No matter how difficult the road by the sea was, people believed that it was easier than the overland route: after all, in the old days, caravan paths sometimes passed through the possessions of peoples and tribes at war with each other, while the sea did not belong to anyone. Moving on land, it was possible to lose not only property, but also life. The same could happen in the sea, but there was a hostile element, which people at that time feared less than other people!

Drakkars of the Sea Kings

Brave sailors

Safety and success in navigation largely depended on the design and properties of those ships that the travelers used - their strength and stability, seaworthiness, and carrying capacity. It was during the Middle Ages that people managed to create ships that changed the entire course of the history of navigation. Several types of such ships are known, but the first among them are by right the drakkars of the legendary northern warriors and travelers - the Vikings. The abundance of wood - oak and pine, as well as the presence of first-class iron ore, which allowed the Scandinavians to have excellent iron tools, contributed to the rapid construction of many ships that became the real basis of their civilization. The ships, which could be used for both transport and military purposes, were called "karf" by the Vikings. Purely combat ships were called “ drakkar"(Dragon) and" shnekkar" (snake). Many Hevdings (noble Normans) had purple sails embroidered with gold, and on gilded masts they had golden lanterns or weather vane in the form of birds with spread wings. The Viking ships were from 22 to 26 m in length (but by the end of the Viking Age there were ships 30 and even 50 m long), and their width in the middle part ranged from 3 to 5 m. oak trunk, running along the entire bottom from bow to stern. The keel made the ship strong and stable on the wave and allowed the ship to be dragged ashore without damaging the hull. In the middle of the ship there was one mast, which could be removed and stored on the deck in calm weather, 10-12 m high and the same yard. The length of the oars could be 4-6 m, the number of rowers from 14 to 20 rows and even more. The steering oar, which was turned with a short transverse handle - a tiller - was usually located aft to the right.

Knorr- a merchant ship - was smaller than a drakkar, but wider. Vessels of this type had not one, but two decks - at the bow and at the stern, and the entire space between them was occupied by cargo. On the drakkars, cargo and supplies were stored in the hold below deck. The shape of the sail was important. It was believed that the Normans should have it rectangular. If the sailors saw in the sea a sail in the form of a square expanding downward, then the ship was already considered a stranger and, possibly, an enemy. Most often, such enemies of the Normans were given, or representatives of other northern people.In this case, the Vikings were preparing for any outcome of the meeting on the high seas. Thus, the sail in the old days played the same role as the flags at a later time: the identification in the oncoming ship of one's own or someone else's, the readiness to greet sailors in a friendly way or to hold the defense.

Scandinavian multi-oar sailless ships In Scandinavia, navigation has been known since the Neolithic era (the so-called "New Stone Age"), which is confirmed by rock paintings found by scientists. However, the residents of these places achieved the greatest successes in shipbuilding only by the 8th century. AD, when, due to the overpopulation of their own lands, they began campaigns against their neighbors. For three centuries, the Vikings - desperate pirates, traders and daring travelers - from the 9th to the middle of the 11th century. shocked Europe with their swift and brutal sea raids. The Vikings traveled to Iceland, Greenland and even managed to overcome the cold waters of the North Atlantic on their strong drakkars, becoming the first Europeans to see the shores of America. There is information about their clashes with the Indians.

Witness of antiquity

How do you know what the Viking ships looked like? Why are they now depicted with striped sails? Scientists know about this thanks to the most famous embroidery of the Middle Ages - "Queen Matilda's carpet", who immortalized the exploits of her husband, King William I the Conqueror.

On a huge strip of canvas, 68.3 m long and 50 cm wide, which has survived to our time ("Bayenne Linen"), 58 scenes of the conquest of England by William I the Conqueror are embroidered. Each scene is accompanied by explanatory captions in Latin. The contours of the picture are made with a stalk seam, and the rest of the parts are made with satin stitch. On a wide border, above and below, scenes from Aesop's fables, scenes of plowing, hunting and the battle itself are embroidered. Woolen threads of eight colors were used in the embroidery: three shades of blue, bright green, dark green, red, yellow and gray. There is some quirkiness in the coloring of the plots. For example, you can see a blue horse and a man with green hair on it.

In addition to people and horses, this embroidery represents the ships on which William I transported his army from Normandy to England. Striped sails, masts decorated with "golden" weather vane - wind indicators, made, most likely, of slotted gilded tin are clearly visible. Then, in 1066, to transport his troops, and especially numerous cavalry, William I assembled a fleet of several hundred drakkars, on which he crossed the English Channel. Due to the fact that even with a load they were submerged in the water only one meter, that is, they had a shallow draft, they could go into the shallowest water, where it was necessary to tilt them a little in order to quickly land people and horses on the ground. This was the last known use of drakkars in war, after which their use was gradually abandoned in favor of shorter, wider and cargo-lifting vessels. The images on the "carpet" are confirmed by archaeological finds. Found in the 19th century in Thun and Gokstad, and later in Oseberg, ancient Norse ships, and in 1935 in Ludbi, ancient Danish sailing ships gave a complete picture of what they looked like in reality. It got to the point that in 1893, in the Norwegian city of Sandefjord, Captain Christian Christiansen built an exact replica of the ship from Gokstad, called the Viking. In just 40 days, he crossed the stormy Atlantic.

The sailors believed that the figures of deities and fantastic creatures would help them cope with the mighty natural elements. The ancient poets-storytellers of the Normans - skalds- in his poems könningach they called the Ship "the horse of the sea" and "the serpent of the waves". The Normans treated the ship like a living being. On ships of subsequent centuries, the figures on the bow of the ship played the role of identification marks of the owners or noble patrons of the ship, and then completely turned into decorations, in the creation of which prominent artists and sculptors often took part.

The cladding on the drakkars was fastened with an overlap - like modern siding. Shown here is the assembly of the sheathing using nails or flexible willow rods (or rope). The holes, after removing the oars from them, were closed with plugs.

Scientists are still debating where the word "viking" came from. It is translated as “children of the bays” - from the Norwegian word “vik” - “bay”, and from the Norman root, the meaning of which is reduced to the Russian word “wander”. One way or another, we are talking about people who left their home and hearth for a long time and went on distant voyages under the leadership of their military leader - the king. These dashing people were called Vikings if they wanted to talk about their predatory lifestyle, but Normans - when they emphasized their belonging to the peoples of the North. After all, the word "Norman" in translation from Old Norse means "northern man".

Speed, strength, onslaught

After the collapse of the powerful Roman Empire and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, maritime trade in the Mediterranean basin was in decline. The art of building magnificent sailing-rowing triremes and penteres has also been forgotten. Yes, they were not needed. After all, who now opposed the same Byzantium, which remained an outpost of civilization among the endless sea of ​​barbarian tribes that flooded Europe? The Slavs on their one-tree boats were dangerous in numbers. But to fight them, the famous "Greek fire" was enough - a combustible mixture that continued to burn even on water. The Arabs, who annoyed them a lot at the beginning, could not resist the "Greek fire", even if they already had ships with sails. In the north of Europe, in Scandinavia, there were no land roads at all, and here the ship became the main means of communication. It was in these places that the Normans lived - the North German tribes, excellent shipbuilders, sea pirates, warriors and merchants who played an important role in the history of many states and peoples of Europe.

On the first Viking drakkars, rowing benches were not yet equipped. During the calm at sea, the Vikings rowed, sitting on their chests. The presence of a large sail gave the drakkars an unprecedented speed at that time. The Vikings boldly rushed to board warships or merchant ships they liked. To break through the skin of enemy ships, the Vikings threw sharp stones at it. The outcome of the battle was decided by hand-to-hand combat. The Vikings often used two types of battle axes: "bearded", so named for the shape of the blade, and the ax with a wide crescent-shaped blade. Long spears with grappling hooks, clubs and massive war hammers were widely used in combat. The Vikings skillfully threw spears.

Having landed on a foreign shore, the Vikings dragged their "dragons" to land and set up camp. After their scouts reported on the forces of the future enemy, the Vikings, with a sudden swift attack of a heavily armed phalanx, pierced his defenses and continued their merciless offensive. If the enemy's tactics were unclear, and the number of his troops was greater than theirs, the Vikings hid one of their troops in ambush. The battle formation of the Vikings on land was a phalanx, in the forefront of which were heavily armed warriors with large, almost human-sized shields. The shields were covered with bovine skin, and with their lower part they easily pierced the ground. The Vikings also knew the battle formation in a wedge, when in each subsequent row there was one more warrior. The Vikings had almost no cavalry: they were experienced sailors and courageous "naval paratroopers". The most desperate Viking warriors were called berserkers - "courageous". They fought in the forefront, without hiding behind shields and often naked to the waist or clad in wolf skins. At the moment of the attack, they lost their sense of self-preservation, no fortifications and the number of the enemy embarrassed them. Feeling no pain, they growled like wild beasts, howled and violently knocked on their shields. Then they could only be stopped by a mortal wound or a spear of the enemy.

The sword of the Vikings was an expensive weapon. It was often mined in battle. The handle in the form of a cross was held with one hand. To prevent the sword from slipping out of the hands, a small ball was attached to its end. The Normans did not use trophy weapons until magical painting (chasing or inlaid with whale teeth or animal bones) and sacred spells were cast on them. Of particular importance was the decoration of the handles of the swords: the Vikings believed that the drawing contained the power that was transmitted to the hand of the warrior. The second most important weapon of the Vikings - an ax - was attached to a long handle. With such a lever on impact, the Viking could break not only the enemy's armor, but also hit his cavalry, cut through thick ropes, oars and masts, break the sides of ships, powerful boards of gates and wooden fortifications.

The Vikings did not always win. A grueling ten-month siege by the Vikings of Paris in 885-886. ended in failure. The city militias, led by Count Ed of Paris, bravely withstood the siege. And only 25 years later, the Normans recaptured a part of the coast from the French king, on which they founded their duchy - Normandy.

Ushkuy - Volga freemen

up

Long before the Baptism of Rus in 988, the Slavs were brave sailors and more than once on their one-tree ships approached the walls of Constantinople. Well, what happened in Russia later, when she strained her forces in the fight against the Mongol invasion? It turns out that there was no stagnation in shipbuilding at this time. On the contrary, it was at this time, at the end of the 13th century, that a new type of ships was created in Russia -. Perhaps its name came from the polar bear, which was called the ear in the north of Russia.

Novgorod shipbuilders built ears from pine wood, rich in resin. The keel was hewn out of one trunk, after which the extremities were attached to it and frames-spheres, which were made from thick branches with natural curvature, due to which the frames had great strength. The hull plating was collected from hewn boards and fastened to the frame with wooden nails (the ends of which were wedged with wedges). The boards were sewn together with willow twigs. The inner lining consisted of a flooring on the bottom and two belts: upper and middle, on the upper edge of which the rowers' benches rested. The oars in the places of contact with the lining were covered with leather. Since the ends of the bow and stern on the ship were symmetrical, it could, without turning, move away from the coast, which was important for a ship that was often used in battles. However, they were just as eagerly used by merchants. The glory of the ushkuyev is associated with the Novgorod ushkuyns, whose campaigns began at the end of the 13th century. In England, such people were called outlaw - "people outside the law." In Russia, they had their own suitable name - freemen. Torn away from their communities, the brave warriors-ushkuiniks (as later the Cossacks) traded in plundering the opponents of Russia: the Norwegians and Swedes, and even dared to attack the Golden Horde. So, in 1360, 20 years before the Battle of Kulikovo, they marched along the entire Volga and, attacking the Horde cities, captured great wealth. The Khan of the Golden Horde demanded that the Russian princes hand over the ushkuiniks, and they ... agreed: they secretly approached their Kostroma camp, captured the soldiers, and then gave them to the Horde. and Suzdal, who participated in this evil deed, and Kostroma itself was robbed every time they sailed by. Several times the Ushkuiniks ravaged the Horde city of Bulgar not far from Kazan, and in 1374 they descended down the Volga and captured even Sarai, the capital of the Horde! The end of the history of the Ushkuiniks is associated with the name of the Grand Duke Ivan III, who in 1478 defeated Novgorod and thereby deprived them of their home, but they did not find a new place in Russia.

Ushkui were divided into sea and river. Both of them had one removable mast. Instead of a rudder, just like on Viking ships, a stern oar was used. River ears could take on board up to 30 people. The dimensions of the ears could be 12-14 m in length, 2.5 m in width, draft - 0.4-0.6 m, with a side height of up to 1 m.

Nef, dromon - ships of the mediterranean

up

While the northern seas of Europe were plied by the Viking ships, completely different ships were sailing in the south, in the basin of the warm Mediterranean Sea. Indeed, despite the death of the Western Roman Empire, its eastern part survived, and with it the knowledge necessary for the construction of large and complex ships, such as the galley. As time went on, people learned to build merchant ships that were adapted to transport grain, silk and spices from Egypt, Asia Minor to Greek and Italian ports. However, such a profitable trade was at the same time very dangerous: sea robbers rampaged here.

Flying on the waves

Byzantine galleys, known since the 7th century, were warships with one or two rows of oars and one or two masts with oblique triangular sails. There were two steering oars, as before, and the ram ledge was still preserved in the bow. However, now it was practically no longer used, since the Byzantine galleys, in addition to traditional throwing machines, also had installations on board for launching their mysterious fire mixture - "Greek fire". A lot of its recipes have come down to us, so it is difficult to say which of them was used by the Byzantines themselves. But its long and stable flammability (it could not be extinguished) is beyond doubt. The main feature of both large and small Mediterranean ships were triangular, or "Latin" sails: they create a "wing effect" and allow you to move at an angle to the direction of the wind (up to 30 degrees in relation to the axis of the ship). This sail converts even the lightest breeze into useful thrust. The size of ships increased during the era of the Crusades 1096-1270, when it became necessary to transport heavily armed crusaders, soldiers and pilgrims from Europe to Palestine.

The heavy cargo on the Genoese ship was placed in the hold. The horses were transported suspended from the ceiling - the animals barely touched the floor with their hooves. This made it possible to transport them in a strong roll. The ship did not yet have high superstructures. It was steered with a single steering oar. At night, the naves were lit with lanterns, and according to the laws of that time, the number of lanterns had to correspond to the size of the team.

Heading for Europe!

Galleys, most of which were occupied by slave rowers chained to their benches, could not transport crusaders and pilgrims to Palestine. Mediterranean shipbuilders built huge, clumsy, but very heavy-duty ships - naves... Their casing was cut, but Latin sails were used, and the hulls had residential superstructures for passengers towering 10-15 m above the water. In the stern there were two short and wide steering oars. The nave crew consisted of comit with a silver whistle for giving commands; patron who steered the sails; the pilot charting a course; two steering and physically strong galiots- rowers.

The voyage from Venice to Jaffa in Palestine lasted ten weeks. Pilgrims who had already visited the Holy Land recommended that those leaving to take their blankets, a pillow, clean towels, a supply of wine and water, rusks, as well as a cage with birds, pork hams, smoked tongues and dried fish. On ships, all this was issued, but, as the pilgrims said, linen and towels were stale, rancid rusks were hard as stone, with maggots, spiders and worms; spoiled wine. But more often they talked about the need to take incense with them, for on the decks in the heat there was an intolerable stench from horse dung and excrement of pilgrim passengers who suffered from seasickness. The decks were covered with sand, but they dug it out only upon arrival at the port. On the way to the island of Rhodes, shipbuilders could encounter pirates, from whom they often bought off. During the trip, there were cases of death of passengers from diseases. And yet, despite all the difficulties, voyages to the shores of the Middle East and Africa were made more and more often. While traveling, wealthy passengers indulged in sumptuous meals and amusements. They took with them a page, a buttress and a valet, and even musicians to entertain them. On the way, the pilgrims pestered the island of Corfu, where they hunted goats. We also landed on other islands: stretch our legs and take a break.

Coggi - round ships

up

Drakkars ceased to appear in the northern seas in the 13th century. New ships appeared - pot-bellied high-board single-mast sailboats carrying goods. They were called "round ships" - coggami(from ancient German. kugg - round). They could not develop a high speed, but they took on board a large load, which was required by the merchants who were strengthening their position. The construction and rigging provided the laden cogs with good stability.

Floating fortresses trade and defend

A characteristic feature of the North Sea cogs were tower-like platforms - castles (locks) - on the bow and stern for archery shooters. Ship castles were built both on military and merchant ships. Precisely in the middle of the ship, a mast was installed, assembled from several logs. A special "barrel" for observers and archers was attached to the mast, equipped with a block system to raise ammunition. Later, the "barrel" was structurally improved on karakkas and received the name Mars, which could accommodate up to 12 archers or crossbowmen.

Strong frames at a distance of 0.5 m from each other, oak planking 50 mm thick and a deck laid on the beams - the transverse beams of the hull set, the ends of which were often brought out through the skin - these are the important features of these ships. The steering wheel has also become a novelty, having replaced in the XIII century. a steering oar, and straight stems strongly sloping to the keel line - the bow and stern ends of the ship The bow ended with an inclined mast - a bowsprit, which served to stretch the sail in front. The greatest length of the cogs of the Hanseatic Trade Union was about 30 m, the length along the waterline was 20 m, the width was 7.5 m, the draft was 3 m, and the carrying capacity was up to 500 tons.

Light ship gun - falconet 1492 Such guns were installed on the ships of Columbus's squadron. They were attached to the turrets (a). Each gun had several charging chambers with carrying handles (b), which were loaded in advance and stored separately from the barrel. The opening of the chamber covered the wad: (c), while the core (d) was rolled into the barrel before the shot, into which the wad was also inserted before that so that it would not roll out of it. Then a charging chamber with gunpowder was attached to the barrel and locked with a wedge (e). Two arcs on a swivel served for vertical aiming of the gun barrel (e). The manufacturing technology of such weapons (g) was laborious and complex. The barrel was shackled from iron bars, they were welded and hot iron hoops were put on them, tightening the mouth of the gun.

Interestingly, many large ships of that time, as well as modern ferries and car carriers with horizontal unloading, were equipped with side ports for loading and unloading goods. This allowed them to take cargo on deck and at the same time unload the brought goods through the same port. In the second half of the 15th century. two-masted, and later three-masted claws appeared. Their displacement was 300-500 tons. To protect against pirates and enemy ships, the merchant ships of the Hansa had on board crossbowmen and several bombards - powerful guns for that time, firing stone cannonballs. The length of military cogs reached 28 m, width 8 m, draft 2.8 m, and a displacement of 500 tons or more. Tall superstructures were still located at the stern and in the bow of the commercial and military cogs. In the Mediterranean, two-masted cogs with oblique sails were sometimes found. At the same time, despite all the improvements, the koggs remained coasters - suitable for sailing only near the coast. Meanwhile, Europe needed more and more spices, and their flow through the ports of the Mediterranean began to dry up due to the fact that even before the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Turks captured all the coasts of Syria and Palestine, as well as North Africa.

Karakka, caravel - long voyage ship

up

One of the features of shipbuilding in the Mediterranean Sea was skinned skin, in which the boards were tightly fitted with edges one to one, and not overlapped, as in the Vikings and on the Venetian naves. With this method of building a ship, building material was saved, since half the number of boards per hull was required, and most importantly, ships with such a skin were lighter and faster. New methods of construction, spreading throughout Europe, contributed to the emergence of new ships. In the first half of the 15th century. the largest European ship used for military and commercial purposes, became. She had developed superstructures on the bow and stern, covered from above with special roofs made of beams, on which fabric was pulled to protect from the sun, and a net to protect against boarding. She did not allow enemies to jump onto the deck from the superstructures of her ship and at the same time did not interfere with shooting at them. The sides of this ship were bent inward, which made boarding difficult. The length of such a karakka could reach 35.8 m, width 5.7 m, draft 4.1 m, carrying capacity 540 tons. The crew of the vessel was 80-90 people. The merchant karakkas had 10-12 guns, and the military could have up to 40! Such ships have already embarked on long and long voyages. Later, in the 15th century, caravels, ships of the era of the great geographical discoveries, began to be built in Europe in the 15th century, according to the type of karakk and kogg with three masts and smooth skin. It is believed that the first such ship was built by the shipmaster, the Frenchman Julian, at the Zeyder See shipyards in Holland in 1470. Columbus's ships Pinta and Ninya were also caravels, while his flagship Santa Maria ( in his notes, he calls it "nao" - "big ship") most likely was a karakka, which means that he belonged to the same "round" ships.

Multi-deck karakki had three masts with different sails: on the foremast: and the main masts (first and second) - straight, and on the last third mizzen mast there was an oblique Latin sail, which facilitated maneuvering. On Mars with a stock of weapons there were sentries or arrows.	The Hanseatic League with its center in Lübeck, which united the merchant Hansa of about 170 European cities (including the Russians Novgorod, Pskov and Smolensk), built many strong cargo-lifting ships. Much attention was paid to the construction of military coggs, whose command included experienced shooters and artillerymen.

Kurrag, ganyi, mtepie, or which is stronger - a thread is a nail?

up

Those centuries, which we call the Middle Ages in relation to Europe, became an era when peoples living far from each other began to actively study each other's life and customs. This was facilitated not only by overland crossings of trade caravans and military expeditions, but also by bold travels across the seas and even oceans. Long voyages became more and more commonplace. The Irish and Eskimos, Arabs and Africans, Chinese and Japanese equipped a variety of warships, fishing and merchant ships: dried apricots, kuttumarams, steppes, umiaki, dhows, junks, etc. The assembly technology of many of them was unusual for modern man. But this did not prevent such ships from successfully crossing the sea.

Medieval chronicle sources indicate that the inhabitants of Ireland made long voyages (even to America!) On ships with hull ... made of leather. The leather pieces of the casing were sewn together, and the set of the hull was fastened with strong straps. The fact that sailing on ships made of leather was possible was confirmed by a bold experiment conducted in 1977 by the Irish historian and writer Timothy Severin. He decided to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a leather boat - kurrage or carr.

Picts boat -. The Romans were the first to know about the Picts and Scots precisely as skillful seafarers who raided from the sea. The Celtic boat was a frame covered with bovine skins.	Saint Brendan is a leather vessel. The sails depict a "cross in a halo" - the symbol of the monks of Ireland. For the construction of this dried apricot, 49 bovine skins were processed.	The timber of the Arab ship that Timothy Severin built was sourced from the forests of South India, from where ancient shipbuilders also mined. As well as a thousand years ago, elephants carried logs out of the forest. Wood glue was also collected there, which was then used to seal the sheathing joints. The sails were sewn from cotton fabric.

Kurrag could be up to 15 m long. On the coins of Achlekt, the currah is depicted with seven oars on board and one sails. The kurra-hachs reconstructed in Ireland have nine oars on board, plus a helm is brought to the starboard side. Mast with straight sails on a transverse yard. There are several more images of the Kurragh, the number of weight hovers around seven. Each oar was rowed by two or three oarsmen. There is evidence of fleets of more than a hundred boats. Such a fchot could transfer more than a thousand people.At least one major naval battle took place in 719.

According to legend, he made a similar voyage in the VI century. Irish monk Brendan. To make the hull waterproof, the skins were impregnated with wax. The boat, named Saint Brendan, was 10.9 meters long and 2.4 meters wide. It was equipped with two masts with straight sails and a broad-bladed steering oar on the right side. The voyage of the brave traveler and his crew lasted for about two years with interruptions. They were able to cross the Atlantic and reach the coast of North America.

Arabs teach Europeans

Who does not know, for example, the word "varnish"? However, few people know that this is an Arabic word and only one example of the influence of Arab culture on medieval Europe, which is noticeable even now. Indeed, in addition to the word "varnish", the words "algebra", "admiral", "arsenal", "bazaar", "barrack", "barge", "guitar" were transferred to European languages ​​from Arabic and the languages ​​of other countries that were part of the Arab Caliphate. , "Decanter", "sofa", "camisole", "caravan", "caftan", "pouch", "shop", "marinade", "marmalade", "mattress", "cucumber", "peach", " talisman "," tulip "," sofa "," bird cherry "," digit "and others. The Arabs taught Europeans to make sugar, sweets and perfume.

The Arabs, who turned out to be tireless travelers and skillful ship craftsmen, made a great contribution to the development of navigation and shipbuilding. Some navigational instruments were invented by Arab navigators. Many stars have Arabic names. For example, the name of the star Vega in the constellation Aira means "Falling Kite", Deneb in the constellation Cygnus means "Tail", Mencalinan in the constellation Auriga means "The left shoulder of the driver", and Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion means "Armpit of the one who is in the center." Of course, such names helped navigators who knew the main constellations to find this or that star and, by how far it moved in the sky, to determine the location of the ship. If you, the reader, ever have the opportunity to visit the United Arab Emirates, which on the sultry Arabian Peninsula, next to modern snow-white liners, you will see ancient Arab ships - dhows, which have not changed at all for a whole millennium! Today, one of these ships was built by the famous traveler Timothy Severin, who, after sailing on the Saint Brendan, decided to follow in the footsteps of the legendary Sindbad the sailor from the tales of The Thousand and One Nights. In full accordance with the traditions of Arab shipbuilders in 1980-1981. a 27-meter copy of the ship was made -. Moreover, all the boards of the hull were sewn with cords, twisted by hand from coconut fiber! It turned out that the Arab masters did not use nails at that time. Modern researchers had to weave 740 km of cord, and then drill many holes in the boards to tie them together. All materials were brought to the Sultanate of Oman, where local boat builders made and launched this ship. In total, the research and the construction of the ship itself took as long as 30 months; for another five months, future travelers learned the art of sailing, and then successfully completed their intended voyage. The travel route was laid from Oman to China. Together with Severin, 25 people went on an eight-month voyage, who decided to completely reproduce the life on the ship, ship control and navigation methods that were used in the 9th century. Arab merchant sailors. It turned out that the "sewn" ships were in no way inferior in strength to those assembled on nails, and besides (by the standards of the medieval era) they were much cheaper.

Johns and the tailwinds of the celestial empire

up

The Johns are the first ships in the history of seafaring to have watertight bulkheads. The rudder passed through the stern appeared on these ships several centuries earlier than on the Hanseatic cog, and in general their design turned out to be so perfect that it did not change for centuries. According to many historians, shipbuilding in China originated even earlier than in Ancient Egypt. Information about the Chinese sailing to an overseas country, which, according to the description, is very similar to Mexico, has survived to this day. But this was several millennia before the new era. In the III century. AD the Chinese also invented the first magnetic compass, which greatly facilitated their navigation.

Detailed descriptions of medieval Chinese junks were left to us by the famous Venetian merchant Marco Polo after his famous trip to China in 1271 - 1295. What struck him most was that some of them had four masts each, and extras could be added to them to raise additional sails. The sailors of Europe recognized the advantages of the junks, such as the simplicity and high efficiency of sailing equipment. Due to the shallow draft, they had access to both river mouths and coastal sea areas.

Multi-masted ocean junk. Such ships were equipped as military and made up the fleet of the emperor of China. So in the XIII century. 1000 Sea junks with 100,000 (!) Soldiers on board were sent to the Japanese archipelago. If this fleet had not been destroyed by a powerful typhoon, the development of the countries of this region would have taken a different path.	The large sails of the junks, made of reed mats, were reinforced with horizontal bamboo slats - stiffening ribs, which allowed them to withstand strong winds without much harm.	Japanese junks were somewhat different from those of China, as they had to sail among the islands of the Japanese archipelago, where it would be difficult for large flat-bottomed vessels to withstand the pressure of the ocean.

Inquisitive Zheng He

It is known that more than 300 different types of junks were created in China, often unsightly in appearance, with sails made of mats, but nevertheless exceptionally seaworthy and well-controlled. Preserved to this day, they amaze with their good quality, spaciousness and practicality. All of them - regardless of their purpose - were very similar: they had a flat bottom, vertical sides of the hull, and a slightly pointed nose. As on ancient Greek European ships, eyes were painted on their bows. The superstructures in the stern protruded beyond the hull. On some junks, the steering wheel could be raised and lowered through a special hole in the stern. Such a rudder did not have steering loops and was held in place by cables that passed under the bottom of the vessel and were fixed on the bow. A set of a junk hull with a length of about 45 m could consist of 35-37 frames, which ensured the strength of the hull, and watertight bulkheads, unsinkability. Individual large junks had 200 crew members and could take on board up to 1000 passengers and about 1000 tons of cargo. Large junks made up the squadron of the famous Chinese traveler Zheng He, who between 1405 and 1433, commanding a fleet of more than 300 ships with a crew of 70 thousand people, made seven long-distance expeditions to the West in a row. His ships passed through six seas and two oceans and reached the city of Hormuz, located at the narrowest point of the Persian Gulf. He also visited Aden, Mogadishu, after which he reached the east coast of Africa south of the island of Zanzibar. At that time, ships of either Chinese or European merchants had never come here, especially such large ones as those of Zheng He. Sometimes it is hard to believe that they could be so large: the largest are 140 m long and 58 m wide. Medium ships were also slightly inferior to them: 108 m in length and 48 m in width. Of course, it was quite difficult to control such giants, but they were obedient to the sails, and in calm weather they could move with the help of oars, and with each oar 30 people rowers were controlled!

Zheng He rendered outstanding services to his country, but after the death of the emperor who patronized him, the memory of him began to be eradicated, and the reports of the voyages were destroyed. For some reason, they began to believe that Zheng He's campaigns depleted the treasury, and in return they brought only luxury goods and rare animals. The fact that thanks to them the accumulation of knowledge about distant lands and countries, sea routes were laid, did not interest the officials.

up

Literature

Shpakovsky V.O. Knights. Locks. Weapon: Scientific-pop. edition for children. - M .: CJSC "ROSMEN-PRESS", 2006.
New Soldier 044 - Picts 297-841
New Soldier # 107 - Viking Drakkars

"Emperor Bonaparte" - David Jacques Louis Portrait of Napoleon. One of the brightest men in history, Napoleon Bonaparte was a master soldier, an incomparable great tactician. Battle of Bobruisk. Battle of Borodino. Loneliness. Aivazovsky. Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769 in Corsica, in Ajaccio, in the noble family of the lawyer Carlo Buonaparte, and Letizia Ramolino, who belonged to an old patrician family.

"Pages of the history of the 19th century" - 8. Which king is called the tsar-liberator? 4. The commander-in-chief of the Russian troops was appointed ... 1. In France in the 19th century, a commander came to power ... Test on the outside world. 6. What decision did Kutuzov make after the Battle of Borodino? 7. The war of 1812 is called Patriotic because ... 2. The French army invaded Russia in ...

"Russian Classicism" - What is the originality of Russian classicism? Describe the Admiralty building. How did the architect manage to create an impression of unity? And only a black curly lock falls quietly on the right shoulder. References. Portraits of Smolyanka. Describe the painting by AP Losenko "Vladimir and Rogneda".

"Macedonian conquests" - Decline of Greece in the 4th century. BC. Strengthening of Macedonia under Tsar Philip 11. Formation of the state of Alexander the Great. Macedonian. Alexander the Great. Conquest 4th century BC Demosthenes. The collapse of the state of Alexander the Great. Aristotle.

"Masters of Printing" - Nester "The Tale of Bygone Years". Ivan Fedorov. Melentiy Smotrytsky. Why? Location of the first printing house in Kursk. Moscow Printing House in the middle of the 17th century. Reconstruction by V.E. Rumyantsev Lithography. Typography in Russia 1564. The printers wanted the book to look like old handwritten books.

"The problem of the formation of the Old Russian state" - The content of the activities of Russian princes. The need for protection from external enemies. Domestic political activity of the first princes. The first Varangian princes. Theories of origin. The emergence of the state. The formation of the Old Russian state. East Slavs. Features of the Old Russian state. Theory.

In the 15th century, a new type of ocean sailing ship appeared - the caravel. This ship became known throughout Europe after Christopher Columbus immortalized his name with the discovery of America. Columbus's flotilla consisted of three caravels. Until that time, this was the name for small undecked ships. Therefore, some historians were deeply mistaken, claiming that Columbus reached the shores of America "in shells."

True, the length of his largest caravel "Santa Maria" was about 25 meters, and the small "Niña" - only 18. But they were very light on the move and quite seaworthy deck ships with superstructures in the bow and especially at the stern. The crew was housed in the superstructures. These caravels were much stronger and more durable than the largest naves and karakkas, although they took much less cargo.

When Columbus left the port of Paloe in the summer of 1492 on a historic voyage, on board his caravel "Pinta" there were 80 people and a huge supply of provisions, equipment and fresh water. In total, the caravel could take 120 tons of cargo. Columbus, describing the storm that caught him on the way back from the Azores, said that he got rid of death only thanks to the strong construction and good seaworthiness of his caravel.

By the way, in 1892, when the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America was celebrated, the organizers of the celebrations came up with the following thing: they decided to build a real caravel, similar in every way to the Columbian one, and on it exactly repeat the historic voyage of Columbus. And so they did. And again they solemnly "discovered America" ​​after the ocean crossing, which was quite successful. The only difference was that "just in case" a huge steamer was sailing alongside all the time!

In the 18th century, England, the then "mistress of the seas", came out on top in the construction of sailing ships. This was largely helped by the fact that the English ships were built from first-class Russian materials exported from Arkhangelsk. So, the British sewed sails from Russian canvas. The masts were made from trees grown in Russian pine forests. The tackle was made from Russian hemp. When anchors and chains were forged, the ringing of the Ural iron was heard. But what about the development of the Russian sailing fleet?

It dates back to the 11th-12th centuries. Already the fleet of Novgorod the Great consisted of many sailing ships. In 1948, during excavations near Staraya Ladoga, the remains of an ancient ship were found. These remnants tell us about the high skill of Novgorod shipbuilders. On the ribs-frames, preserved from this seaworthy type-setting boat, traces of wooden nails are clearly visible.

Back in the XII century, Novgorodians made long voyages across the Baltic Sea, reaching the ports of Sweden and Denmark.

In Russian epics, mentions have been preserved of the time when merchants - "guests of Novgorod" and their "brave squads" "walked along the blue Varangian sea" on their "bus-ships", "walked along the Volga and ran along the Khvalynsky sea" ( Caspian Sea). Novgorodians even reached the White Sea and here, on the coast, they founded several settlements.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion, and then the Swedish-German invasion in the northwest, deprived Russia of access to the seas. The development of the Russian fleet was interrupted for several centuries. Navigation at that time was developing only in the North of our country. The descendants of Novgorodians - the Pomors - felt at home on the "cold sea". Moreover, they went to hunt animals and fish as far as Novaya Zemlya and even penetrated into the Kara Sea. Before foreign seafarers, they visited Grumant, as the island of Spitsbergen was then called. The Pomors built wonderful sea vessels. Fearless explorers came out on light, deckless ears. And a little later, the already familiar one-mast kochi appeared. They were flat-bottomed, single-deck vessels about 20 meters long, with a strong hull adapted for sailing among ice. Most often the kochi went under sail. The quadrangular sail was sewn from skins for a long time; the tackle was belt. Skilled sailors did not need a single iron part to build such a vessel. They say that even anchors were made from driftwood, tying a heavier stone to it.

Of course, over time, the koch also changed, there were iron mounts.

The Pomors also built three-masted sailing ships - sea boats, which lifted up to 200 tons of cargo. Sailing on such ships, Russian sailors in the late 16th and early 17th centuries discovered the northern and eastern shores of Asia to the world. And the seaman Semyon Dezhnev was the first in 1648 to pass between Asia and North America. By this he proved that there is a strait between the two continents. But the scientists of Western Europe believed then that Asia and America are parts of the same continent.

In the 17th century, the construction of individual sailing ships of large dimensions began in an overseas way. The first such ship - the three-masted, still flat-bottomed "Frederick" ("Friedrich") - was built in 1635 in Nizhny
Novgorod. It was intended for trade with Persia. His fate was sad. In the same year, he crashed on pitfalls near the Caucasian coast.

The second attempt to create a fleet of large sea vessels was made under Alexei Mikhailovich on the Volga, in the village of Dedinovo. A large three-masted ship "Eagle" was built here. He also suffered a sad fate: the troops of Stepan Razin took Astrakhan and burned the "Eagle" stationed there.

It was only under Peter I that the creation of a strong navy began. There is a small bot in the hall of the Central Naval Museum. This boat played a very important role in the life of Peter I and in the history of the Russian fleet. It is not for nothing that this old-fashioned little boat is respectfully called "the grandfather of the Russian fleet." Riding down the Yauza on this boat, young Peter caught fire with a passion for the sea and maritime business. The banks of the rivulet seemed cramped. He moved the boat to the Pereyaslavl - Pleshcheyevo Lake, built several dozen more boats there and conducted whole "sea battles" with his "amusing" flotilla. These games of the young king became the harbingers of a great cause.

Such a matter was the creation of a military and merchant fleet in our country and the conquest of an outlet to the sea. Russia has taken an honorable place among the great maritime powers.

During the reign of Peter 1, a strong combat fleet was created, consisting of 48 powerful battleships and frigates, 790 galleys and other sailing and rowing ships. The American maritime historian Mahan called it "an unrepeatable historical miracle."

Peter I paid great attention to the development of the merchant fleet and shipping. He visited Arkhangelsk three times, sailed on the White Sea; visited the shipyard of the Bazhenin brothers on the Vavchuga River. Large merchant ships were built at this shipyard. In 1703, the first such ship, "Andrew the First-Called", sailed with Russian goods to England and Holland.

And in the same year the first foreign ship came to St. Petersburg. And in the last year of Peter's life, more than nine hundred ships visited the port of the young capital.

Russian battleship of Peter the Great's time - "Poltava".

The rapidly growing Russian fleet required many sailors and shipbuilders. Peter I sent a large group of young people abroad to teach them the maritime

business. He himself worked for over four months as a carpenter at a shipyard in Amsterdam and studied the theory of shipbuilding under the guidance of the best craftsmen in Holland and England. The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was established in Moscow in 1701, and the Marine Academy was opened in St. Petersburg in 1716.

Under Peter I, about twenty textbooks on navigation and shipbuilding were first published. Peter I cared a lot about improving the ships under construction.

The successors of Peter I paid little attention to the development of the fleet, and the construction of ships was greatly reduced. Only under Catherine II shipbuilding temporarily took on its former scale.

There are many names of talented Russian shipbuilders. True, most of them had to build mainly warships, but many of them distinguished themselves in the construction of merchant ships.

So, when ordering ships at the Vavchug shipyard, the British and the Dutch specially paid a lot of money so that Stepan Kochnev himself was sure to build them. Self-taught, a friend of Lomonosov, Stepan Kochnev became famous for "strong and with special skill in building" large seagoing ships.

Arkhangelsk master M.D. Portnov built sixty-three ships in twenty-three years of work.

A. M. Kurochkin worked at the beginning of the 19th century also in Arkhangelsk. He created such strong and beautiful ship hulls that the government issued an order "to engrave a drawing of this hull on copper for the edification of posterity, in order to keep it intact in the future."

Kurochkin's contemporary, Ivan Afanasyev, was famous for his work on the Black Sea. During his life, he built 38 large and many small warships and merchant ships.

The Russian flag began to appear in the most remote and still little explored corners of the globe. The merits of Russian sailors are great. In the 18th century, they explored the shores of Northwest America. In the 19th century, they made 42 voyages around the world, during which important geographical discoveries were made. Such renowned navigators as Bering, Chirikov, Golovnin, Nevelskoy, Kruzenshtern, Litke, Malygin and others put a lot of work into the discovery and study of the shores of the Pacific Ocean and the Arctic.

The history of the development of shipbuilding

Introduction

1. Historical development of shipbuilding

2. Formation of shipbuilding

3. The flourishing of the sailing fleet and the transition to mechanical movement

Introduction.

Shipbuilding is one of the oldest industries. Its beginning is separated from us by tens of millennia. The history of shipbuilding begins from the appearance of the first rafts and boats, hollowed out from a whole wooden trunk, to modern handsome liners and rocket ships, goes back to ancient times. It is as multifaceted and as many centuries old as the history of mankind itself. The main stimulus for the emergence of navigation, as well as the shipbuilding associated with it, was the development of trade between peoples separated by sea and ocean spaces. The first ships moved with the help of oars, only occasionally using the sail as an auxiliary force. Then, around the 10th - 11th centuries, along with rowing ships, purely sailing ships appeared. The shipbuilding industry, being one of the most important sectors of the national economy and possessing scientific, technical and production potential, has a decisive influence on many other related industries and on the country's economy as a whole, as well as on its defense capacity and political position in the world. It is the state of shipbuilding that is an indicator of the scientific and technical level of the country and its military-industrial potential, accumulating in its products the achievements of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electronics and the latest technologies.

Historical development of shipbuilding.

Since time immemorial, people have used the expanses of water - rivers, lakes, the sea - first as hunting grounds, and then as convenient roads for moving and transporting goods. The first primitive ships appeared long before the wheeled carriage. Man went to sea at the very dawn of his formation. Mythology The ancient descriptions of travels and sagas make it possible to collect information about ships. sometimes they report in great detail about the construction and equipment of the "first ships", indicating that they were built by people by the will of the gods. This is the case with Noah's ark. The oldest single-tree boat from Pesse, Graningen (Netherlands), -6315 + 275 BC Already about 2500 BC. the ships were different: for the carriage of goods, for the carriage of passengers. They were propelled by poles, oars and sails. In those days, ships were mainly military, commercial or fishing. Later, recreational vessels appeared, on which they sailed just for the sake of entertainment. The Roman emperor Caligula (37 - 41 AD) ordered to build such a ship for his pleasure trip on Lake Neli. The unusually wide and flat design of the ship is explained by its purpose: a ship for court amusements. The hull itself was made of wood, and hollow beams made of baked clay were used as supports for the upper deck. To ensure the impermeability and safety of the vessel, the outer planks were covered with lead plates, the inner flooring consisted of marble tiles. In Russia, shipbuilding and navigation have been known since the most distant times. Rock carvings dating from about 3000 BC, depicting hunting with a harpoon for a sea animal, were found on the coast of the White Sea. One of the oldest vessels discovered on the territory of Russia dates back to about the 5th century. BC. In all Slavic languages, there is the word ship. Its root - "bark" - underlies words such as "basket." The oldest Russian ships were made of flexible rods, like a basket, and were sheathed with bark (later with leather). It is known that already in the 8th century. our compatriots sailed in the Caspian Sea. In the 9th and first half of the 10th century. the Russians were the complete masters of the Black Sea, and it was not for nothing that the Eastern peoples called it the "Russian Sea" at that time. In the 12th century. in Russia, deck ships were first built. Decks designed to accommodate warriors, at the same time served as protection for the rowers. The Slavs were skilled shipbuilders and built ships of various designs:

Shitik - a flat-bottomed vessel with a hinged rudder, equipped with a mast with a square sail and oars;

Karbas - equipped with two masts carrying straight rack or sprint sails;

Pomorskaya Lodya - had three masts, carrying on a straight sail;

Ranshina is a ship where the hull in the underwater part was egg-shaped. Due to this, when the ice was compressed, among which it was necessary to swim, the vessel was "squeezed" to the surface without being subjected to deformations and again plunged into the water when the ice was diverging.

Organized maritime shipbuilding in Russia began at the end of the 15th century, when a shipyard was founded in the Solovetsky Monastery to build fishing vessels. Later, in the 16th and 17th centuries. the Zaporozhye Cossacks made a step forward, making raids on the Turks on their "Chaikas". The construction technique was the same as in the manufacture of Kiev printed boats (in order to increase the size of the vessel, several rows of boards were nailed to the dugout middle from the sides). In 1552, after the capture of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible, and then the conquest of Astrakhan in 1556, these cities became centers for the construction of ships for the Caspian Sea. Under Boris Godunov, unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a military fleet in Russia. The first Russian sea-going ship of foreign design "Frederick" was built in 1634 in Nizhny Novgorod by Russian craftsmen. In 1667-69, at the shipyard in the village. Dedinovo, the sea ship "Eagle" was built; the organizer of the construction was the boyar Ordyn-Nashchekin. The further development of the Russian fleet is closely related to the name of Peter the Great. In June 1693, Peter I laid the foundation for the first state-owned shipyard in Arkhangelsk for the construction of warships. A year later, Peter visited Arkhangelsk again. By this time, the 24-gun ship "Apostle Paul", the frigate "Holy Prophecy", galley and transport ship "Flamov" formed the first Russian military flotilla on the White Sea. The creation of a regular navy began. In the spring of 1700, the 58-gun ship "Goto Pdistinatsiya" was built. In 1702 two frigates were launched in Arkhangelsk: "Holy Spirit" and "Mercury". In 1703 St. Petersburg was founded, the center of which was the Admiralty - the largest shipyard in the country. The first large ship to descend from the slipway of the Admiralty shipyard was the 54-gun ship "Poltava" built by Fedosiy Sklyaev and Peter the Great in 1712. By 1714 Russia had its own sailing fleet. The largest ship of the Peter's time was the 90-gun ship "Lesnoe" (1718). Under Peter I, the following ships were introduced:

Ships - 40-55 m long, three-masted with 44-90 guns;

Frigates - up to 35 m long, three-masted with 28-44 guns;

Shnyavas - 25-35 m long, two-masted with 10-18 guns;

Parma, gullies, flutes, etc. up to 30 m long.

In 1719 the serf Efim Nikonov turned to Peter with a petition for permission to build a model of the first "hidden" ship. The first test, which took place in 1724, ended in failure, and after the death of Peter I, all work was stopped. The period of calm experienced by Russian shipbuilders after the death of Peter I was replaced in the second half of the 18th century. new rise, and by the end of the 18th century. the Black Sea Fleet was created. At the beginning of the 19th century. a technically sound classification of ships was introduced. During the reign of Alexander I, shipbuilding work was reduced, but river shipbuilding continued. A very perfect for its time (late 18th century) type of wooden cargo ship appeared - barking. In 1782 Kulibin's "navigable ship" was built. At the beginning of the 19th century. the master Durbazhev invented a successful "machine" using horses for traction. The first regular steamer on the St. Petersburg-Kronstadt line was built in 1815. It can be seen from the surviving one that its pipe is made of brick. In a later picture, the pipe is made of iron. In 1830 in St. Petersburg the cargo-passenger ship "Neva" was launched, which, in addition to two steam engines, also had sailing equipment. In 1838, the world's first electric ship was tested on the Neva in St. Petersburg. In 1848 Amosov built the Archimedes propeller-driven frigate, the first in Russia. The shipping company on the Volga and other rivers began to develop especially rapidly after the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The Sormovsky plant, founded in 1849, became the main shipbuilding enterprise. The first iron barges in Russia and the first commodity-passenger steamer were built here. The world's first application of a Diesel engine on river ships was also carried out in Russia in 1903. In the second half of the 19th century. wooden ships were replaced by iron ships. It is curious that in Russia the first military metal ships were two submarines in 1834. In 1835 a semi-submarine ship was built. "Brave". It sank below sea level leaving only a chimney above the water. At the beginning of the 19th century. steam engines appeared on ships, and the use of first forged iron and then rolled steel as a structural material in the construction of ships led in the 1850-60s. to the revolution in shipbuilding. The transition to the construction of iron ships required the introduction of a new technological process and a complete reorganization of the factories. In 1864, the first Russian armored floating battery was built. In 1870, there were already 23 armored ships in the Baltic Fleet. In 1872, the battleship "Peter the Great" was built - one of the strongest ships in the world at that time. For the Black Sea Fleet A. Popov developed a project of the coastal defense battleship Novgorod in 1871. In 1877 the first torpedo boats in the world were designed by the Makarovs. In the same year, the world's first seagoing destroyer "Explosion" was launched. Russian transport shipbuilding at the end of the 19th century. significantly lagged behind the military. In 1864 the first icebreaking ship “Pilot” was built. In 1899, the Ermak icebreaker was built (sailed until 1964).

Introduction

1. Historical development of shipbuilding

2. Formation of shipbuilding

3. The flourishing of the sailing fleet and the transition to mechanical movement

Bibliography

Introduction.

Shipbuilding is one of the oldest industries. Its beginning is separated from us by tens of millennia.

The history of shipbuilding begins from the appearance of the first rafts and boats, hollowed out from a whole wooden trunk, to modern handsome liners and rocket ships, goes back to ancient times. It is as multifaceted and as many centuries old as the history of mankind itself.

The main stimulus for the emergence of navigation, as well as the shipbuilding associated with it, was the development of trade between peoples separated by sea and ocean spaces. The first ships moved with the help of oars, only occasionally using the sail as an auxiliary force. Then, around the 10th - 11th centuries, along with rowing ships, purely sailing ships appeared.

The shipbuilding industry, being one of the most important sectors of the national economy and possessing scientific, technical and production potential, has a decisive influence on many other related industries and on the country's economy as a whole, as well as on its defense capacity and political position in the world. It is the state of shipbuilding that is an indicator of the scientific and technical level of the country and its military-industrial potential, accumulating in its products the achievements of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electronics and the latest technologies.

1. Historical development of shipbuilding

Since time immemorial, people have used the expanses of water - rivers, lakes, the sea - first as hunting grounds, and then as convenient roads for moving and transporting goods. The first primitive ships appeared long before the wheeled carriage. Man went to sea at the very dawn of his formation. Mythology The ancient descriptions of travels and sagas make it possible to collect information about ships. sometimes they report in great detail about the construction and equipment of the "first ships", indicating that they were built by people at the will of the gods. This is the case with Noah's ark.

The oldest single-tree boat from Pesse, Graningen (Netherlands), -6315 + 275 BC Already about 2500 BC. the ships were different: for the carriage of goods, for the carriage of passengers. They were propelled by poles, oars and sails. In those days, ships were mainly military, commercial or fishing. Later, recreational vessels appeared, on which they sailed just for the sake of entertainment.

The Roman emperor Caligula (37 - 41 AD) ordered to build such a vessel for his pleasure trip on Lake Neli. The unusually wide and flat design of the ship is explained by its purpose: a ship for court amusements. The hull itself was made of wood, and hollow beams made of baked clay were used as supports for the upper deck. To ensure the impermeability and safety of the vessel, the outer sheathing boards were covered with lead plates, the inner flooring consisted of marble tiles.

In Russia, shipbuilding and navigation have been known since the most distant times. Rock carvings dating from about 3000 BC, depicting hunting with a harpoon for a sea animal, were found on the coast of the White Sea.

One of the oldest vessels discovered on the territory of Russia dates back to about the 5th century. BC.

In all Slavic languages, there is the word ship. Its root - "bark" - underlies words such as "basket". The oldest Russian ships were made of flexible rods, like a basket, and were sheathed with bark (later with leather). It is known that already in the 8th century. our compatriots sailed in the Caspian Sea. In the 9th and first half of the 10th century. Russians were the complete masters of the Black Sea, and it was not for nothing that the Eastern peoples called it "Russian Sea" at that time.

In the 12th century. in Russia, deck ships were first built. Decks designed to accommodate warriors, at the same time served as protection for the rowers. The Slavs were skilled shipbuilders and built ships of various designs:

Shitik - a flat-bottomed vessel with a hinged rudder, equipped with a mast with a square sail and oars;

Karbas - equipped with two masts carrying straight rack or sprint sails;

Pomorskaya Lodya - had three masts, carrying on a straight sail;

Ranshina is a ship where the hull in the underwater part was egg-shaped. Due to this, when the ice was compressed, among which it was necessary to swim, the vessel was "squeezed" to the surface without being subjected to deformations and again plunged into the water when the ice was diverging.

Organized maritime shipbuilding in Russia began at the end of the 15th century, when a shipyard was founded in the Solovetsky Monastery to build fishing vessels. Later, in the 16th and 17th centuries. the Zaporozhye Cossacks made a step forward, making raids on the Turks on their "Chaikas". The construction technique was the same as in the manufacture of Kiev printed boats (in order to increase the size of the vessel, several rows of boards were nailed to the dugout middle from the sides).

In 1552, after the capture of Kazan by Ivan the Terrible, and then the conquest of Astrakhan in 1556, these cities became centers for the construction of ships for the Caspian Sea.

Under Boris Godunov, unsuccessful attempts were made to establish a military fleet in Russia.

The first Russian sea-going ship of foreign design "Frederick" was built in 1634 in Nizhny Novgorod by Russian craftsmen. In 1667-69, at the shipyard in the village. Dedinovo, the sea ship "Eagle" was built; the organizer of the construction was the boyar Ordyn-Nashchekin. The further development of the Russian fleet is closely related to the name of Peter the Great.

In June 1693, Peter I laid the foundation for the first state-owned shipyard in Arkhangelsk for the construction of warships. A year later, Peter visited Arkhangelsk again. By this time, the 24-gun ship "Apostle Paul", the frigate "Holy Prophecy", galley and transport ship "Flamov" formed the first Russian military flotilla on the White Sea. The creation of a regular navy began.

In the spring of 1700, the 58-gun ship Goto Pdistinatsiya was built. In 1702 two frigates were launched in Arkhangelsk: "Holy Spirit" and "Mercury". In 1703 St. Petersburg was founded, the center of which was the Admiralty - the largest shipyard in the country. The first large ship to descend from the slipway of the Admiralty shipyard was the 54-gun ship "Poltava" built by Fedosiy Sklyaev and Peter the Great in 1712. By 1714 Russia had its own sailing fleet.

The largest ship of the Peter's time was the 90-gun ship "Lesnoye" (1718).

Under Peter I, the following ships were introduced:

Ships - 40-55 m long, three-masted with 44-90 guns;

Frigates - up to 35 m long, three-masted with 28-44 guns;

Shnyavas - 25-35 m long, two-masted with 10-18 guns;

Parma, gullies, flutes, etc. up to 30 m long.

In 1719 the serf Efim Nikonov turned to Peter with a petition for permission to build a model of the first "hidden" ship. The first test, which took place in 1724, ended in failure, and after the death of Peter I, all work was stopped.

The period of calm experienced by Russian shipbuilders after the death of Peter I was replaced in the second half of the 18th century. new rise, and by the end of the 18th century. the Black Sea Fleet was created.

At the beginning of the 19th century. a technically sound classification of ships was introduced. During the reign of Alexander I, shipbuilding work was reduced, but river shipbuilding continued. A very perfect for its time (late 18th century) type of wooden cargo ship appeared - barking.

In 1782 Kulibin's "navigable ship" was built. At the beginning of the 19th century. a successful "car" using horses for traction was invented by the master Durbazhev.

The first regular steamer on the St. Petersburg-Kronstadt line was built in 1815. It can be seen from the surviving one that its pipe is made of brick. In a later picture, the pipe is made of iron.

In 1830 in St. Petersburg the cargo-passenger ship "Neva" was launched, which, in addition to two steam engines, also had sailing equipment. In 1838, the world's first electric ship was tested on the Neva in St. Petersburg. In 1848 Amosov built the Archimedes propeller-driven frigate, the first in Russia.

The shipping company on the Volga and other rivers began to develop especially rapidly after the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The Sormovsky plant, founded in 1849, became the main shipbuilding enterprise. The first iron barges in Russia and the first commodity-passenger steamer were built here. The world's first application of a Diesel engine on river ships was also carried out in Russia in 1903.

In the second half of the 19th century. wooden ships were replaced by iron ships. It is curious that in Russia the first military metal ships were two submarines in 1834. In 1835 the Otvazhny semi-submarine ship was built. It sank below sea level leaving only a chimney above the water. At the beginning of the 19th century. steam engines appeared on ships, and the use of first forged iron and then rolled steel as a structural material in the construction of ships led in the 1850-60s. to the revolution in shipbuilding.

The transition to the construction of iron ships required the introduction of a new technological process and a complete reorganization of the factories.

In 1864, the first Russian armored floating battery was built. In 1870, there were already 23 armored ships in the Baltic Fleet. In 1872, the battleship "Peter the Great" was built - one of the strongest ships in the world at that time.

For the Black Sea Fleet A. Popov developed a project of the coastal defense battleship Novgorod in 1871.

In 1877 the first torpedo boats in the world were designed by the Makarovs. In the same year, the world's first seagoing destroyer "Explosion" was launched.

Russian transport shipbuilding at the end of the 19th century. significantly lagged behind the military. In 1864 the first icebreaking ship "Pilot" was built. In 1899, the Ermak icebreaker was built (sailed until 1964).

2. Formation of shipbuilding

shipbuilding shipbuilding fleet

Modern historical science does not determine any exact dates about the construction of the first sea vessels, however, all written evidence that has survived to this day mentions sea vessels and the existence of sea trade routes that connected almost all human civilizations on the coast of the World Ocean. The chronologically related history of Mediterranean civilizations in no way denies the developed eastern maritime infrastructure that has existed since ancient times in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the legends and stories of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, there is even mention of an even more ancient maritime civilization - Atlantis, which ruled not only on the European and African coasts of the Atlantic, but also on the American continent, and with chronological references to 9000 years BC.

Like the amazing historical monuments of land construction and the masterpieces of ancient urban architecture, unique in terms of technological complexity and beauty, an equally perfect navy has existed at all times of human civilization and has always been the personification of the most advanced scientific thought and production potential of maritime states. Historical evidence of the long voyages of ancient sailors does not allow us to reject their ability to determine the location of a ship far from the coast in clear or cloudy weather, day or night, as well as their knowledge of sea currents, ebb and flow, the accuracy of weather predictions and sea winds. In addition to purely theoretical navigational and astronomical sciences, geographical knowledge in sea sailing and travel manuscripts, the art of navigation requires the preservation and transmission of unwritten practical experience from generation to generation, maintaining a high qualification of sailors who are able to make confident, accurate and bold decisions about sailing in stormy winds of the open sea ​​and dangerous fairways of coastal routes.

Ancient indirect evidence about the architecture of ships and the conditions of navigation often confirm the high maritime art of the East Asian countries, from where shipbuilding technologies, new technical aids and navigation sciences about long-distance navigation came to the Mediterranean.

The generally recognized and documented inseparable history of navigation originates only from medieval Europe, from the powerful and numerous Venetian fleet. During the period of the Crusades (1096-1270) Venice was the main supplier of large ships - naves. In the following centuries, the design of these vessels was constantly changing, and by the beginning of the 16th century, the Venetian four-masted nave had a completely perfect hull shape and significant dimensions. The fore and main masts carried straight sails, the second main and mizzen masts carried Latin sails. Such rigging made it possible to sail rather steeply to the wind.

Until the beginning of the 20th century, each large ship was considered a unique engineering structure, in the design and construction of which the sailors themselves, who had extensive experience in sea voyages and accident-free navigation in difficult and stormy sailing conditions, were directly involved.

Responsibility for the seaworthiness and safety of navigation of the new ships fell entirely on the same old sea captains, who, in anticipation of new long voyages, became coastal shipbuilders who built new ships for their own future voyages, taking into account both the historical experience of navigation and their own practical skills and knowledge of features operation of the ship in ocean navigation. Thus, the continuity of shipbuilding science was rigidly verified by the abilities of the designers - captains, as well as their subordinate crews to carry out long sea expeditions, preserve the ship's combat capability and their lives in the harsh sailing conditions on their own ships.

It can be taken as true the statement that if certain design solutions in the shape of the hull and ship architecture have been preserved for centuries and replicated simultaneously in several countries, then the corresponding ships can be considered completely seaworthy or optimal in terms of sailing conditions in specified areas of the ocean or, in nautical slang, satisfying the requirements "Good maritime practice" (the best and historically verified technical solutions that meet modern navigation conditions).

Obviously, it is not the ship that can sail at all that is good, but only the one that is able to meet the requirements for autonomy, carrying capacity, speed and controllability in simple and difficult sailing conditions. At all times, from the beginning of navigation, man tried to adapt the ship as best as possible to interact with the surrounding water and air environment. Namely, during a storm, these two environments - water and air, interacting with each other, gave rise to the most dangerous factors. These are formidable waves under heavy hurricane winds.

For a long time, the experience of building river and sea vessels was acquired by trial and error, which led to very long historical periods in the evolution of shipbuilding. Often, the experience gained died along with its carriers - the sailors. The followers were forced to repeat their path or create something new in the field of shipbuilding and navigation.

The first thing that thinking sailors have come to is that the fight against the raging elements is absolutely hopeless. Rowers in stormy conditions are quickly exhausted, and the oars, if not removed, break and cripple the rowers. The sail breaks, the mast breaks - as a result, an uncontrollable ship with a crew, cargo and passengers is left on the surface of the stormy sea, praying to all known gods for mercy. And at such anxious hours, in addition to prayers and appeals, true sailors noted that wide and rounded hulls with high cheekbones are able to be kept lagged on a large wave, practically not flooding, and round, like barrels, heels and breaks least of all under the blows of waves. even if menacing wave currents often roam on narrowed decks. Non-resistance to storm elements, as the main rule of consistent design, is clearly manifested in the form of the hull and general ship architecture of all the most famous historical ships and ocean-going ships.

The emergence of sailing ships of an unlimited navigation area led to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, when during several decades of the late 15th - early 16th centuries the Spanish fleet visited almost all remote areas of the World Ocean. But already in the middle of the 16th century, the "Invincible Spanish Armada" suffered a crushing defeat from a storm element while sailing around the islands of Great Britain, when, in the absence of a minimum navigational and hydrographic arrangement of the coast, accurate navigational charts and the necessary knowledge about the hydrometeorological conditions of the navigation area, most of the ships of the great squadron ended up on rocks and shoals near the coast.

And now there are many coastal areas of the World Ocean, unsecured harbors - shelters from stormy winds. When sailing in such open waters, ships and vessels can rely only on the experience of the captains and on their own stormy seaworthiness. To a certain extent, such dangerous areas include coastal waters near Sakhalin, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, where storm seaworthiness is an essential condition for maintaining the efficiency of sea transport communications and a mandatory requirement for ships and marine engineering structures engaged in the development of marine natural resources.

3. The flourishing of the sailing fleet and the transition to mechanical movement

Returning to the issues of designing real historical ships, it can be noted that as the principles of putting the ship in motion are improved, already on galleys and sailing ships (frigate "Pallada") there are cases of providing storm sailing modes due to the active use of storm sails, which made it possible to somewhat simplify the shape of the hull and the architectural appearance of these ships, as well as to provide significantly better driving performance in moderate seas (Clipper "Cutty-Sark").

The Russian fleet was created under the influence of the European shipbuilding school, which by that time had reached the level of designing sailing ships with the best seaworthiness. The ships of the English architecture of the hull were the first Russian ship "Eagle", as well as the packet boats "Peter" and "Pavel" built in the Far East. The main ships of Peter I belonged to the Dutch naval school, they no longer had a developed stern superstructure and were rather high-sided in the bow. This meant that, by analogy with the Baltic countries, the shipbuilding program of Peter the Great first of all took into account the needs for providing close sea communications in the Baltic and northern seas.

In the 18th century, sailing equipment reached absolute perfection; now there is no longer a need to solve the problem of safe storm sailing only by designing a special shape of the hull. Sailing equipment is actively used to resist storm waves and hurricane winds. Mariners are tasked with maintaining a given course and maximum speed even in conditions of very fresh winds and moderate storms, in which small-tonnage caravels of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries necessarily went into a storm mode without a move. The deck of a sailing ship straightens and becomes continuous, and sometimes - almost horizontal, like the frigate "Pallas". To improve maneuverability, a variety of oblique sailing equipment is now widely used, in light winds, the yards of straight sails are lengthened with lissel-spirits, and in stormy weather the ship confidently holds its course with the help of special storm sails, or reefs on the lower sails are used to reduce their area.

If the force of the hurricane exceeds the capabilities of the crew to control the sails, then a radical emergency means remains: "foremast - overboard" as a floating anchor, which turns the stormy high-speed sailing ship into its historical prototype with sail shifted aft due to the remaining masts, and bow pressed against the water by the drag force of the towed foremast. Unfortunately, modern ships with mechanical engines do not have similar emergency facilities, and at the same time, the operation of engines and steering gears in stormy conditions is often carried out with serious or even dangerous overloads.

The beginning of the 19th century is marked by the construction of the first ships with steam engines. In 1815, the first Russian paddle steamer, which was called the "Steambot" or "Elizabeth", embarked on the St. Petersburg-Kronstadt line. In 1819, the American paddle steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool in 24 days, sailing only a fraction of the way.

The mechanical drive significantly increases the seaworthiness of the ship, which is due to the ability to maintain the course at an arbitrary course in any state of waves. An effective mechanical propulsion device is capable of overcoming the onslaught of the storm element, and with a little steering skill in the dynamics of maneuvering between waves, it can save any, even the most awkward floating structure from overturning. The new engine, being a complex mechanical structure, attracted highly qualified specialists - mechanics on board the ships, who, due to their valiant ingenuity, began to introduce into the fleet the psychology of forceful "conquest" of the sea, instead of the traditional naval rules of non-resistance to the sea elements.

But still, at first, the requirements for efficiency and economy of navigation quickly led to the emergence of new "unwritten" rules of good maritime practice, the same as in the sailing fleet, drawn up using real experience of storm navigation. New ocean-going ships of all countries of the world quite quickly acquired the same external shape, which is a necessary sign of the existence of global criteria of optimality in ship design, which also testified to a unified approach to ensuring the seaworthiness of a ship in moderate seas and in stormy sailing conditions.

But nevertheless, the first paddle wheels were installed on sailing ships as an additional propulsion device, and due to the technical imperfection of the main engines, such steamers had all the disadvantages of a rowing ship:

Wide deck;

Vulnerability of the propeller - paddle wheel;

Difficulty using the paddle wheel on rough seas.

The first large ship, the Great Britain, equipped with a propeller, was built in Bristol in 1843. Then, over 50 years, the shape of the hull of an all-weather ship undergoes successive evolutionary changes, which, nevertheless, always and fully inherited the best properties of their sailing and oar predecessors.

Undoubtedly, in the contours of the ship, built at the beginning of the 20th century, one can read compromise solutions between obedience and confrontation in front of the sea element:

The ram-bulb continues to serve as a means to stabilize the hull and maintain stability on the course in rough conditions. It is all the more important that for a high speed of movement, in comparison with a galley on oars, this bulb has a favorable effect on reducing the wave drag also on calm water;

The sharpening of the extremities and the small completeness of the above-water volumes in the bow and in the stern contribute to propulsion in waves and have a beneficial effect on reducing pitching and preventing slamming;

The blockage of the sides in the middle part of the hull prevents concentrated shock waves on the freeboard of the ship, and the rounded midship frame and the generally spindle-shaped and symmetrical hull with respect to the center line prevent strong yaw and loss of speed when moving in almost any course relative to storm waves;

Almost all ships have a stem cut under the water below the battering ram, which contributes to stability on the course when heeling while rolling and at the same time allows the hull to roam freely when obliquely meeting large waves and swell;

As with the Mediterranean galley, narrow ship hulls are built to achieve high speed;

The narrowed overall width of the deck and long longitudinal superstructures serve the purpose of maintaining storm stability in conditions of increased flooding of the upper decks;

Sufficiently low freeboard and low windage of superstructures provide great opportunities for ship control and maneuvering in strong winds.

According to all the above criteria, many squadron battleships, as well as cruisers and destroyers built in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, had an ideal hull architecture. The ships of the line of the first half of the 20th century, which had an understated and pointed tank and chest, were no less seaworthy, and the bulk of the hull was concentrated in the middle part. This ensured stable movement in waves, in which there was no intense pitching, and, accordingly, the possibility of dangerous flooding of the extremities was excluded due to a decrease in the total area and continuity of the upper decks of the tank and poop, as well as the absence of bulwarks and a large loss of deck beams.

Bibliography

History of domestic shipbuilding. In five volumes. Edited by Acad. I.D. Spassky. SPb: "Shipbuilding", 1994.

Kurti O. Building model ships. Encyclopedia of ship modeling. L .: Shipbuilding, 1977.

Mitrofanov V.P., Mitrofanov P.S. Schools under sail. L .: Shipbuilding, 1989.

Khmelnov I.N., Turmov G.P., Illarionov G.Yu. Surface ships of Russia: history and modernity. Vladivostok: Ussuri, 1996.

Polovinkin V.N. History and modernity of domestic shipbuilding. Great people and great things. - Kolomna, 2002.