Raising our eyes to the starry sky on a warm summer night, each of us thinks - what is there, how it all works and who we are in this Universe? Thoughts about the frailty of earthly existence and the immensity of the cosmic, thoughts about great and small, that the sky is black velvet, and the stars are drops of milk, and during the day, there will probably be clouds ... All this is lyrics, and scientists peer into the starry sky completely with a different approach. And the results of their research are striking every time more and more. So what does the science of astronomy do? And why is it needed?

What does the science of Astronomy study?

Astronomy is a science that studies the structure. She studies the location, movement, physical nature, origin and evolution of celestial bodies and systems. The fundamental properties of the universe around us are also the subject of astronomy. More specifically, astronomy studies the Sun and other stars, planets and their satellites, black holes, galaxies and nebulae, quasars, asteroids and much more. Astronomy is a science that is designed to explain the incomprehensible phenomena that occur in the Universe and explain our life.

When did Astronomy appear?

We can say that astronomy appeared at the moment when a person began to ask himself questions about the structure of our world. The first ideas about the universe were very primitive, they came from religion. Already from the 6-4th century. BC. people began to study the stars and their movement. With the development of mathematical knowledge and physical research, man's ideas about the Universe have improved. The first astronomical revolution took place in 1500 BC. - it was then that spherical astronomy appeared, accurate calendars appeared, which means astrometry. The priests of Babylon, who compiled astronomical tables, calendars of the Mayan tribes, information preserved from the times of Ancient China and Ancient Egypt - all this stood at the origins of astronomy. For the first time, ancient Greek scientists, in particular Pythagoras, suggested that the Earth has the shape of a ball, Aristarchus of Samos - that the earth revolves around. The main achievement of this period is the emergence of the geocentric theory of the world. Galileo made a significant contribution to the development of astronomy.

Astronomy as a hobby

Astronomy and cosmonautics have always interested and attracted millions of people. There are countless amateur astronomers in the world, often thanks to them many astronomical discoveries were made. For example, in 2009, Australian Anthony Wesley, observing Jupiter, discovered traces of a cosmic body falling onto a planet, presumably it could be a comet.

With the help of astronomy, we learn the laws of nature and observe the gradual evolution of our world. Astronomy largely determines the worldview of people. At the beginning of the XXI century, space topics about and aliens became popular, unfortunately, very often very incompetent. The interest of journalists who do not understand space issues, the opinions of scientists based on unconfirmed facts, makes many people believe in pseudoscientific discoveries.

Today, a huge number of high-quality scientific videos about space, various stars, planets and galaxies have been created and are being created: excellently executed graphics and real footage from space will not leave you indifferent and help you better understand this interesting science - astronomy. You can watch some of these films below.

In the XX century. the most ancient science, astronomy, has radically changed. This is connected both with the emergence of its new theoretical basis - relativistic and quantum mechanics, and with the expansion of the possibilities of experimental research.

The general theory of relativity has become one of the fundamental theories of cosmology, and the creation of quantum mechanics made it possible to study not only the mechanical motion of cosmic bodies, but also their physical and chemical characteristics. Stellar and extragalactic astronomy were developed. Astronomy became all-wave, i.e. astronomical observations are carried out at all ranges of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma radiation). Its experimental capabilities have increased significantly with the advent of spacecraft that make it possible to carry out observations outside the Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs radiation. All this led to a significant expansion of the observable area of ​​the Universe and the discovery of a number of unusual (and often inexplicable) phenomena.

The main instrument of astronomical research is the telescope, while other instruments, such as spectroscopic ones, examine the radiation collected by the telescope. Now only a small part of astronomical work is carried out visually, mainly research is carried out with the help of cameras and other devices recording radiation. Radio telescopes have appeared that make it possible to study the radio emission of all kinds of objects in the solar system, our and other galaxies. Radio astronomy has greatly expanded knowledge about the Universe and led to the discovery of pulsars (neutron stars), quasars - extragalactic objects, which are the most powerful of the known radiation sources, made it possible to obtain information about the most distant regions of the Universe, to detect isotropic "relic" radiation. All of these are the most important discoveries of the twentieth century. Additional information is also provided by studies in the infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and - ranges, but these radiation are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere, and the corresponding equipment is installed on satellites. To the outstanding discoveries of the twentieth century. The increase in the wavelength corresponding to lines in the spectra of distant galaxies ("redshift"), which indicates the mutual distance of space objects, that is, that is, is also related to the increase in wavelength, discovered in 1929 by the American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889 - 1953). about the expansion of the universe.

The structure of the universe

Solar system. The solar system is the cosmic home of humanity. The sun is a source of heat and light, a source of life on Earth. solar system- an interconnected set of a star - the Sun and many celestial bodies, which include nine planets, dozens of their satellites, hundreds of comets, thousands of asteroids, etc. All these various bodies are united into one stable system due to the force of gravitational attraction of the central body - the Sun.

The sun is a plasma ball, consisting mainly of hydrogen and helium, in a state of differentiated rotation around its axis. The highest rotation speed in the equatorial plane is one revolution in 25.4 days. The source of solar energy is most likely the thermonuclear reactions of the conversion of hydrogen into helium, occurring in the inner regions of the sun, where the temperature reaches 10 7 K. The temperature of the surface parts is 6000 K. The surface of the Sun is not smooth, granules are observed on it caused by convective gas flows, “spots” and vortices appear and disappear. Explosive processes on the Sun, solar flares periodically appearing on its surface, can serve as a measure of the Sun's activity. Studies have shown that the solar maximum activity cycle is regular and is approximately 11 years. Sun spots and flares are the most visible manifestations of the Sun's magnetic activity. The connection between solar activity and processes on Earth was noted back in the 19th century, and now there is a huge statistical material confirming the influence of the activity of the Sun on Earth processes.

Developed in the 17th - 18th centuries. the theoretical basis of classical astronomy - classical mechanics allows you to perfectly describe the motion of bodies of the solar system bound by gravitational interaction, but does not answer the question of its origin. The planets of the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, with the exception of the latter, move around the Sun in one direction in a single plane in elliptical orbits. The planets, like their satellites, are not self-luminous bodies and are visible only because they are illuminated by the Sun. Since 1962, the planets and their satellites have been explored not only from the Earth, but also from space stations. At present, extensive factual material has been accumulated about the features of the physical and chemical properties of the surfaces of planets, their atmosphere, magnetic field, periods of rotation around the axis and the Sun. According to their physical characteristics, the planets are divided into two groups: giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) and terrestrial planets (Mercury, Earth, Venus, Mars). The orbit of the planet farthest from the Sun - Pluto, whose size is less than the size of the Earth's satellite - the Moon, determines the size of the Solar system 1.2 · 10 13 m.

The solar system, being a part of our galaxy, as a whole moves around its axis at a speed of 250 m / s, making a complete revolution in 225 million years. According to modern concepts, the formation of the modern structure of the solar system began with a shapeless gas and dust nebula (cloud). The solar system was formed about 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a second (or later) generation star, since in addition to the usual hydrogen and helium for stars, it also contains heavy elements. The elemental composition of the solar system is characteristic of the evolution of stars. Under the influence of gravitational forces, the cloud was compressed so that its densest part was in the center, where the bulk of the matter of the primary nebula is concentrated. There the Sun arose, in the depths of which thermonuclear reactions of the conversion of hydrogen into helium, which are the main source of the sun's energy, then began. As the luminosity of the Sun increased, the gas cloud became less and less homogeneous, condensations appeared in it - protoplanets... As the size and mass of protoplanets grew, their gravitational attraction increased, thus the planets were formed. The rest of the celestial bodies are formed by the remnants of the original nebula. So, about 4.5 - 5 billion years ago, the solar system was finally formed in the form that has survived to us. Probably, in another 5 billion years, the Sun will deplete its reserves of hydrogen, and its structure will begin to change, which will lead to the gradual destruction of our solar system.

Although modern ideas about the origin of the solar system remain at the level of hypotheses, they are consistent with the ideas of the natural structural self-organization of the Universe under conditions of a strongly nonequilibrium state.

Stars. Galaxies. The sun is a grain of sand in the world of stars. Star- the main structural unit of the megaworld. A stationary star is a high-temperature plasma ball in a state of dynamic hydrostatic equilibrium. It is a finely balanced self-regulating system. Unlike other celestial bodies, such as planets, stars emit energy. The energy generated in them by nuclear processes leads to the appearance in the bowels of stars of atoms of chemical elements heavier than hydrogen and is a source of light. Stars are natural thermonuclear reactors in which the chemical evolution of matter takes place. They vary greatly in their physical properties and chemical composition. There are different types of stars that correspond to different stages of their evolution. The evolutionary path of a star is determined by its mass, which varies mainly in the range from 0.1 to 10 solar masses. Stars are born, change and die. With a mass less than 1.4 solar, the star, having passed the stage red giant, first turns into white dwarf, then - in black dwarf, a cold dead star, the size of which is comparable to the size of the Earth, and the mass is no more than the sun. More massive stars at the end of their evolution experience gravitational collapse- unlimited contraction of matter to the center and can flare up as supernovae with the release of a significant part of the substance into the surrounding space in the form gas nebulae and the transformation of the rest into superdense neutron star or black hole.

The stars form galaxies- giant gravitationally coupled systems. Our Galaxy, which includes the Sun, is called the Milky Way and has 10 11 stars. Galaxies vary in size and shape. In appearance, there are three types of galaxies - elliptical, spiral and irregular. The most widespread are spiral ones, our Galaxy belongs to them. It is a flattened disk with a diameter of ~ 10 5 light years with a bulge in the center, from where spiral arms radiate. The galaxy rotates, and the speed of rotation depends on the distance to its center. The solar system is approximately 30,000 light-years from the center of the galactic disk.

Three galaxies can be observed from Earth with the naked eye - the Andromeda Nebula (from the Northern Hemisphere) and the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (from the Southern). In total, astronomers have discovered about one hundred million galaxies.

In addition to billions of stars, galaxies contain matter in the form of interstellar gas (hydrogen, helium) and dust. Dense gas-dust clouds hide the center of our Galaxy from us, therefore, its structure can only be judged conjecturally. In addition, in interstellar space there are flows of neutrinos and electrically charged particles, accelerated to near-light speeds, as well as fields (gravitational, electromagnetic). It should be noted that, although the number of molecules of organic compounds in interstellar matter is small, their presence is fundamentally important. For example, the theory of the abiogenic origin of life on Earth is based on the participation of molecules of organic substances, electromagnetic radiation and cosmic rays in this process. Most often, organic molecules are found in places of maximum concentration of gas and dust substances.

In the late 70s of our century, astronomers discovered that galaxies in the Universe are not evenly distributed, but are concentrated near the boundaries of cells, inside which there are almost no galaxies. Thus, on a small scale, matter is distributed very unevenly, but in the large-scale structure of the Universe there are no special places or directions, therefore, on a large scale, the Universe can be considered not only homogeneous, but also isotropic.

Metagalaxy. We briefly examined the structural levels of organization of matter in the megaworld. Is there an upper bound on the possibility of observing the Universe? Modern science answers this question in the affirmative. There is a fundamental limitation of the size of the observable part of the Universe, associated not with experimental possibilities, but with the finiteness of its age and the speed of light.

Cosmology based on Einstein's general theory of relativity and Hubble's law (see below) determines the age of the universe T sun 15-20 billion years (10 18 s). No structural units existed before. Let us introduce the concept of the cosmological horizon, which separates those objects from which the light during the time t<Т вс it cannot reach us. Distance to him

where With- the speed of light in a vacuum, T sun- the age of the universe.

The cosmological horizon forms the boundary of the fundamentally observable part of the Universe - Metagalaxies... If we assume that the age of the Universe is 10 18 s, then the size of the Metagalaxy is of the order of 10 26 m, and the cosmological horizon is continuously moving away from us at a speed of 3 · 10 8 m / s.

An important property of the Metagalaxy in its present state is its homogeneity and isotropy, i.e. properties of matter and space are the same in all parts of the Metagalaxy and in all directions. One of the most important properties of the Metagalaxy is its constant expansion, "scattering" of galaxies. American astronomer E. Hubble established a law according to which the further galaxies are from us, the faster they move away.

An expanding universe is a changing universe. This means that it has its own history and evolution. The evolution of the universe as a whole is being studied cosmology, which currently gives a description of the first moments of its emergence and possible ways of development in the future.

More than once, raising our eyes to the night sky, we wondered - what is in this endless space?


The universe is fraught with many secrets and mysteries, but there is a science called astronomy, which has been studying space for many years and trying to explain its origin. What is this science? What do astronomers do and what exactly do they study?

What does the word "astronomy" mean?

The term "astronomy" appeared in Ancient Greece in the III-II centuries BC, when such scientists as Pythagoras and Hipparchus shone in the scientific community. The concept is a combination of two ancient Greek words - ἀστήρ (star) and νόμος (law), that is, astronomy is the law of the stars.

This term should not be confused with another concept - astrology, which studies the impact of celestial bodies on the Earth and man.

What is astronomy?

Astronomy is the science of the Universe, which determines the location, structure and formation of celestial bodies. In modern times, it includes several sections:

- astrometry, which studies the location and movement of space objects;

- celestial mechanics - determining the mass and shape of stars, studying the laws of their movement under the influence of gravitational forces;


- theoretical astronomy, within which scientists develop analytical and computer models of celestial bodies and phenomena;

- astrophysics - the study of the chemical and physical properties of space objects.

Separate branches of science are aimed at studying the laws of the spatial arrangement of stars and planets and considering the evolution of celestial bodies.

In the XX century, a new section appeared in astronomy called archaeoastronomy, aimed at studying astronomical history and clarifying knowledge in the field of stars in ancient times.

What does astronomy study?

The subjects of astronomy are the Universe as a whole and all objects in it - stars, planets, asteroids, comets, galaxies, constellations. Astronomers study interplanetary and interstellar matter, time, black holes, nebulae, and celestial coordinate systems.


In a word, under their scrutiny is everything related to space and its development, including astronomical instruments, symbols, etc.

When did astronomy appear?

Astronomy is one of the most ancient sciences on Earth. It is impossible to name the exact date of its appearance, but it is well known that people have been studying the stars at least from the VI-IV millennia BC.

Many astronomical tables left by the priests of Babylon, calendars of the Mayan tribes, Ancient Egypt and Ancient China have survived to this day. Ancient Greek scientists made a great contribution to the development of astronomy and the study of celestial bodies. Pythagoras was the first to suggest that our planet has the shape of a ball, and Aristarchus of Samos was the first to draw conclusions about its rotation around the Sun.

For a long time, astronomy was associated with astrology, but in the Renaissance it became a separate science. Thanks to the advent of telescopes, scientists were able to discover the Milky Way galaxy, and at the beginning of the 20th century they realized that the Universe consists of many galactic spaces.

The greatest achievement of our time was the emergence of the theory of the evolution of the universe, according to which it expands over time.

What is amateur astronomy?

Amateur astronomy is a hobby in which people who are not related to scientific and research centers observe space objects. I must say that such entertainment makes a significant contribution to the general development of astronomy.


Many interesting and rather important discoveries were made by amateurs. In particular, in 1877 the Russian observer Evgraf Bykhanov was the first to express modern views on the formation of the solar system, and in 2009 the Australian Anthony Wesley discovered traces of the fall of a cosmic body (presumably a comet) on the planet Jupiter.

Modern astronomy is subdivided into a number of distinct sections, which are closely

interconnected, and such a division of astronomy, in a sense, is conditional.

The main sections of astronomy are:

1. Astrometry is the science of measuring space and time. It consists of: a)

spherical astronomy, developing mathematical methods for determining

visible positions and movements of celestial bodies using various coordinate systems,

as well as the theory of regular changes in the coordinates of the stars with time; b)

fundamental astrometry, the tasks of which are to determine the coordinates

celestial bodies from observations, compilation of catalogs of stellar positions and

determination of the numerical values ​​of the most important astronomical constants, i.e.

quantities that make it possible to take into account the regular changes in the coordinates of the luminaries; v)

practical astronomy, which sets out methods for determining geographic

coordinates, azimuths of directions, exact time and are described used for

this tools.

2. Theoretical astronomy provides methods for determining the orbits of celestial bodies by their

visible positions and methods for calculating ephemeris (visible positions) of celestial bodies

by the known elements of their orbits (inverse problem).

3. Celestial mechanics studies the laws of motion of celestial bodies under the action of forces

universal gravitation, determines the masses and shape of celestial bodies and their stability

These three sections mainly deal with the first problem of astronomy, and they are often called

classical astronomy.

4. Astrophysics studies the structure, physical properties and chemical composition

celestial objects. It is divided into: a) practical astrophysics, in which

practical methods of astrophysical research are developed and applied and

appropriate tools and devices; b) theoretical astrophysics, in which

on the basis of the laws of physics, explanations of the observed physical phenomena are given.

A number of sections of astrophysics are distinguished according to specific research methods. About them

will be said in; 101,

5. Stellar astronomy studies the patterns of spatial distribution and

motion of stars, stellar systems and interstellar matter, taking into account their physical

features.

In these two sections, the questions of the second problem of astronomy are mainly solved.

6. Cosmogony considers questions of the origin and evolution of celestial bodies, including

the number of our Earth.

7. Cosmology studies the general laws of the structure and development of the Universe.

Based on all the knowledge gained about celestial bodies, the last two sections

astronomy solve its third problem.

The course of general astronomy contains a systematic presentation of information about the main

methods and the main results obtained by various branches of astronomy.

For some time, the school curriculum did not include such a subject as astronomy. Now this discipline is included in the compulsory curriculum. Astronomy begins to be studied in different schools in different ways. Sometimes this discipline first appears in the schedule of seventh-graders, and in some educational institutions it is taught only in the 11th grade. Schoolchildren have a question about why they need to learn this subject, astronomy? Let's find out what kind of science it is and how knowledge about space can be useful to us in life?

The concept of the science of astronomy and the subject of its study

Astronomy is the natural science of the universe. The subject of her study is space phenomena, processes and objects. Thanks to this science, we know planets, satellites, comets, asteroids, meteorites. Also, astronomical knowledge gives an idea of ​​space, the location of celestial bodies, their movement and the formation of their systems.

Astronomy is the science that explains the incomprehensible phenomena that make up an integral part of our life.

The origin and development of astronomy

The very first ideas of man about the Universe were very primitive. They were based on religious beliefs. People thought that the Earth was the center of the universe, and that the stars were attached to the solid sky.

In the further development of this science, several stages are distinguished, each of which is called the astronomical revolution.

The first such coup took place at different times in different regions of the world. The approximate beginning of its implementation is 1500 BC. The reason for the first revolution was the development of mathematical knowledge, and the result was the emergence of spherical astronomy, astrometry and accurate calendars. The main achievement of this period is the emergence of the geocentric theory of the world, which became the result of ancient knowledge.

The second revolution in astronomy took place from the 16th to the 17th century. It was caused by the rapid development of natural sciences and the emergence of new knowledge about nature. During this period, the laws of physics began to be used to explain astronomical processes and phenomena.

The main achievements of this stage in the development of astronomy are the substantiation of universal gravitation, the invention of an optical telescope, the discovery of new planets, asteroids, and the emergence of the first cosmological hypotheses.

Further, the development of space science accelerated. A new technique was invented to aid in astronomical research. The emerging opportunity to study the chemical composition of celestial bodies confirmed the unity of the entire outer space.

The third astronomical revolution took place in the 70s-90s of the twentieth century. It was due to the progress of technology and technology. At this stage, all-wave, experimental and corpuscular astronomy appears. This means that now all objects in space can be viewed with the help of electromagnetic waves emitted by them, corpuscular radiation.

Subdivisions of astronomy

As we can see, astronomy is an ancient science, and in the process of long development it has acquired a ramified, sectoral structure. The conceptual basis of classical astronomy is formed by three of its subsections:

In addition to these main sections, there are also:

• astrophysics;
• stellar astronomy;
• cosmogony;
• cosmology.

New trends and modern trends in astronomy

Recently, in connection with the acceleration of the development of many sciences, progressive branches began to appear, engaged in rather specific research in the field of astronomy.

• Gamma astronomy studies space objects by their radiation.
• X-ray astronomy, similar to the previous branch, takes X-rays from celestial bodies as the basis for research.

Basic concepts in astronomy

What are the basic concepts of this science? In order for us to study astronomy deeper, we need to familiarize ourselves with the basics.

Space is a collection of stars and interstellar space. In fact, this is the universe.

A planet is a specific celestial body that orbits a star. This name is given only to heavy objects that are able to acquire a rounded shape under the influence of their own gravity.

A star is a massive spherical object made of gases, inside which thermonuclear reactions take place. The closest and most famous star for us is the Sun.

A satellite in astronomy is a celestial body orbiting an object that is larger and held by gravity. Satellites are natural - for example the Moon, as well as artificially created by man and launched into orbit to broadcast the necessary information.

The galaxy is the gravitational bundle of stars, their clusters, dust, gas and dark matter. All objects in the galaxy move relative to its center.

A nebula in astronomy is interstellar space that has characteristic radiation and stands out against the general background of the sky. Before the advent of powerful telescopic instruments, galaxies were often confused with nebulae.

Declination in astronomy is a characteristic inherent in every celestial body. This is the name of one of the two coordinates, which reflects the angular distance from the cosmic equator.

Modern terminology of the science of astronomy

The innovative learning methods discussed earlier have contributed to the emergence of new astronomical terms:

"Exotic" objects are sources of optical, X-ray, radio and gamma radiation in space.

Quasar - in simple words, it is a star with strong radiation. Its power may be greater than that of an entire galaxy. We see such an object through a telescope even at a great distance.

A neutron star is the last stage in the evolution of a celestial body. This one has an unimaginable density. For example, the substance that makes up a neutron star, which fits in a teaspoon, will weigh 110 million tons.

The relationship of astronomy with other sciences

Astronomy is a science that is closely related to a variety of knowledge. In her research, she uses the achievements of many industries.

The problem of the distribution of chemical elements and their compounds on Earth and in space is the link between chemistry and astronomy. In addition, scientists are of great interest in the study of chemical processes taking place in outer space.

The Earth can be considered as one of the planets of the solar system - this expresses the connection between astronomy and geography and geophysics. The relief of the globe, the ongoing climatic and seasonal weather changes, warming, ice ages - geographers use astronomical knowledge to study all these and many more phenomena.

What became the basis for the origin of life? This is a common question for biology and astronomy. The common works of these two sciences are aimed at solving the dilemma of the emergence of living organisms on planet Earth.

An even closer relationship between astronomy and ecology, which considers the problem of the influence of cosmic processes on the Earth's biosphere.

Observation methods in astronomy

Observation is the basis for collecting information in astronomy. What methods can be used to observe the processes and objects in space and what tools are now being used for these purposes?

With the naked eye, we can notice several thousand stars in the sky, but sometimes it seems that we see a whole million or a billion luminous bright points. This is a spectacular sight in itself, although more interesting things can be noticed with the help of magnifying devices.

Even ordinary binoculars with the possibility of eight times magnification give a chance to see a myriad of celestial bodies, and ordinary stars, which we see with the naked eye, become much brighter. The most interesting object for contemplation through binoculars is the Moon. Even at low magnification, some craters can be seen.

The telescope makes it possible to see not just the spots of the seas on the Moon. Observing the starry sky with this device, you can study all the features of the relief of the earth's satellite. Also, distant galaxies and nebulae, invisible until this moment, open to the view of the observer.

Contemplating the starry sky through a telescope is not only a very exciting activity, but sometimes quite useful for science. Many astronomical discoveries were made not by research institutes, but by ordinary amateurs.

The importance of astronomy for humans and society

Astronomy is an interesting and useful science at the same time. Nowadays, astronomical methods and instruments are used to:

Instead of an afterword

Considering all of the above, no one can doubt the usefulness and necessity of astronomy. This science helps to better understand all aspects of human existence. She gave us knowledge about and opened access to interesting information.

With the help of astronomical research, we can study our planet in more detail, and also gradually move deeper into the Universe in order to learn more and more about the space around us.