place at different times in different regions of the world. The approximate beginning of its implementation is 1500 BC. The reason for the first revolution was the development of mathematical knowledge, and the result was the emergence of spherical astronomy, astrometry and accurate calendars. The main achievement of this period is the emergence of the geocentric theory of the world, which became the result of ancient knowledge.

The second revolution in astronomy took place from the 16th to the 17th century. It was caused by the rapid development of natural sciences and the emergence of new knowledge about nature. During this period, the laws of physics began to be used to explain astronomical processes and phenomena.

The main achievements of this stage in the development of astronomy are the substantiation of universal gravitation, the invention of an optical telescope, the discovery of new planets, asteroids, and the emergence of the first cosmological hypotheses.

Further, the development of space science accelerated. A new technique was invented to aid in astronomical research. The emerging opportunity to study the chemical composition of celestial bodies confirmed the unity of the entire outer space.

The third astronomical revolution took place in the 70-90s of the twentieth century. It was due to the progress of technology and technology. At this stage, all-wave, experimental and corpuscular astronomy appears. This means that now all objects in space can be viewed with the help of electromagnetic waves emitted by them, corpuscular radiation.

Subdivisions of astronomy

As we can see, astronomy is an ancient science, and in the process of long development it has acquired a ramified, sectoral structure. The conceptual basis of classical astronomy is formed by three of its subsections:

In addition to these main sections, there are also:

• astrophysics;
• stellar astronomy;
• cosmogony;
• cosmology.

New trends and modern trends in astronomy

Recently, in connection with the acceleration of the development of many sciences, progressive branches began to appear, engaged in rather specific research in the field of astronomy.

• Gamma astronomy studies space objects by their radiation.
• X-ray astronomy, similarly to the previous branch, takes X-rays that come from celestial bodies as the basis for research.

Basic concepts in astronomy

What are the basic concepts of this science? In order for us to study astronomy deeper, we need to familiarize ourselves with the basics.

Space is a collection of stars and interstellar space. In fact, this is the universe.

A planet is a specific celestial body that orbits around a star. This name is given only to heavy objects that are able to acquire a rounded shape under the influence of their own gravity.

A star is a massive spherical object made of gases, within which thermonuclear reactions take place. The closest and most famous star for us is the Sun.

A satellite in astronomy is a celestial body orbiting an object that is larger and held by gravity. Satellites are natural - for example the Moon, as well as artificially created by man and launched into orbit to broadcast the necessary information.

The galaxy is the gravitational bundle of stars, their clusters, dust, gas and dark matter. All objects in the galaxy move relative to its center.

A nebula in astronomy is interstellar space that has characteristic radiation and stands out against the general background of the sky. Before the advent of powerful telescopic instruments, galaxies were often confused with nebulae.

Declination in astronomy is a characteristic inherent in every celestial body. This is the name of one of the two coordinates, which reflects the angular distance from the cosmic equator.

Modern terminology of the science of astronomy

The innovative learning methods discussed earlier have contributed to the emergence of new astronomical terms:

"Exotic" objects are sources of optical, X-ray, radio and gamma radiation in space.

Quasar - in simple words, it is a star with strong radiation. Its power may be greater than that of an entire galaxy. We see such an object through a telescope even at a great distance.

A neutron star is the last stage in the evolution of a celestial body. This one has an unimaginable density. For example, the substance that makes up a neutron star, which fits in a teaspoon, will weigh 110 million tons.

The relationship of astronomy with other sciences

Astronomy is a science that is closely related to various knowledge. In her research, she uses the achievements of many industries.

The problem of the distribution of chemical elements and their compounds on Earth and in space is the link between chemistry and astronomy. In addition, scientists are of great interest in the study of chemical processes taking place in outer space.

The Earth can be considered as one of the planets of the solar system - this expresses the connection between astronomy and geography and geophysics. The relief of the globe, the ongoing climatic and seasonal weather changes, warming, ice ages - geographers use astronomical knowledge to study all these and many more phenomena.

What became the basis for the origin of life? This is a common question for biology and astronomy. The common works of these two sciences are aimed at solving the dilemma of the emergence of living organisms on planet Earth.

An even closer relationship between astronomy and ecology, which considers the problem of the influence of cosmic processes on the Earth's biosphere.

Observation methods in astronomy

Observation is the basis for collecting information in astronomy. What methods can be used to observe the processes and objects in space and what tools are now being used for these purposes?

With the naked eye, we can see several thousand stars in the sky, but sometimes it seems that we see a million or a billion luminous bright points. This is a spectacular sight in itself, although more interesting things can be noticed with the help of magnifying devices.

Even ordinary binoculars with the possibility of eight times magnification give a chance to see a myriad of celestial bodies, and ordinary stars, which we see with the naked eye, become much brighter. The most interesting object for contemplation through binoculars is the Moon. Even at low magnification, some craters can be seen.

The telescope makes it possible to see not just the spots of the seas on the Moon. Observing the starry sky with this device, you can study all the features of the relief of the earth's satellite. Also, distant galaxies and nebulae, invisible until this moment, open to the view of the observer.

Contemplating the starry sky through a telescope is not only a very exciting activity, but sometimes quite useful for science. Many astronomical discoveries were made not by research institutes, but by ordinary amateurs.

The importance of astronomy for humans and society

Astronomy is an interesting and useful science at the same time. Nowadays, astronomical methods and instruments are used to:

Instead of an afterword

Considering all of the above, no one can doubt the usefulness and necessity of astronomy. This science helps to better understand all aspects of human existence. She gave us knowledge about and opened access to interesting information.

With the help of astronomical research, we can study our planet in more detail, and also gradually move deeper into the Universe in order to learn more and more about the space around us.

Astronomical research methods

Components of the megaworld

Space(megaworld) - the whole world surrounding the planet Earth.

We cannot observe the entire space for a number of reasons (technical: the scattering of galaxies → the light does not have time to reach).

Universe- a part of space accessible to observation.

Cosmology- studies the structure, origin, evolution and future fate of the Universe as a whole.

The basis of this discipline is astronomy, physics and mathematics.

Astronomy(literally - the science of the behavior of stars) - a narrower branch of cosmology (the most important!) - the science of the structure and development of all cosmic bodies.

Research methods in astronomy

In astronomy directly only objects emitting electromagnetic radiation can be observed including light.

Basic information is obtained using optical instruments.

1. Optical astronomy - studies visible (i.e. luminous) objects.

Observed, or luminous, matter either itself emits visible light as a result of processes going on inside it (stars), or reflects incident rays (planets of the solar system, nebulae).

In 1608. G. Galilei sent his simple spyglass, thus making a revolution in the field of astronomical observation. Now astronomical observations are carried out using telescopes.

Optical telescopes are of 2 types: refractory (light gathers lens→ large lenses are required that can bend under their own weight → image distortion) and reflex (light gathers mirror, there are no such problems → most professional telescopes are reflectors).

In modern telescopes, the human eye has been replaced photographic plates or digital cameras, which are able to accumulate luminous flux over long periods of time, which makes it possible to detect even smaller objects.

Telescopes are installed on high mountain peaks, where the influence of the atmosphere and light of large cities on the image is least affected. Therefore, today most of the professional telescopes are concentrated in observatories, of which there are not so many: in the Andes, on the Canary Islands, on the Hawaiian volcanoes(4205 m above sea level, on an extinct volcano - the highest observatory in the world) and in some isolated locations in the United States and Australia.

Thanks to international agreements, countries that do not have suitable locations for telescopes can install their equipment in locations with such conditions.

Largest telescope- is being built in Chile by the South European Observatory (includes a system of 4 telescopes with a diameter of 8.2 m each).

In 1990, launched into orbit optical telescope "Hubble" (USA) (h = 560 km).

Its length - 13.3 m, width - 12 m, mirror with a diameter of 2.4 m, total weight - 11 tons,

cost ~ $ 250 million

Thanks to him, a deep, never before unattainable image of the starry sky was obtained, planetary systems were observed in the stage of formation, and data on the existence of huge black holes in the centers of different galaxies were obtained. The telescope should be completed by 2005; now another more modern one has been launched.

2. Neoptical astronomy - studies objects emitting EM radiation outside the visible light.

Electromagnetic radiation- a form of electrical and magnetic energy that travels through space at the speed of light. The unit of measurement is wavelength (m).

The EM spectrum is conventionally divided into bands characterized by a certain interval of wavelengths. It is impossible to define clear boundaries between the ranges, because they often overlap.