One of the largest empires in history, Byzantium had a tremendous influence on sea and land, in trade and industrial development, in religion and culture.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire led to changing the political map of Europe and Asia, was the impetus for the search for new trade routes, which led to geographical discoveries. How long did Byzantium last, and what caused its collapse?

In contact with

The emergence of the Byzantine Empire

The reason for the emergence of Byzantium was the disintegration of the Great Roman Empire, which ended with the division into Western and Eastern. The last ruler of the Roman Empire was Theodosius I. During his reign, Christianity became a single religion on the territory of the empire. Before his death, the emperor carried out partition into Western and Eastern empires, each of which he gave to his sons Honorius and Arcadia.

The Western Empire was able to survive for less than a century and fell under the onslaught of the barbarians in the second half of the 5th century.

Rome lost its greatness for many hundreds of years... The eastern part centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) became a powerful successor, receiving the name of the Byzantine Empire.

Founding date of Constantinople falls on 330, when Emperor Constantine moved the capital to the place where the Greek colony of Byzantium was located.

Subsequently, Constantinople turned into the capital of the Eastern Empire and the richest city of the Middle Ages. The Byzantine Empire existed for over 1000 years(395-1453), while the duration of the Roman Empire itself is 500 years.

Attention! Historians began to call the formed empire Byzantium after its collapse in the 15th century.

Trade and handicraft production lay at the heart of the power of the Byzantine Empire. The cities grew and developed, provided the manufacture of all the necessary goods. The sea trade route was the safest, because wars did not stop on land. Trade between East and West carried out through Byzantium, thanks to which its ports reached the greatest prosperity, which fell on the V-VIII centuries.

The multinational population brought its cultural diversity, but the ancient heritage was taken as the basis, and the Greek language became the main language. Most of the population were Greeks, so the name "Greek Empire" appeared in the west. Considering myself heirs of the Romans, the Greeks began to call themselves "Romans", which means Romans in Greek, and their empire as Romans.

The heyday of Byzantium

The period of the greatest power of the empire falls on the reign of Justinian in the middle of the 6th century. The possessions of the empire reached their maximum limits in their history, which was possible due to military campaigns. The territory of Byzantium grew after the annexation of the southern part of Spain and Italy, the countries of North Africa.

The empire was approved Roman law and the norms of the Christian religion... The document was called "Code of Laws", which became the basis for the laws of the European powers.

During the reign of Justinian, the most magnificent temple in the world of St.Sophia was built with the splendor of frescoes and mosaic vaults... Justinian's monumental imperial palace towered over the Sea of ​​Marmara.

The absence of barbarian raids contributed to the cultural development and growth of the power of the Byzantine Empire. Greco-Roman cities with palaces, snow-white columns and statues continued to exist. Crafts, science, trade flourished there. Was borrowed Roman urban planning experience, worked water supply and thermae (baths).

Important! State symbols during the period of the Byzantine Empire were absent or only developed.

The Palaeologus dynasty, which has ruled for the last two centuries, had the imperial flag of Byzantium in purple. In its center was a two-headed golden eagle. The emblem meant the division of the Roman Empire into two parts, so the eagle had two heads instead of the usual one like a Roman eagle. According to another version, the two-headedness was interpreted as a union of secular and spiritual power.

An empire at the end of its existence

By the end of the 14th century, the existence of the Byzantine Empire was under threat from the Ottoman state. Diplomacy was involved in salvation, negotiations were conducted in the West to unite churches in exchange for military aid from Rome... A preliminary agreement was reached as early as 1430, but there were still controversial issues.

After the signing of the union in 1439, the Byzantine Church recognized the competence of the Catholic Church in controversial issues. But the document was not supported by the episcopate of Byzantium, headed by Bishop Mark Eugenicus, which caused a split into the Orthodox and Uniate dioceses, which began to coexist in parallel, which can be observed at the present time.

Church schism has had a great impact on the history of culture. Metropolitans, supporters of Uniatism, became a bridge for the transmission of ancient and Byzantine culture to the West. Greek authors began to translate into Latin, immigrant intellectuals from Greece were given special patronage in a new place. Bessarion of Nicea, who became cardinal and Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, gave the Venetian Republic his entire personal library, numbering over 700 manuscripts. It was considered the largest private collection in Europe and served as the basis for the St. Mark's Library.

By the end of its existence, the Byzantine Empire had already lost most of its lands and former power... The territory of Byzantium was limited to the outskirts of the capital, which were under the rule of the last emperor Constantine XI.

Despite the fact that the map of the empire was gradually reduced, Constantinople until the last hour perceived as a powerful symbol.

The emperor was looking for allies among the neighbors, but only Rome and Venice offered little real help. The Ottoman Power controlled almost all of Anatolia and Balkan Peninsula, relentlessly expanding the boundaries to the east and west. Several times already the Ottomans attacked the Byzantine Empire, each time recapturing new cities.

Strengthening the influence of the Turks

The Ottoman Empire, created in 1299 from the fragments of the Seljuk Sultanate and Anatolia, was named after the first Sultan Osman. Throughout the XIV century, she was building up power on the borders of Byzantium, in Asia Minor and in the Balkans. Constantinople received a small respite at the junction of the XIV and XV centuries, when it began confrontation with Tamerlane... After the next victory of the Turks over the city, a real threat loomed.

Mehmed II called the capture of Constantinople by the Turks the goal of his life, for which he carefully prepared. For the offensive, a 150,000-strong army was prepared, armed with artillery. The Sultan took into account the shortcomings of past companies when he was deprived of the fleet. Therefore, a fleet was built for several years. The presence of warships and a 100,000-strong army allowed the Turks to become masters in the Sea of ​​Marmara.

It was ready for the military campaign 85 military and 350 transport ships. The military power of Constantinople was formed by 5 thousand local residents and 2 thousand western mercenaries with the support of only 25 ships. They were armed with several cannons, an impressive supply of spears and arrows, which was extremely insufficient for defense.

The powerful fortress of Constantinople, surrounded by the sea and the Golden Horn, was not easy to take. The walls remained invulnerable for siege vehicles and weapons.

Offensive

The beginning of the siege of the city falls on April 7, 1453. The Sultan's representatives handed over to the emperor a surrender proposal, for which the ruler offered to pay tribute, cede their territories, but preserve the city.

After receiving a refusal, the sultan ordered the Turkish army to storm the city. The army had high determination, motivation, was eager to attack, which was the complete opposite of the position of the Romans.

The bet was placed on the Turkish fleet, which must block the city from the sea to prevent allied reinforcements from arriving. It was necessary to break through the fortifications and enter the bay.

The Byzantines repulsed the first attack by blocking the entrance to the bay. Despite all attempts, the Turkish fleet was unable to approach the city. We must pay tribute to the courage of the defenders, who took the battle on 5 ships from 150 ships of the Turks, defeating them... The Turks had to change tactics and ferry 80 ships by land, which was done on April 22. The Byzantines were unable to burn the fleet because of the betrayal of the Genoese who lived in Galata and warned the Turks.

The collapse of Constantinople

Chaos and despair reigned in the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine XI was offered to surrender the city.

At dawn on May 29, the Turkish army launched the assault, which was the last. The first attacks were repelled, but then the situation changed. After the capture of the main gate, the fight moved to the city streets. Fighting alongside everyone in battle under unknown circumstances the emperor himself fell... The Turks completely captured the city.

On May 29, 1453, after two months of stubborn resistance, the capture of Constantinople by the Turks took place. The city fell along with the Great Eastern Empire under the pressure of the Turkish army. For three days the sultan gave the city to plunder... The wounded Constantine XI was cut off the head, and then put it on a pole.

The Turks in Constantinople did not spare anyone, they killed everyone they met. Mountains of corpses filled the streets, and the blood of the dead flowed directly into the bay. The sultan entered the city after the cessation of violence and robbery by his decree, accompanied by viziers and an escort of the best units of the Janissaries, Mehmed II proceeded through the streets. Constantinople stood plundered and desecrated.

The Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt and turned into a mosque. The surviving population was given freedom, but there were too few people left. It was necessary to announce in the neighboring cities where the inhabitants came from, and gradually Constantinople was again filled with population. Sultan preserved and supported the Greek culture, the church.

The Greeks received the right to self-government within the community, headed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, subordinate to the Sultan. He left the continuity with Byzantium and the title of the Roman emperor.

Important! According to historians, with the arrival of the Sultan in Byzantium, the Middle Ages ended, and the flight of Greek scientists to Italy became a prerequisite for the Renaissance.

Why Byzantium fell

Historians have been arguing about the reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire for a very long time and put forward various versions about the factors that together destroyed the empire.

Here are some of the causes of death:

• According to one version, Venice contributed to the fall, wanting to eliminate a trading rival in the eastern Mediterranean.
• Other evidence suggests that the Egyptian sultan gave a large bribe to the Venetian Signoria to secure his domain.
• The most controversial is the question of the involvement of the papal curia and the Pope himself who wanted the reunification of the churches.
• The main and objective reason for the death of the Byzantine Empire was domestic political and economic weakness... This was the result of the attacks of the crusaders, the court intrigues with the change of the emperor, the hatred of the Byzantines for the merchants who arrived from the Italian republics, religious strife, causing hatred of Catholics and Latins. All this was accompanied by riots, pogroms and bloody massacres with many victims.
• Military superiority and the cohesion of the Turkish army The Ottoman Empire began to seize new territories in the southeast of Europe, expanding its influence also to Asia, the Caucasus and the north of the African continent. The Byzantine Empire existed for more than a thousand years, but could not withstand the onslaught of the Turkish army, since it no longer possessed its former greatness.

Byzantium, Byzantine Empire - the name of this famous state is traditionally associated with Greek culture, although it arose as the eastern part of the Roman Empire and originally its official language was Latin, and the ethnic composition was more than diverse - Greeks, Italians, Copts, Syrians, Persians, Jews, Armenians, Asia Minor peoples. All of them called their state Romei, that is, Roman, and themselves - Romans, Romans.

Although Emperor Constantine the Great is considered the founder of Byzantium, this state began to form 60 years after his death. Emperor Constantine, who stopped the persecution of Christians, laid the foundation for the Christian empire, and the period of its formation stretched for almost two centuries.

It was Constantine who moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the ancient city of Byzantium, by the name of which many centuries later the empire began to be called Byzantine. Actually, for more than a thousand years of its existence, it bore the name of the Eastern Roman Empire, and in the 15th century, historians renamed it Byzantine to distinguish it from the first Roman Empire, which ceased to exist in 480. So the name "Byzantium" arose and was firmly entrenched, as a term denoting the great Christian state that existed from 395 to 1453.

Byzantium rendered great fundamental influence on the formation of European culture, on the education of the Slavic peoples. It is impossible to forget that the Orthodox traditions as we know them now, with the beauty of divine services, the splendor of churches, the harmony of chants, are all a gift from Byzantium. But Byzantine culture is not limited by religious outlook, although everything is saturated with the Christian spirit... One of its striking features was the refraction of the entire wealth of knowledge accumulated by mankind in ancient times, through the prism of Christianity.

In addition to the Theological School, there were two Universities and a Law School in Constantinople. Prominent philosophers, writers, scientists, doctors, astronomers, geographers came out of the walls of these educational institutions. Significant discoveries and inventions of the Byzantines in various applied fields... For example, Lev the Philosopher created an optical telegraph, with the help of which it was possible to exchange information and warn of dangers.

From Byzantium came the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius, equal to the apostles, thanks to whose educational activities the Slavic peoples acquired their own alphabet and writing, received translations of the Holy Scriptures and liturgical books into their native language. That is, all Slavic, including Russian, culture with its world-famous literature and art, has Byzantine roots.

Attempts to solve domestic problems through the adoption of new laws and legal norms developed Byzantine jurisprudence, which was based on Roman law. This particular the code of laws is still the main one in most European states.

Having enriched the whole world with its cultural heritage, reaching an unprecedented prosperity, Byzantium fell, disappearing as a state, but remaining in history as a unique and unforgettable civilization.

Golden Age of Byzantium

The formation of the Eastern Roman Empire began during the reign of Emperor Constantine the Great, who transferred the capital to the small city of Byzantium, calling it "New Rome". The city was called Constantinople by the common people, but officially it did not bear this name.

Emperor Constantine, tired of the constant dynastic wars for the throne, which were fought in Rome, decided to make the capital subject only to him. He chose Byzantium, standing at the crossroads of important trade routes that passed from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, which, like any other port city, was rich, developed and independent. Constantine the Great declared Christianity to be one of the permitted state religions, thereby inscribing himself in history as a Christian emperor. But an interesting fact is that during his lifetime, in fact, he was not a Christian. Emperor Constantine, canonized by the Church, was baptized only on his deathbed, shortly before his death.

After the death of Constantine the Great, in 337, for two hundred years the young state was torn apart by wars, troubles, heresies and schisms. It took a strong hand to restore order and strengthen Byzantium. Such a strong ruler turned out to be JustinianI, who ascended the throne in 527, but for a whole decade before that, he was, in fact, in power, being a key figure under his uncle the Emperor Justin.

After a series of victorious wars, Emperor Justinian almost doubled the country's territory, he spread the Christian faith, skillfully led foreign and domestic policies, taking measures to combat the economic crisis that arose as a result of total corruption.

The Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea testifies that Justinian "having taken power over the state, shaken and brought to shameful weakness, increased its size and brought it into a brilliant state." It is noteworthy that wife of Emperor Justinian Theodore, whom historians call "the most remarkable woman of the Byzantine era", was his loyal friend, assistant and advisor, often took on difficult state affairs.

Theodora came from the family of a poor circus caretaker and in her youth, distinguished by bright beauty, was a courtesan. Having repented of her sinful life, she experienced a spiritual rebirth and began to lead a strict ascetic life. It was then that young Justinian met Theodora and, having fallen in love, entered into marriage with her. This happy union had a great impact on the Byzantine Empire, starting her Golden Age.

Under Justinian and Theodore, Byzantium became the center of culture, “the palladium of arts and sciences”. The imperial couple builds monasteries and temples, including Constantinople Cathedral of Hagia Sophia the Wisdom of God.

The Church of Hagia Sophia is still one of the most magnificent works of architecture on earth. Its size is striking.: 77 meters long and almost 72 - wide, the height of the temple is just under 56 meters, and the diameter of the dome is about 33 meters. Under the dome, around the entire circumference, there are forty windows, penetrating through which sunlight seems to separate the dome, and it feels like it is standing in the sun's rays. In this regard, there was a belief that the dome of Hagia Sophia on golden chains descends from the sky.

Even turned into a mosque, the Hagia Sophia is striking in its grandiose power and beauty. " Everything here is brought into such wondrous harmony, solemn, simple, magnificent", - wrote the Russian artist Mikhail Nesterov, who visited Constantinople, or as it was called in Russia - Constantinople - in 1893.

The construction of such a building, not to mention the interior decoration, in the design of which was used marble, ivory, gold and precious stones, had a very high cost. All the revenues of the Byzantine Empire for five years of construction did not cover the cost of Hagia Sophia.

At the same time, the role of the Church as such was viewed by Justinian more as a tool for strengthening the empire, he intervened in church affairs, appointed and removed bishops. Thus, the role of the Church was reduced to serving the state interests; it was losing its spiritual authority among the people, which instead of strengthening it led to the weakening of the state.

On the one hand, holiness flourished in Byzantium. It is enough to name the three saints Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom, and also Gregory Nicomedia, Mark of Ephesus, John the Postnik, Philaret the Merciful from the host of glorified and not so famous saints of Byzantium, who shone at the dawn of the Byzantine Empire, to assert - the spiritual life of Byzantium did not fade away and gave birth to holiness... But holiness, as in all times, was also an exceptional phenomenon in the Byzantine Empire.

Poverty, the spiritual and cultural squalor of the majority of the population, drowning in gross debauchery and vulgarity, spending time in idleness - in taverns and circuses, the excessive wealth of those in power, drowning in luxury and the same debauchery, all this resembled crude paganism. At the same time, both those and others called themselves Christians, went to church and theologized. As the Russian philosopher Vladimir Soloviev said, “ there were more theologians than Christians in Byzantium". Duplicity, lies and sacrilege, of course, could not lead to anything good. Byzantium was to be comprehended by God's punishment.

Downs and ups

The successors of Emperor Justinian I, who died in 565, had to conduct constant wars in the West and East to preserve the borders of the Byzantine Empire. Germans, Persians, Slavs, Arabs - this is a far from complete list of those who encroached on the Byzantine lands.

By the end of the 7th century, Byzantium occupied about a third of its lands in comparison with the empire of Justinian. Nevertheless, Constantinople was not surrendered, the people during the trials became more united and ethnically determined... Now the majority of the population of the Byzantine Empire were Greeks, the Greek language became the state language. Law continued to develop, sciences and arts continued to flourish.

Leo the Isaurian, founder of the Isaurian dynasty, who ruled under the name of Leo III, made the state rich and powerful. But, under him arose and developed the heresy of iconoclasm, which was supported by the emperor himself. Many saints who sacrificially defended holy icons shone in Byzantium at this time. The famous hymnographer, philosopher and theologian John Damascene was punished with cutting off his hand for protecting icons. But the Mother of God herself appeared to him and returned the severed brush. Thus, in the Orthodox tradition, the icon of the Mother of God of the Three Hands appeared, which also depicts the hand returned to John of Damascus.

Icon veneration was briefly restored at the end of the 8th century under Irina, the first woman empress. But later, the persecution of holy icons began again, which continued until 843, when the dogma of veneration of icons was finally approved under Empress Theodora. Empress Theodora, whose relics are now resting on the Greek island of Kerkyra (Corfu), was the wife of the iconoclast emperor Theophilos, but she herself secretly venerated the holy icons. Taking the throne after the death of her husband, she patronized the convocation of the VII Ecumenical Council, which restored the veneration of icons. For the first time under Theodore in the temple of Sophia in Constantinople on the first Sunday of Great Lent, rite of the Triumph of Orthodoxy, which is now performed annually in all Orthodox Churches.

At the beginning of the 9th century, with continued iconoclasm, crushing wars began again - with the Arabs and Bulgarians, who deprived the empire of many lands and almost conquered Constantinople. But then the trouble passed, the Byzantines defended their capital.

In 867 came to power in Byzantium the Macedonian dynasty, under which the Golden Age of the Empire lasted for more than a century and a half... Emperors Basil I, Roman, Nikifor Phoca, John Tzimiskes, Basil II returned the lost lands and expanded the borders of the empire to the Tigris and Euphrates.

It was during the reign of the Macedonians that the ambassadors of Prince Vladimir came to Constantinople, about which the Tale of Bygone Years tells as follows: “We came to the Greek land, and led us where they serve their God, and did not know whether we were in heaven or on earth: for there is no such spectacle and such beauty on earth, and we do not know how to tell about it - we only know that God is there with people, and their service is better than in all other countries. " The boyars told Prince Vladimir: "If the Greek law was bad, then your grandmother Olga would not have accepted it, but she was the wisest of all people." And Vladimir asked: "Where will we be baptized?" They said, "Where do you like it." Thus began the history of a powerful new Christian state - Russia, which would later be called the successor of Byzantium or the Third Rome.

In 1019 the Byzantine emperor BasilII conquered Bulgaria... At the same time, he strengthened the economy and gave a new impetus to the development of science and culture. During his reign, the Byzantine Empire reached a great prosperity. It is known that Vasily, nicknamed the Bulgarian fighter for his victories over the Bulgarians, led an ascetic life. He was not married, history has not preserved information about any of his love affairs. He left no offspring, and after his death, a fierce struggle for the throne began.... The rulers, who succeeded each other one after another, could not adequately manage the huge empire, feudal fragmentation began, the central power was rapidly weakening.

In 1057, after overthrowing the Macedonian dynasty, Isaac Comnenus ascended the throne, but he did not last long as the head of state. The rulers continued to replace one another, not neglecting meanness, betrayal, murder. Anarchy grew, the state weakened.

The Byzantine Empire was in critical condition when Alexey Komnin came to power in 1081... The young military leader seized Constantinople and the imperial throne by force. He successfully pursued foreign and domestic policy. He appointed either relatives or friends to all key government posts. Thus, power became more centralized, which helped to strengthen the empire.

The reign of the Komnenos dynasty, which historians called the Comnenian renaissance, was aimed at the capture of Rome and the overthrow of the Western Empire, whose existence hurt the pride of the Byzantine emperors. Under the son of Alexius Comnenus John and, especially, under the grandson Manuel Constantinople became the center of European politics, with which all other states were forced to reckon.

But after the death of Manuel, it turned out that, apart from hatred of Byzantium, none of the neighbors, who were ready to attack it at any moment, harbor any feelings. A deep internal crisis caused by the great poverty of the population, social injustice, the policy of infringing on their own people for the sake of foreign merchants, broke out in uprising and massacres.

Less than a year after the death of Manuel Comnenus, an uprising broke out in the capital, flooding the city with blood. In 1087 Bulgaria separated from Byzantium, and in 1090 Serbia. The empire weakened as never before, and in 1204, Constantinople was captured by the crusaders, the city was plundered, many monuments of Byzantine culture were lost forever. Only a few areas remained under the control of the Byzantines - Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus. In all other territories, Catholicism was brutally implanted and Greek culture was exterminated.

Nicene Emperor Michael Palaeologus having concluded several political friendly alliances, managed to gather strength and return Constantinople... On August 15, 1261, on the feast of the Dormition of the Most Holy Theotokos, he solemnly entered the capital and announced the revival of the Byzantine Empire. Two decades of Michael's reign were years of relative prosperity for the state, and historians call this emperor himself the last significant ruler of Byzantium.

The foreign policy situation remained turbulent, and in the face of constant danger it was necessary to strengthen the empire from within, but the era of the Paleologian dynasty, on the contrary, was rife with unrest, internal conflicts and uprisings.

The decline and fall of the empire

The constant struggle for the throne, and most importantly, the spiritual crisis of a society that called itself Christian and led a life far from Christian ideals, finally weakened the Byzantine Empire.

Muslim Ottomans in just twelve years conquered Bursa, Nicaea, Nicomedia and reached the Bosphorus. The fall of Gallipoli under the onslaught of the Ottomans in 1354 marked the beginning of their conquests throughout Europe.

The Byzantine emperors had to seek support in Rome, their currying favor with the West came to the point that they rejected Orthodoxy by signing a union with the Catholics, which not only did not serve the good of the state, but only weakened it, both spiritually and morally. The majority of the population did not accept Catholicism, and the internal crisis reached its limit.

Over the next hundred years, the Ottomans took possession of almost the entire territory of the empire, and Byzantium was now a tiny province on the outskirts of Europe.

In 1453, on April 5, the Turks approached Constantinople and began a siege of it, and on May 30, Sultan Mehmed II victoriously entered the city. So ended the existence of the first Christian, once powerful, Byzantine Empire.

It's amazing that not only prosperity, but also fall great Byzantium, which once again proved that the earth and all the affairs on it will burn(2 Epistle of the Apostle Peter, 3, 10), continues to teach mankind a lot. An attempt to build a society on a sinful earth " unity in freedom according to the law of love”, As the Russian philosopher Alexei Khomyakov said, is still one of the noblest undertakings that inspired many great people - politicians, philosophers, poets, writers, artists. Is this ideal realizable in a fallen world? Most likely no. But he continues to live in minds like a lofty idea, as the pinnacle of the spiritual aspirations of mankind.

Probably, there is no other more long-suffering country in the world like Byzantium. Its dizzying rise and such a rapid fall still cause controversy and discussion both in historical circles and among those who are far from history. The bitter fate of the once strongest state of the early Middle Ages does not leave indifferent either writers or filmmakers - books, films, serials are constantly published, one way or another connected with this state. But the question is - is everything about them true? And how to distinguish truth from fiction? After all, so many centuries have passed, many documents of colossal historical value have been lost during wars, seizures, fires, or simply by order of the new ruler. But we will still try to reveal some details of the development of Byzantium in order to understand how such a strong state could meet such a pitiful and inglorious end?

History of creation

The Byzantine Empire, often called Eastern or simply Byzantium, existed from 330 to 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, founded by Constantine I (b. 306-337 AD), the empire changed in size over the centuries, at one time or another, possessing territories located in Italy, in the Balkans, in the Levant, Malaya Asia and North Africa. The Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art, and architecture.

The history of Byzantium began in 330 AD. At this time, the legendary Roman Empire was going through hard times - the rulers were constantly changing, money flowed out of the treasury like sand through their fingers, the once conquered territories easily won their right to freedom. The capital of the empire, Rome, is becoming an unsafe place to live. In 324, Flavius ​​Valerius Aurelius Constantine became emperor, who went down in history only under his last name - Constantine the Great. Having defeated all other rivals, he reigns in the Roman Empire, but decides to take an unprecedented step - the transfer of the capital.

In those days, the provinces were pretty calm - all the thick of events took place in Rome. Constantine's choice fell on the shores of the Bosphorus, where in the same year the construction of a new city began, which would be given the name Byzantium. Six years later, Constantine, the first Roman emperor who gave Christianity to the ancient world, announced that from now on the capital of the empire was a new city. Initially, the emperor adhered to the old rules and named the capital New Rome. However, the name did not catch on. Since there was once a city in its place that had the name Byzantium, it was abandoned. Then the locals began to unofficially use another, but more popular name - Constantinople, the city of Constantine.

Constantinople

The new capital had a beautiful natural harbor at the entrance to the Golden Horn and, owning the border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships through the Bosphorus from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking lucrative trade between West and East. It should be noted that the new state actively used this advantage. And, oddly enough, the city was well fortified. A large chain stretched through the entrance to the Golden Horn, and the construction of the massive walls of Emperor Theodosius (between 410 and 413) meant that the city was able to withstand attacks from both sea and land. Over the centuries, as more impressive buildings have been added, the cosmopolitan city has grown to be one of the finest of any era, and by far the richest, most generous and most important Christian city in the world. In general, Byzantium occupied vast territories on the world map - the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the Aegean and Black Sea coasts of Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania - all of them were once part of Byzantium.

Another important detail should be noted - Christianity became the official religion in the new city. That is, those who were mercilessly persecuted and cruelly executed in the Roman Empire found shelter and peace in a new country. Unfortunately, Emperor Constantine did not see the flourishing of his brainchild - he died in 337. The new rulers paid more and more attention to the new city on the outskirts of the empire. In 379, Theodosius received power over the eastern provinces. First as a co-ruler, and in 394 he began to rule independently. It is he who is considered the last Roman emperor, which is generally true - in 395, when he died, the Roman Empire split into two parts - Western and Eastern. That is, Byzantium received the official status of the capital of the new empire, which began to be called also - Byzantium. Since this year, a new country has been counted on the map of the ancient world and the emerging Middle Ages.

The rulers of Byzantium

The Byzantine emperor also received a new title - he was no longer called Caesar in the Roman manner. The Eastern Empire was ruled by the Vasilevs (from the Greek Βασιλιας - king). They lived in the magnificent Grand Palace of Constantinople and ruled Byzantium with an iron fist like absolute monarchs. The Church received tremendous power in the state. In those days, military talents meant a lot, and citizens expected from their rulers skillful fighting and protecting their native walls from the enemy. Therefore, the army in Byzantium was one of the most powerful and powerful. The generals, if they wanted, could easily overthrow the emperor if they saw that he was not capable of defending the city and the borders of the empire.

However, in ordinary life, the emperor was the commander-in-chief of the army, the head of the Church and government, he controlled public finances and appointed or dismissed ministers at will; few rulers, before or after, have ever possessed such power. The image of the emperor appeared on Byzantine coins, which also depicted the chosen successor, often the eldest son, but not always, since there were no clearly established rules of inheritance. Very often (if not always) the heirs were called by the names of their ancestors, therefore, Constantines, Justinian, Theodosia were born from generation to generation in the imperial family. The name Constantine was my favorite.

The heyday of the empire began with the reign of Justinian - from 527 to 565. it is he who will slowly begin to modify the empire - Hellenistic culture will prevail in Byzantium, Greek will be recognized as the official language instead of Latin. Also, Justinian will take the legendary Roman law in Constantinople - many European states will borrow it in the following years. It was during his reign that the construction of the symbol of Constantinople - the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia (on the site of the former burnt church) will begin.

Culture of Byzantium

When talking about Byzantium, it is impossible not to mention the culture of this state. She influenced many subsequent countries of both the West and the East.

The culture of Byzantium is inextricably linked with religion - beautiful icons and mosaics depicting the emperor and his family became the main decoration of temples. Subsequently, some were ranked among the saints, and the already former rulers became icons to be worshiped.

It is impossible not to note the appearance of the Glagolitic alphabet - the Slavic alphabet by the works of the Byzantine brothers Cyril and Methodius. Byzantine science was inextricably linked with antiquity. Many works of writers of that time were based on the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers. Medicine has achieved particular success, and so much so that even Arab physicians used Byzantine works in their work.

The architecture was distinguished by its particular style. As already mentioned, the symbol of Constantinople and all of Byzantium was Hagia Sophia. The temple was so beautiful and majestic that many ambassadors, arriving in the city, could not restrain their delight.

Looking ahead, we note that after the fall of the city, Sultan Mehmed II was so fascinated by the cathedral that he ordered from now on throughout the empire to build mosques exactly on the model of Hagia Sophia.

Hiking to Byzantium

Unfortunately, such a wealthy and favorably located state could not but arouse unhealthy interest in itself. Over the centuries of its existence, Byzantium has repeatedly been attacked by other states. Starting from the 11th century, the Byzantines constantly repelled the attacks of the Bulgarians and Arabs. At first, things were going well. The Bulgarian king Samuel was so shocked that he saw that he had a stroke and died. And the thing was - in the course of a successful attack, the Byzantines captured almost 14 thousand Bulgarian soldiers. Vasilevs Vasily II ordered to blind everyone and leave one eye to every hundredth soldier. Byzantium showed all its neighbors that they should not joke with it. For the time being.

1204 was the first news of the end of the empire - the crusaders attacked the city and completely plundered it. The creation of the Latin Empire was announced, all the lands were divided between the barons who participated in the campaign. However, the Byzantines were lucky here - after 57 years, Michael Palaeologus expelled all the crusaders from Byzantium and revived the Eastern Empire. And also created a new dynasty of Palaeologus. But, unfortunately, it was not possible to achieve the former flourishing of the empire - the emperors fell under the influence of Genoa and Venice, constantly robbed the treasury and carried out every decree from Italy. Byzantium was weakening.

Gradually, territories were separated from the empire and became free states. By the middle of the 15th century, only a memory remained of the former flower of the Bosphorus. It was an easy catch. The sultan of the young Ottoman Empire, Mehmed II, took advantage of this. In 1453 he easily invaded and conquered Constantinople. The city resisted, but not for long and not strongly. Before this sultan, the Rumeli (Rumelihisar) fortress was built on the Bosphorus, which blocked all communications between the city and the Black Sea. Also, the possibility of helping Byzantium to other states was cut off. Several attacks were repelled, the last one - on the night of May 28-29 - was unsuccessful. The last emperor of Byzantium died in battle. The army was exhausted. The Turks were no longer held back. Mehmed entered the city on horseback and ordered to convert the beautiful Hagia Sophia into a mosque. The history of Byzantium ended with the fall of its capital, Constantinople. Pearls of the Bosphorus.

In contact with

Less than 80 years after the partition, the Western Roman Empire ceased to exist, leaving Byzantium as the historical, cultural and civilizational successor to Ancient Rome for nearly ten centuries of late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The name "Byzantine" Eastern Roman Empire received in the writings of Western European historians after its fall, it comes from the original name of Constantinople - Byzantium, where the Roman emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 330, officially renaming the city "New Rome". The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek "Romans", and their state - "Roman (" Romeian ") Empire" (in the Middle Greek (Byzantine) language - Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, Basileía Romaíon) or briefly "Romania" (Ῥωμνί ... Western sources throughout most of Byzantine history called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because of the predominance of the Greek language, Hellenized population and culture. In ancient Russia, Byzantium was usually called the "Greek kingdom", and its capital was Tsargrad.

The permanent capital and civilization center of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople, one of the largest cities in the medieval world. The empire controlled the largest possessions under Emperor Justinian I (527-565), returning for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome and the position of the most powerful Mediterranean power. Later, under the onslaught of numerous enemies, the state gradually lost its land.

After the Slavic, Lombard, Visigothic and Arab conquests, the empire occupied only the territory of Greece and Asia Minor. Some gain in the 9th-11th centuries was replaced by serious losses at the end of the 11th century, during the invasion of the Seljuks, and defeat at Manzikert, strengthening under the first Comnenos, after the collapse of the country under the blows of the crusaders who took Constantinople in 1204, another strengthening under John Vatats, restoration empire by Michael Palaeologus, and, finally, the final death in the middle of the 15th century under the onslaught of the Ottoman Turks.

Population

The ethnic composition of the population of the Byzantine Empire, especially at the first stage of its history, was extremely variegated: Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Jews, Hellenized Asia Minor tribes, Thracians, Illyrians, Dacians, South Slavs. With the reduction of the territory of Byzantium (starting from the end of the 6th century), part of the peoples remained outside its borders - at the same time, new peoples invaded and settled here (the Goths in the 4th-5th centuries, the Slavs in the 6th-7th centuries, the Arabs in the 7th-9th centuries, Pechenegs, Polovtsians in the XI-XIII centuries, etc.). In the VI-XI centuries, the population of Byzantium included ethnic groups, from which the Italian nationality was later formed. The predominant role in the economy, political life and culture of Byzantium in the west of the country was played by the Greek population, and in the east by the Armenian population. The state language of Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries is Latin, from the 7th century until the end of the empire's existence - Greek.

State structure

From the Roman Empire, Byzantium inherited a monarchical form of government with an emperor at its head. From the VII century. the head of state was often referred to as an autocrat (Greek. Αὐτοκράτωρ - autocrat) or basileus (Greek. Βασιλεὺς ).

The Byzantine Empire consisted of two prefectures - East and Illyricum, each of which was headed by prefects: the prefect of the praetorium of the East and the prefect of the praetorium of Illyricum. Constantinople was separated into a separate unit, headed by the prefect of the city of Constantinople.

For a long time, the old system of state and financial administration was preserved. But from the end of the 6th century, significant changes began. Reforms are mainly associated with defense (administrative division into femes instead of exarchates) and predominantly the Greek culture of the country (introduction of the posts of logoet, strategist, drungaria, etc.). Since the 10th century, feudal principles of government have been widely spread, this process led to the establishment of the representatives of the feudal aristocracy on the throne. Until the very end of the empire, numerous rebellions and the struggle for the imperial throne did not stop.

The two highest military officials were the Commander-in-Chief of the Infantry and the Commander of the Cavalry, later these positions were combined; in the capital there were two masters of infantry and cavalry (Stratig Opsikia). In addition, there was the Master of Infantry and Cavalry of the East (Stratig Anatolica), the Master of Infantry and Cavalry of Illyrica, the Master of Infantry and Cavalry of Thrace (Stratig of Thrace).

Byzantine emperors

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for almost a thousand years; in historiography, it is from this time usually called Byzantium.

The ruling class of Byzantium is characterized by mobility. At all times, a man from the bottom could break through to power. In some cases, it was even easier for him: for example, there was an opportunity to make a career in the army and earn military glory. For example, Emperor Michael II Travl was an uneducated mercenary, was sentenced to death by Emperor Leo V for rebellion, and his execution was postponed only because of the celebration of Christmas (820); Vasily I was a peasant, and then a bus driver in the service of a noble nobleman. Roman I Lacapenus was also a native of peasants, Michael IV, before becoming emperor, was a money changer, like one of his brothers.

Army

Although Byzantium inherited its army from the Roman Empire, its structure approached the phalanx system of the Hellenic states. By the end of Byzantium's existence, it had become mostly mercenary and was distinguished by a rather low combat capability.

On the other hand, a system of military command and supply was developed in detail, works on strategy and tactics are being published, various technical means are widely used, in particular, a system of beacons is being built to alert about enemy attacks. In contrast to the old Roman army, the importance of the fleet is greatly increased, for which the invention of the "Greek fire" helps to gain supremacy at sea. The Sassanids adopted fully armored cavalry - the cataphractarii. At the same time, technically sophisticated throwing weapons, ballistae and catapults, supplanted by simpler stone throwers, are disappearing.

The transition to the femme system of recruiting troops provided the country with 150 years of successful wars, but the financial depletion of the peasantry and its transition to dependence on the feudal lords led to a gradual decline in combat effectiveness. The manning system was changed to a typically feudal one, when the nobility was obliged to supply military contingents for the right to own land.

In the future, the army and navy fell into ever greater decline, and at the very end of the empire's existence they were purely mercenary formations. In 1453 Constantinople, with a population of 60 thousand inhabitants, was able to send only an army of 5 thousand and 2.5 thousand mercenaries. Since the 10th century, the emperors of Constantinople have hired Rus and warriors from neighboring barbarian tribes. From the 11th century, ethnically mixed Varangians played a significant role in the heavy infantry, and the light cavalry was recruited from Turkic nomads.

After the era of the Viking campaigns came to an end at the beginning of the 11th century, mercenaries from Scandinavia (as well as from Normandy and England conquered by the Vikings) rushed to Byzantium through the Mediterranean Sea. The future Norwegian king Harald the Severe fought for several years in the Varangian guard throughout the Mediterranean. The Varangian Guard bravely defended Constantinople from the crusaders in 1204 and was defeated during the capture of the city.

Photo gallery

Start date: 395

Expiration date: 1453

Useful information

Byzantine Empire
Byzantium
Eastern Roman Empire
Arab. لإمبراطورية البيزنطية or بيزنطة
English Byzantine Empire or Byzantium
Hebrew האימפריה הביזנטית

Culture and society

The period of the reign of the emperors from Basil I the Macedonian to Alexei I Comnenus (867-1081) was of great cultural importance. The essential features of this period of history are the high rise of Byzantinism and the spread of its cultural mission to southeastern Europe. Through the works of the famous Byzantines Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic alphabet - Glagolitic - appeared, which led to the emergence of their own written literature among the Slavs. Patriarch Photius put obstacles to the claims of the popes and theoretically substantiated the right of Constantinople to church independence from Rome (see Division of Churches).

In the scientific field, this period is distinguished by an extraordinary fertility and a variety of literary enterprises. Collections and adaptations of this period have preserved precious historical, literary and archaeological material borrowed from now lost writers.

Economy

The state included rich lands with a large number of cities - Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece. In the cities, artisans and merchants united into estates. Belonging to an estate was not an obligation, but a privilege, and joining it was subject to a number of conditions. The conditions established by the eparch (mayor) for the 22 estates of Constantinople were compiled in the 10th century into a collection of decrees, the Book of the Eparch.

Despite the corrupt system of government, very high taxes, slave economy and court intrigues, the economy of Byzantium was the strongest in Europe for a long time. Trade was conducted with all the former Roman possessions in the west and with India (through the Sassanids and Arabs) in the east. Even after the Arab conquests, the empire was very rich. But the financial costs were also very high, and the country's wealth aroused strong envy. The decline of trade caused by the privileges granted to Italian merchants, the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the onslaught of the Turks led to the final weakening of finances and the state as a whole.

Science, medicine, law

Byzantine science throughout the entire period of the existence of the state was in close connection with ancient philosophy and metaphysics. The main activity of scientists was in the applied field, where a number of remarkable successes were achieved, such as the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople and the invention of Greek fire. At the same time, pure science practically did not develop either in terms of creating new theories, or in terms of developing the ideas of ancient thinkers. From the era of Justinian to the end of the first millennium, scientific knowledge was in great decline, but later Byzantine scientists re-emerged, especially in astronomy and mathematics, already relying on the achievements of Arab and Persian science.

Medicine was one of the few branches of knowledge in which progress was made in comparison with antiquity. The influence of Byzantine medicine was felt both in the Arab countries and in Europe during the Renaissance.

In the last century of the empire, Byzantium played an important role in the spread of ancient Greek literature in early Renaissance Italy. The main center for the study of astronomy and mathematics by that time was the Academy of Trebizond.

Right

The reforms of Justinian I in the field of law had a great influence on the development of jurisprudence. Byzantine criminal law was largely borrowed from Russia.

On May 29, 1453, the capital of the Byzantine Empire fell under the blows of the Turks. Tuesday May 29 is one of the most important dates in the world. On this day, the Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, created back in 395 as a result of the final partition of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into the western and eastern parts. With her death, a huge period of human history ended. In the life of many peoples of Europe, Asia and North Africa, a radical change occurred due to the establishment of Turkish rule and the creation of the Ottoman Empire.

It is clear that the fall of Constantinople is not a clear line between the two eras. The Turks established themselves in Europe a century before the fall of the great capital. And the Byzantine Empire by the time of its fall was already a fragment of its former greatness - the emperor's power extended only to Constantinople with its suburbs and part of the territory of Greece with islands. Byzantium of 13-15 centuries can be called an empire only conditionally. At the same time, Constantinople was a symbol of the ancient empire, it was considered the "Second Rome".

Prehistory of the fall

In the XIII century, one of the Turkic tribes - the Kayy - led by Ertogrul-bey, squeezed out of the nomads in the Turkmen steppes, migrated westward and settled in Asia Minor. The tribe assisted the Sultan of the largest of the Turkish states (founded by the Seljuk Turks) - the Rum (Kony) Sultanate - Alaeddin Kay-Kubad in his struggle against the Byzantine Empire. For this, the sultan gave Ertogrul to the fief of the land in the region of Bithynia. The son of the leader Ertogrul - Osman I (1281-1326), despite the constantly growing power, recognized his dependence on Konya. Only in 1299 he took the title of sultan and soon subdued the entire western part of Asia Minor, winning a series of victories over the Byzantines. By the name of Sultan Osman, his subjects began to be called Ottoman Turks, or Ottomans (Ottomans). In addition to the wars with the Byzantines, the Ottomans fought for the subjugation of other Muslim possessions - by 1487 the Ottoman Turks had asserted their power over all Muslim possessions of the Asia Minor Peninsula.

The Muslim clergy, including the local orders of dervishes, played an important role in strengthening the power of Osman and his successors. The clergy not only played a significant role in the creation of the new great power, but justified the policy of expansion as a "fight for the faith." In 1326, the Ottoman Turks captured the largest trading city of Bursa, an important transit point for caravan trade between the West and the East. Then Nicaea and Nicomedia fell. The lands seized from the Byzantines were distributed by the sultans to the nobility and distinguished soldiers as timars - conditional possessions received for serving (estates). Gradually, the Timar system became the basis of the socio-economic and military-administrative structure of the Ottoman Empire. Under Sultan Orhan I (reigned from 1326 to 1359) and his son Murad I (reigned from 1359 to 1389), important military reforms were carried out: the irregular cavalry was reorganized - horse and infantry troops called from the Turks-farmers were created. The soldiers of the cavalry and infantry troops in peacetime were farmers, receiving benefits, during the war they were obliged to join the army. In addition, the army was supplemented with a militia of peasants of the Christian faith and a corps of janissaries. The janissaries initially took captive Christian youths who were forced to convert to Islam, and from the first half of the 15th century - from the sons of Christian subjects of the Ottoman Sultan (in the form of a special tax). The Sipahs (a kind of noblemen of the Ottoman state who received income from the Timars) and the janissaries became the core of the army of the Ottoman sultans. In addition, divisions of gunners, gunsmiths, and other units were created in the army. As a result, a powerful state arose on the borders of Byzantium, which claimed dominance in the region.

It must be said that the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states themselves accelerated their fall. During this period, there was a sharp struggle between Byzantium, Genoa, Venice and the Balkan states. Often, the opposing sides sought to enlist the military support of the Ottomans. Naturally, this greatly facilitated the expansion of the Ottoman state. The Ottomans received information about the routes, possible crossings, fortifications, the strengths and weaknesses of the enemy's troops, the internal situation, etc. The Christians themselves helped to cross the straits to Europe.

The Ottoman Turks achieved great success during the reign of Sultan Murad II (ruled in 1421-1444 and 1446-1451). Under him, the Turks recovered from the heavy defeat inflicted by Tamerlane in the Battle of Angora in 1402. In many ways, it was this defeat that delayed the death of Constantinople by half a century. The Sultan suppressed all the uprisings of the Muslim rulers. In June 1422, Murad laid siege to Constantinople, but could not take it. Affected by the lack of a fleet and powerful artillery. In 1430, the large city of Thessaloniki in northern Greece was captured, it belonged to the Venetians. Murad II won a number of important victories in the Balkan Peninsula, significantly expanding the possessions of his state. So in October 1448 the battle took place on the Kosovo field. In this battle, the Ottoman army opposed the combined forces of Hungary and Wallachia under the command of the Hungarian general Janos Hunyadi. A fierce three-day battle ended with the complete victory of the Ottomans, and decided the fate of the Balkan peoples - for several centuries they were under the rule of the Turks. After this battle, the crusaders suffered a final defeat and no longer made any serious attempts to recapture the Balkan Peninsula from the Ottoman Empire. The fate of Constantinople was decided, the Turks were able to solve the problem of capturing the ancient city. Byzantium itself no longer posed a great threat to the Turks, but a coalition of Christian countries, relying on Constantinople, could do significant harm. The city was located practically in the middle of the Ottoman possessions, between Europe and Asia. The task of capturing Constantinople was solved by Sultan Mehmed II.

Byzantium. By the 15th century, the Byzantine state had lost most of its possessions. The entire XIV century was a period of political setbacks. For several decades it seemed that Serbia would be able to seize Constantinople. Various internal strife have been a constant source of civil wars. So the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus (who ruled from 1341 - 1391) was dethroned three times: by his father-in-law, his son and then his grandson. In 1347, an epidemic of "black death" swept, which claimed the lives of at least a third of the population of Byzantium. The Turks crossed over to Europe, and taking advantage of the troubles of Byzantium and the Balkan countries, by the end of the century they reached the Danube. As a result, Constantinople was surrounded on almost all sides. In 1357 the Turks captured Gallipoli, in 1361 - Adrianople, which became the center of Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. In 1368, Nissa (the suburban residence of the Byzantine emperors) submitted to Sultan Murad I, and the Ottomans were already under the walls of Constantinople.

In addition, there was the problem of the struggle of supporters and opponents of the union with the Catholic Church. For many Byzantine politicians, it was obvious that without the help of the West, the empire would not survive. Back in 1274, at the Lyons Cathedral, the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII promised the pope to seek reconciliation of the churches for political and economic reasons. True, his son Emperor Andronicus II convened a council of the Eastern Church, which rejected the decisions of the Lyon Council. Then John Palaeologus went to Rome, where he solemnly accepted the faith according to the Latin rite, but did not receive help from the West. The supporters of the union with Rome were mainly politicians, or belonged to the intellectual elite. The lower clergy were the open enemies of the union. John VIII Palaeologus (Byzantine emperor in 1425-1448) believed that Constantinople could be saved only with the help of the West, so he tried to conclude a union with the Roman church as soon as possible. In 1437, together with the patriarch and a delegation of Orthodox bishops, the Byzantine emperor went to Italy and spent more than two years there without a break, first in Ferrara, and then at the Ecumenical Council in Florence. At these meetings, both sides often reached an impasse and were ready to stop negotiations. But, John forbade his bishops to leave the cathedral until a compromise decision was made. In the end, the Orthodox delegation was forced to concede to the Catholics on almost all major issues. On July 6, 1439, the Florentine Union was adopted, and the Eastern churches were reunited with the Latin. True, the union turned out to be fragile; after a few years, many Orthodox hierarchs present at the Council began to openly deny their agreement with the union or say that the decisions of the Council were caused by bribery and threats from Catholics. As a result, the union was rejected by most of the Eastern churches. Most of the clergy and people did not accept this union. In 1444, the Pope was able to organize a crusade against the Turks (the main force was the Hungarians), but at Varna the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat.

The controversy over the union took place against the backdrop of the country's economic decline. Constantinople at the end of the 14th century was a sad city, a city of decline and destruction. The loss of Anatolia deprived the capital of the empire of almost all agricultural land. The population of Constantinople, which in the XII century numbered up to 1 million people (including the suburbs), fell to 100 thousand and continued to decline - by the time of the fall, there were about 50 thousand people in the city. The suburb on the Asian coast of the Bosphorus was captured by the Turks. The suburb of Pera (Galata) on the other side of the Golden Horn was a colony of Genoa. The city itself, surrounded by a 14-mile wall, has lost a number of neighborhoods. In fact, the city turned into several separate settlements, separated by vegetable gardens, orchards, abandoned parks, and ruins of buildings. Many had their own walls and fences. The most populous villages were located along the banks of the Golden Horn. The richest quarter, adjacent to the bay, belonged to the Venetians. Nearby were the streets where people from the West lived - Florentines, Anconians, Raguzians, Catalans and Jews. But, the marinas and bazaars were still full of traders from Italian cities, Slavic and Muslim lands. Pilgrims arrived in the city annually, mainly from Russia.

The last years before the fall of Constantinople, preparation for war

The last emperor of Byzantium was Constantine XI Palaeologus (who ruled 1449-1453). Before becoming emperor, he was the despot of Morea - the Greek province of Byzantium. Constantine had a sound mind, was a good warrior and administrator. He had the gift of arousing the love and respect of his subjects, he was greeted in the capital with great joy. For the short years of his reign, he was engaged in preparing Constantinople for the siege, seeking help and alliance in the West and trying to calm the turmoil caused by the union with the Roman Church. He appointed Luca Notaras as his first minister and commander-in-chief of the fleet.

Sultan Mehmed II received the throne in 1451. He was a purposeful, energetic, intelligent person. Although initially it was believed that this was not a young man shining with talents, such an impression was formed on the first attempt at reign in 1444-1446, when his father Murad II (he handed over the throne to his son in order to distance himself from state affairs) had to return to the throne to resolve the emerging problems. This calmed the European rulers, all their problems were enough. Already in the winter of 1451-1452. Sultan Mehmed ordered to start building a fortress in the narrowest part of the Bosphorus, thereby cutting off Constantinople from the Black Sea. The Byzantines were confused - this was the first step towards a siege. An embassy was sent with a reminder of the oath of the Sultan, who promised to preserve the territorial integrity of Byzantium. The embassy was left unanswered. Constantine sent messengers with gifts and asked not to touch the Greek villages located on the Bosphorus. The Sultan also ignored this mission. In June, a third embassy was sent - this time the Greeks were arrested and then beheaded. In fact, it was a declaration of war.

By the end of August 1452, the Bogaz-Kesen fortress (“cutting the strait”, or “cutting the throat”) was built. They installed powerful guns in the fortress and announced a ban on passing the Bosphorus without inspection. Two Venetian ships were driven away and the third was sunk. The crew was beheaded, and the captain was impaled - this dispelled all illusions about Mehmed's intentions. The actions of the Ottomans caused concern not only in Constantinople. The Venetians in the Byzantine capital owned a whole block, they had significant privileges and benefits from trade. It was clear that after the fall of Constantinople, the Turks would not stop, the possessions of Venice in Greece and the Aegean Sea were under attack. The problem was that the Venetians were bogged down in an expensive war in Lombardy. An alliance with Genoa was impossible, relations with Rome were strained. Yes, and I did not want to spoil relations with the Turks - the Venetians conducted profitable trade in the Ottoman ports. Venice allowed Constantine to recruit soldiers and sailors in Crete. In general, Venice remained neutral during this war.

Genoa found itself in about the same situation. Concern was caused by the fate of Pera and the Black Sea colonies. The Genoese, like the Venetians, were flexible. The government appealed to the Christian world to send aid to Constantinople, but they themselves did not provide such support. Private citizens were given the right to act at their own discretion. The administrations of Pera and the island of Chios have been instructed to adhere to such policies towards the Turks as they deem most appropriate in the current situation.

Raguzan - the inhabitants of the city of Raguz (Dubrovnik), as well as the Venetians, have recently received confirmation of their privileges in Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor. But the Dubrovnik Republic did not want to jeopardize its trade in the Ottoman ports. In addition, the city-state had a small fleet and they did not want to risk it if there was no broad coalition of Christian states.

Pope Nicholas V (head of the Catholic Church from 1447 to 1455), having received a letter from Constantine agreeing to accept the union, in vain turned to various sovereigns for help. There was no proper response to these calls. In October 1452 alone, the papal legate to the emperor Isidore brought with him 200 archers hired in Naples. The problem of union with Rome again caused controversy and unrest in Constantinople. December 12, 1452 in the church of St. Sophia served a solemn liturgy in the presence of the emperor and the entire court. It mentioned the names of the Pope, the Patriarch and officially proclaimed the provisions of the Union of Florence. Most of the townspeople received this news with sullen passivity. Many hoped that if the city survived, the union could be rejected. But having paid this price for help, the Byzantine elite miscalculated - the ships with the soldiers of the Western states did not come to the aid of the dying empire.

At the end of January 1453, the question of the war was finally resolved. Turkish troops in Europe were ordered to attack Byzantine cities in Thrace. The cities on the Black Sea surrendered without a fight and escaped the pogrom. Some cities on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara tried to defend themselves and were destroyed. Part of the army invaded the Peloponnese and attacked the brothers of the emperor Constantine, so that they could not come to the aid of the capital. The Sultan took into account the fact that a number of previous attempts to take Constantinople (by his predecessors) failed due to the lack of a fleet. The Byzantines had the opportunity to bring reinforcements and supplies by sea. In March, all ships at the disposal of the Turks are brought together in Gallipoli. Some of the ships were new, built over the past few months. In the Turkish fleet there were 6 triremes (two-masted sailing and rowing ships, three oarsmen held one oar), 10 biremes (a single-masted ship, where there were two oarsmen on one oar), 15 galleys, about 75 fust (light, high-speed ships), 20 parandarium (heavy transport barges) and a lot of small sailing boats, lifeboats. Suleiman Baltoglu was at the head of the Turkish fleet. The rowers and sailors were prisoners, criminals, slaves and partly volunteers. At the end of March, the Turkish fleet passed through the Dardanelles into the Sea of ​​Marmara, causing horror among the Greeks and Italians. This was another blow to the Byzantine elite, they did not expect that the Turks would prepare such a significant naval force and be able to blockade the city from the sea.

At the same time, an army was being trained in Thrace. Throughout the winter, gunsmiths tirelessly did various kinds, engineers created battering and stone-throwing machines. A powerful shock fist was assembled from about 100 thousand people. Of these, 80 thousand were regular troops - cavalry and infantry, janissaries (12 thousand). Approximately 20-25 thousand were numbered irregular troops - militias, bashibuzuki (irregular cavalry, "reckless" did not receive salaries and "rewarded" themselves with looting), rear units. The sultan also paid great attention to artillery - the Hungarian master Urban cast several powerful cannons capable of sinking ships (with the help of one of them they sank a Venetian ship) and destroying powerful fortifications. The largest of them was dragged by 60 bulls, and a team of several hundred people was assigned to it. The gun fired cannonballs weighing approximately 1,200 pounds (about 500 kg). During March, the sultan's huge army began to gradually move towards the Bosphorus. On April 5, Mehmed II himself arrived under the walls of Constantinople. The morale of the army was high, everyone believed in success and hoped for rich booty.

The people in Constantinople were suppressed. The huge Turkish fleet in the Sea of ​​Marmara and strong enemy artillery only added to the worry. People remembered the predictions about the fall of the empire and the coming of the Antichrist. But it cannot be said that the threat deprived all people of the will to resist. Throughout the winter, men and women, encouraged by the emperor, labored clearing ditches and fortifying walls. A contingency fund was created, with investments from the emperor, churches, monasteries and individuals. It should be noted that the problem was not the availability of money, but the lack of the required number of people, weapons (especially firearms), the problem of food. All weapons were collected in one place, so that, if necessary, distribute to the most threatened areas.

There was no hope for outside help. Only a few private individuals supported Byzantium. Thus, the Venetian colony in Constantinople offered its assistance to the emperor. Two captains of the Venetian ships returning from the Black Sea - Gabriele Trevisano and Alvizo Diedo, took an oath to participate in the fight. In total, the fleet defending Constantinople consisted of 26 ships: 10 of them belonged to the Byzantines proper, 5 to the Venetians, 5 to the Genoese, 3 to the Cretans, 1 arrived from Catalonia, 1 from Ancona and 1 from Provence. Several noble Genoese arrived to fight for the Christian faith. For example, a volunteer from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani Longo, brought 700 soldiers with him. Giustiniani was known as an experienced military man, so he was appointed commander of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. In general, the Byzantine emperor, not including allies, had about 5-7 thousand soldiers. It should be noted that part of the city's population left Constantinople before the start of the siege. Part of the Genoese - the colony of Pera and the Venetians remained neutral. On the night of February 26, seven ships - 1 from Venice and 6 from Crete left the Golden Horn, taking 700 Italians away.

To be continued…

“The death of an empire. Byzantine lesson "- a publicistic film of the governor of the Moscow Sretensky monastery, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov). The premiere took place on the state channel "Russia" on January 30, 2008. The host - Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov) - gives his version of the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the first person.

Ctrl Enter

Spotted Osh S bku Highlight text and press Ctrl + Enter