| Between the ninth century and the sixteenth century. Russian-Polovtsian wars(XI - XIII centuries)

Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI - XIII centuries)

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void, which sooner or later someone had to fill. From the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsy became the new masters of the steppes. Since that time, a titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle has unfolded, which was waged on broadest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in its scale, it stretched for a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsy did not set themselves the task of capturing Russian territories, but limited themselves to robberies and captivity. And the ratio of the population of Ancient Russia and the steppe nomads was far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, about 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while there were several hundred thousand Polovtsians.

The Russians had to fight against the Polovtsy already in new historical conditions collapse of the unified state. Now the squads of individual principalities usually participated in the war with the nomads. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could at any time go to another prince. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and armament. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsy were directly related to the internal political changes in the Old Russian state. Over a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsy became allies of the princes, leading the internecine struggle.

The Russo-Polovtsian wars can be roughly divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the XI century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century.

Wars with the Polovtsians, first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslav prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new foray was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kiev Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky came out to meet him.

Battle of the Alta River (1068).

Opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsy turned out to be more successful and defeated the Russians, who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a rebellion in Kiev, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The invasion of the Polovtsy was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who, with a small retinue, boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the XI century, chronicles are silent about major raids, but the "small war" periodically continued.

Battle on Stugna (1093).

The onslaught of the Polovtsians intensified especially in the 90s of the XI century. In 1092, the nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also ravaged many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. In the raids of the 90s, the Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous. In 1093, the Polovtsian troops besieged the city of Torchesk. Came out to meet them Grand Duke Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich with a squad of 800 soldiers. Along the way, he joined the troops of the princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But having joined forces, the princes could not work out joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, referring to the lack of forces, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsy. In the end, the passionate Svyatopolk, desiring victory, won over the majority to his side. May 24 Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by superior Polovtsian forces. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. In the stormy waters from the rains, many died (including Pereyaslav prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsy captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay tribute to them and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096).

The marriage of Svyatopolk to the Polovtsian princess briefly moderated the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the battle on Stugna, the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes did not manage to agree on joint actions at all, since Prince of Chernigov Oleg Svyatoslavich evaded the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace, but also an alliance with the Polovtsy. With the help of the Polovtsy, he expelled Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, who in the summer of 1095 had to alone repel the raids of nomads. On the next year Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and laid siege to his army in Starodub. This strife was immediately taken advantage of by the Polovtsy, who moved to Russia on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kiev, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan laid siege to Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak at Kiev, they crossed the Dnieper and, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians quickly forded the Trubezh River and attacked Tugorkan's army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (Svyatopolk's father-in-law), along with his son and other noble commanders, who died.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes beyond the Dnieper, almost captured Kiev with an unexpected raid. The Polovtsy plundered and burned the Caves Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After the successful reflection of this raid on the service of the Russians, the Torks and other border steppe tribes begin to cross. The victory on the banks of the Trubezh had great importance in the ascent of the commander's star Vladimir Monomakh, who becomes a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Wars with the Polovtsians, second stage (second half of the 12th century)

The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of disintegration of state unity. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. Since that time, the offensive stage of the struggle against the Polovtsy begins, inspired by Vladimir Monomakh. The campaign of 1103 was the largest military operation against the Polovtsy. It involved the armed forces of the seven princes. The united troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads headed by Khan Urusoba was located. It was decided to set out in early spring, while the Polovtsian horses had not had time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the forward patrols of the Polovtsy, which made it possible to ensure the surprise of the attack.

Battle of Suteni (1103).

The battle between the Russians and the Polovtsy took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian avant-garde, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, emboldened by their success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted complete defeat. According to the chronicle, the Russians have never won such a famous victory over the Polovtsy. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of the offensive actions of the Russians against the Polovtsians.

Battle of Luben (1107).

Three years later, the Polovtsy, having recovered from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by Svyatopolk's squads across the Sula River and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav principality. He captured herds of horses and laid siege to the city of Luben. The princely coalition led by the princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.

On August 12, they crossed the Sula River and decisively attacked the Polovtsians. They did not expect such a swift onslaught and fled from the battlefield, leaving their convoy. The Russians pursued them all the way to the Khorol River and took many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not seek to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg and Vladimir Monomakh married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.

Battle of Salnitsa (1111).

However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not come true. Two years later hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive actions, characteristic of his military leadership strategy, and transferring the war deep into the Polovtsian steppes. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 organized a campaign that became the pinnacle of his military successes.

The Russian army set out even in the snow. The infantry, to which Vladimir Monomakh attached special importance, rode on a sledge. After four weeks of the campaign, Monomakh's army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav have the Russians gone so far into the steppe. The two largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and captured rich booty, Monomakh's army moved back. However, the Polovtsy did not want to let the Russians out of their possessions alive. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight, she was driven back. Two days later, the Polovtsians tried again.

The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnica River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsy suffered a crushing defeat. According to the legend, heavenly angels helped the Russian soldiers to smash the enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa became biggest win Russians over the Polovtsians. It contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh, the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached "even Rome."

After the death of the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak made a major raid in the hope of internal unrest. The Polovtsian army besieged the fortress of Vyr. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated, not accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of the moral superiority of Russian soldiers had an effect.

In 1113 Vladimir Monomakh took the throne of Kiev. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Polovtsians was carried out exclusively on their territory. In 1116, the Russian princes, under the command of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns), moved deep into the Don steppes, again captured Sharukan and Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsy, the town of Balin, was also taken. After this campaign, the Polovtsian dominance in the steppes came to an end. When in 1120 Yaropolk undertook another "preventive" campaign, the steppes were empty. By that time, the Polovtsians had already migrated to North Caucasus away from Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest. It was a period of revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands of Ancient Russia.

Wars with the Polovtsians, third stage (second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries)

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repulsed by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kiev by Vsevolod Olgovich, a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince made an alliance with the Polovtsy and used them as a military force in his campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, the struggle for the throne of Kiev broke out between the princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the Polovtsians began to actively participate in internecine wars.

The regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves here. So, Yuri Dolgoruky five times led the Polovtsian troops to Kiev, trying to capture the capital of Ancient Russia.

Years of strife brought to naught the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh to protect the Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen themselves and create a large union of tribes in the 70s of the XII century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new surge of Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak was constantly at war with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderlands. The most brutal raids were carried out in the vicinity of Kiev, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after the victory of Konchak over the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.

Campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185).

The prehistory of this famous campaign, sung in the "Tale of Igor's Campaign", is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of the princely coalition, made a campaign against the Polovtsy and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the battle on the Aureli River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were captured, including their leader, Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Russia in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed that the times of Vladimir Monomakh were returning. Another joint blow was needed for the final crushing of the revived Polovtsian power.

However, this time history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency of the actions of the princes. Under the influence of Svyatoslav's successes, his ally, Prince Igor Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to receive the laurels of the victor without anyone's help and went on a campaign on their own. Igor's army of about 6 thousand people moved deep into the steppes and found himself face to face with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.

Retreating after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsians, according to all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded it with much superior forces. Igor decided to fight his way back to the Seversky Donets River. It is necessary to note the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry to break through, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the cavalry soldiers to dismount and fight on foot, so that everyone could break through the encirclement together. "If we run, we will kill ourselves, and ordinary people if we leave it, it will be a sin for us that we give them up to their enemies; or we will die, or we will live together," the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsy took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle, Igor turned to the soldiers with the words: "Brothers! This is what we were looking for, so let's dare. Shame is worse than death!"

The fierce battle continued for three days. On the first day, the Russians repelled the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments could not stand it and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating to return them to the line, but was captured. The bloody battle continued even after the capture of the prince. Finally, the Polovtsy, due to their numbers, managed to grind the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, according to Prince Svyatopolk, "opened the gates to the Russian land." The Polovtsy were not slow to take advantage of their success and made a number of raids on the Novgorod-Seversky and Pereyaslavl lands.

The exhausting struggle against the nomads, which lasted for more than one century, cost huge victims. Due to constant raids, the fertile outskirts were depopulated. southern regions Russia, which contributed to their decline. Constant hostilities in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the shift of the old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which was a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, remains henceforth aloof from new paths. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Russia and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

By the beginning of the 90s of the XII century, the raids subsided, but after the death of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new streak of strife began, in which the Polovtsy were also drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsy make repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman "with the brethren" organized the last major Russian campaign against the Polovtsy in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsy are already completely moving to the second stage of nomadism - with constant winter roads and summer roads. The beginning of the 13th century is characterized by a gradual fading of their military activity. The last Polovtsian raid on Russian lands (near Pereyaslavl) is dated by the chronicle to 1210. Further development Russian-Polovtsian relations were interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.

According to the materials of the portal "Great wars in the history of Russia"

In the X century. Polovtsy (Kimaks, Kipchaks, Cumans) roamed from the Irtysh to the Caspian Sea. With the beginning of the Seljuk movement, their hordes moved, following the Guz-torks, to the west. In the XI century. in the Black Sea region, the Polovtsians consolidated the hordes of Bulgarians who had left the Volga, Pechenegs and Torks into unions subject to them, mastered the lands that became the Polovtsian steppe - Desht-i-Kipchak.

The Polovtsians who lived along the Dnieper are usually divided into two associations - the left-bank and the right-bank. Both of them consisted of scattered independent hordes that had their own nomadic territory. At the head of the horde was the ruling clan - the kuren. The family of the chief khan (kosh) stood out in the family. The strongest khans, military leaders, such as Bonyak or Sharukan, enjoyed the greatest influence and power among them. The Polovtsy raided their neighbors: Russia, Bulgaria, Byzantium. They took part in the civil strife of the Russian princes.

The Polovtsian army had the tactics of warfare traditional for nomads - horse strikes with "lavas", a deliberate flight to lure the enemy under attack from an ambush, and in the event of a defeat, they "scattered" across the steppe. Polovtsian detachments successfully led fighting at night (1061, 1171, 1185, 1215). The Polovtsian army, as a rule, consisted of light and heavy cavalry.

Acquaintance of Russia with the Polovtsy first occurred in 1055 in the political arena. The reason is the creation in 1054 of the Principality of Pereyaslav and the attempted armed expulsion of the Torks from its territory. The Polovtsy, interested in the arrangement of the Torques, came to Russia in peace and solved the problem of their settlement through diplomatic means.

In 1061, the Polovtsy made the first invasion of Russia and defeated Prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich of Pereyaslavsky. The invasion was caused by a new offensive of Russia on the Pereyaslav Torks, which violated the Russian-Polovtsian peace treaty.

As part of the Russian army, the armed formations of the Polovtsians took part both as allies (XI-XIII centuries) and as “federates” (XII-XIII centuries), that is, living on the territory of the principality and subject to the laws of this principality. The Polovtsians, Torks, and other “pacified” Turks settled on the territory of Russia were called “black hoods”. The onslaught of the Polovtsians on Russia intensified with the change of princely power. Russia was forced to strengthen the southern borders with fortresses in Porosie, Posemye and other regions. Russian-Polovtsian relations were also strengthened by dynastic marriages. Many Russian princes married the daughters of the Polovtsian khans. However, the threat of Polovtsian raids on Russia was constant.

Russia responded to the raids with campaigns in the Polovtsian steppe. The most effective were the campaigns of the Russian army in 1103, 1107, 1111, 1128, 1152, 1170, 1184–1187, 1190, 1192, 1202. More than once, the Polovtsy came to Russia to support one of the dissatisfied Russian princes. In alliance with the Russian army, in 1223, the Polovtsy were defeated by the Mongol-Tatars (Kalka). As an independent political force (the Polovtsian steppe), the Polovtsy attacked Russia for the last time: in the east - in 1219 (Ryazan principality), and in the west - in 1228 and 1235. ( Galician Principality). After the Mongol-Tatar conquests of the XIII century. part of the Polovtsians joined the Mongol-Tatar hordes, others settled in Russia, while others went to the Danube, Hungary, Lithuania, Transcaucasia and the Middle East.

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1103)

In 1103, the Polovtsy once again violated the peace. Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich of Kiev (September 8, 1050–April 16, 1113) and Prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh of Pereyaslavl (1053–May 19, 1125) with their senior retinues gathered in Dolobsk for a princely congress to hold advice on a campaign against the Polovtsians. By the will of the senior princes in Russia, in order to solve a number of foreign and domestic tasks, the squad troops of individual lands were united under the command of the Grand Duke of Russia and formed an all-Russian squad army. At the Dolobsky congress, it was decided to go to the Polovtsian steppe. The troops of the Chernihiv-Seversky land of Oleg (? -18.8.1115) and Davyd (? -1123) Svyatoslavich were invited to the campaign. Vladimir Monomakh from the congress went to Pereyaslavl to gather his army. Svyatopolk II, taking a retinue army from Kiev, followed him. In addition to these princes, in a campaign against the Polovtsy, they attracted the retinue troops of Prince Davyd Svyatoslavich of Novgorod-Seversky, as well as the princes of the 8th generation: Davyd Vseslavich of Polotsk (? -1129), Vyacheslav Yaropolchich of Vladimir-Volynsky (? -13.4.1105), Yaropolk Vladimirovich of Smolensk (?–18.2.1133) and Mstislav Vsevolodich Gorodetsky (?–1114). Referring to illness, only Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich did not go on a campaign. Thus, the all-Russian army in the campaign of 1103 was formed from seven princely troops from various regions of Russia. And the Russian army went on a campaign. Having passed by boats below the rapids, the troops went ashore near the island of Khortytsia. Further, on horseback and on foot, they went through the field. Four days later they approached Suteni. The Polovtsy knew about the campaign of Russia and gathered an army. They decided to kill the Russian princes and take possession of their cities. Against the battle with Russia was only the oldest - Urusoba.

Moving towards the Russian troops, the Polovtsy sent Khan Altunopa at the head of the vanguard. However, the Russian avant-garde lay in wait for Altunopa's detachment and, having surrounded, killed all the soldiers. Altunopa himself was killed in the battle. This allowed the Russian regiments to suddenly stand in the way of the Polovtsy on April 4 on Suteni. In the face of the Russian soldiers, the Polovtsians "were confused, and fear attacked them, and they themselves became numb, and their horses did not have speed in their legs." As the chronicler writes, "the Russian army fell with joy on horseback and on foot against the enemy." The Polovtsians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. In battle and pursuit, the Russians killed 20 princes of Polotsk: Urusoba, Kochia, Yaroslanopa, Kitanopa, Kunama, Asup, Kurtyk, Chenegrepa, Surbar and others, and Beldyuz was captured. After the victory, Beldyuz was brought to Svyatopolk. Svyatopolk did not take the ransom of gold, silver, horses and cattle, but handed over the khan to the court of Vladimir. For violating the oath, Monomakh ordered the khan to be killed, and they cut him to pieces. Then the princes-brothers gathered, took the Polovtsian cattle, sheep, horses, camels, baggage with prey and servants, captured the Pechenegs and Torques with their guards, "and returned to Russia with glory and a great victory."

Campaign of the Russian army against the Polovtsians (1111)

After the successful campaign of Russia against the Polovtsy in 1103, the Polovtsy did not abandon raids on the Russian principalities and continued to torment the Russian lands with their devastating raids in 1106 in the Kiev region near Zarechsk, and in 1107 near Pereyaslavl and Lubna (Polovtsian khans Bonyak, Sharukan in Posulya). In 1107, in the Principality of Pereyaslav near Lubno, the troops of the Russian princes of Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Smolensk and Novgorod principalities gave a fitting rebuff to the enemy on August 19, when at six o'clock in the afternoon they crossed the river. Sulu and attacked the Polovtsy. The sudden attack of the Russians horrified the Polovtsy and they “could not, for fear, put up a banner and ran: some grabbing their horses, others on foot ... chasing them to Khorol. They killed Taz, Bonyakov's brother, captured Sugr and his brother, and Sharukan barely escaped. The Polovtsians abandoned their convoy, which was captured by Russian soldiers ... ". However, the raids continued.

In 1111, “Having thought of the princes of Russie, they went to Polovtsya”, i.e. Russian princes again had a military council and decided to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsy. The united Russian army this time already consisted of 11 retinue troops of the Russian princes Svyatopolk II, Yaroslav, Vladimir, Svyatoslav, Yaropolk and Mstislav Vladimirovich, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Rostislav Davydovich, Davyd Igorevich, Vsevolod Olgovich, Yaroslav Svyatopolchich, i.e. the military power of the Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Novgorod, Smolensk, Vladimir-Volyn and Buzh Russian principalities moved to the Polovtsian steppe. The commanders of the Russian army in this campaign were: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince Pereyaslavsky); Davyd Svyatoslavich (prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav Davydovich (specific prince of Chernigov); Davyd Igorevich (prince of Buzh, Ostrog, Chertoryi and Dorogobuzh); Vsevolod Olgovich (Vsevolod-Kirill Olgovich Prince of Chernigov); Svyatoslav Olgovich (prince of specific Chernigov); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich (Yaroslav (Yaroslavets) - Ivan Svyatopolkovich, Prince of Vladimir-Volynsk); Mstislav Vladimirovich (Prince of Novgorod); Yaropolk Vladimirovich (Prince of Smolensk).

The united Russian army, as a rule, on the battlefield before the battle by the senior commander - the Grand Duke, was divided into three parts: a large regiment - the center, a regiment of the right hand and a regiment of the left hand - the flanks. The alignment of forces in the campaign against the Polovtsy was as follows: the eldest among equals in Russia, Prince Svyatopolk II, led the regiments of a large regiment, and Vladimir and Davyd, respectively, the regiments of the right and left hands. In terms of subordination, the subordination of the troops of the princes is as follows.

The army of Svyatopolk consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (Grand Duke of Kiev); Yaroslav Svyatopolchich; Davyd Igorevich.

The army of Vladimir consisted of three regiments, which were headed by: Vladimir Vsevoldovich (Prince Pereyaslavsky); Mstislav Vladimirovich; Yaropolk Vladimirovich.

Davyd's army consisted of three regiments headed by: Davyd Svyatoslavich (Prince of Chernigov) with his son Rostislav; Vsevolod Olgovich; Svyatoslav Olgovich.

In the second week of Lent, the Russian army set out on a campaign against the Polovtsians. In the fifth week of fasting came to Don. On Tuesday, March 21, having put on protective weapons (armor) and equipped the regiments, the troops went to the city of Sharuknya, whose inhabitants greeted them hospitably. On the morning of the next day (March 22), the troops moved to the city of Snowdrift, whose inhabitants did not want to obey their will, and the city was burned.

The Polovtsians gathered an army and, after having equipped their regiments, went to battle. The battle took place on March 24 on the Degeya stream (“on the field of salne river” - in the Salsky steppes). And Russia won. The chronicle testifies that after the victory on the Degeya Stream, the next week - on March 27, the Polovtsians surrounded the Russian troops with an army of "thousand thousand" and started a fierce scolding. The picture of the battle is drawn as follows. The large regiment of Svyatoslav II, which consisted of several regiments, was the first to start a battle with the Polovtsian army. And when there were already many killed on both sides, the Russian army appeared before the enemy in full glory - the combined regiments of Prince Vladimir and the regiments of Prince Davyd hit the flanks of the Polovtsy. It should be noted that Russian troops in the fight against the Polovtsy, as a rule, fight near rivers. This is due to the fact that the nomads used their own methods of dealing with the enemy. Being light cavalry by the type of weapons and way of life, their warriors tried to surround the enemy army in the steppe and, at full gallop, fired round the enemy from bows, completing the work they had begun with sabers, pikes, and whips. By placing regiments near rivers, the Russian governors, using a natural river barrier, deprived the nomads of maneuver, and heavy defensive weapons and the possibility of flank attacks on the enemy from the regiments of the left and right hands already qualitatively changed the picture of the battle.

As a result of the campaign, the Russian soldiers "... and taking all their wealth, and many of them with the hands of Yasha ... on Holy Week on Monday, and many of them were beaten." The battle on the Salnitsa River ended with the complete defeat of the Polovtsian army, which crowned the half-century struggle of Russia with the Polovtsy with a military triumph, and until 1128 the Polovtsy did not make major raids.

About them under 1152, the Ipatiev Chronicle speaks quite definitely: "All the Polovtsian land, which is between the Volga and the Dnieper." The author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" mentions almost all the border Polovtsian lands: the Volga, Pomorye, Posulye, Crimea (Surozh and Korsun), Tmutarakan (North-Western Ciscaucasia). Mapping of the finds of Polovtsian statues confirms the information of written sources.

Having appeared in the Eastern European steppes, new aliens repeatedly violated the borders of Russia and devastated its lands. Being at the first (tabor) stage of nomadism, the Kipchaks showed particular aggressiveness. According to chronicle sources, there are 46 campaigns of the Polovtsy against Russia, not counting minor raids. In 1061, the Polovtsy first came to fight the Russian land. Vsevolod Yaroslavich went out to meet them, the Polovtsians defeated him, conquered the land and left.

In 1068, again, many Polovtsy came to the Russian land, as a result of which Prince Vseslav Bryachislavovich sat in Kiev. The Polovtsy devastated the Russian land, reached Chernigov. Svyatoslav Chernigovsky gathered an army, hit and defeated the Polovtsy, although he had only 3 thousand, and the Polovtsy - 12 thousand.

The Polovtsy repeatedly raided Russia in connection with princely strife and without any reason (1071, 1078, 1092, etc.). In successful battles with them, Prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125+) began to become famous and gain popular love. He withstood 12 successful battles with the Polovtsy in one reign of his father Vsevolod. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich inflicted a severe defeat on the western Polovtsian group on the Suteni (Milk) River. In this battle, 20 Polovtsian princes were killed. The power of the Dnieper Polovtsy was undermined. The subsequent successes of the Russians forced them to leave their camps in the Bug region.

In 1109, 1111 and 1116, the Russian princes made a series of victorious campaigns against the Don Polovtsy, took the city of Sharukhan, Sugrov and Balin, where the Alano-Bulgarian population lived under the rule of the Polovtsy, who had appeared here since the time of the Khazar Khaganate. Unable to withstand the blows of the Russian squads, part of the Polovtsy, led by Khan Otrok, migrated to the North Caucasian steppes. Khan Syrchan remained on the Don. On the way to Ciscaucasia, the Polovtsy in 1117 destroyed Sarkel-Belaya Vezha and forced its inhabitants to leave for Russia. Together with them, the Pechenegs and Torks, who roamed at Belaya Vezha, ended up in Russia.

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav the Great (1132), the Don and Dnieper Polovtsians rarely made independent raids on Russia. The 30s-50s of the XII century are characterized by their most active participation in the internecine wars of the Russian princes. The Russians, who had just defeated the nomads, again themselves helped them to gain strength. Until the 60s - 70s of the XII century, the Polovtsians were divided into separate hordes, which actively participated in raids on Russian lands as part of the squads of one or another Russian prince. Some of their tribal names are very stable, and information about them reached the eastern countries. Thus, the Arab authors al-Mansuri and al-Nuwayri mention the associations of "Burjoglu" (Burcheviches) and "Toksoba" (Toksobichs).

In the second half of the 12th century, the Polovtsian hordes began to rally into new associations on the basis of the former alliances, broken by Monomakh. The strongest of them were Pridneprovskoe and Donskoe. The Dnieper association of hordes consolidated with the Lukomorsky Polovtsy, who lived on the western shore of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, and the Donskoy - with the Primorsky, nomadic near the Taganrog Bay, and the Ciscaucasian. Thus, in the southern Russian steppes, two unions of tribes were formed, equal in territory to the largest Russian principalities and western kingdoms. Among the khans who led the Pridnestrovian-Lukomorsky Cumans, Togly, Izai, Osoluk, Kobyak and others are known. The Don Cumans eventually united under the rule of Otrak's son, Konchak, who later claimed power over all the southern Russian steppes.

Having strengthened, the Polovtsians began to impede the caravans' march to Russia along the trade route from the "Varangians to the Greeks", along the "Salt" and "Zalozny" routes. Their independent raids on Russia began again. In response, the Russians organized a series of campaigns in the steppe. The campaign of 1184 is most famous, when the Russian squads defeated the Polovtsy and captured Khan Kobyak. The Russian princes also waged a long struggle against the Don Konchak association. One of the episodes of this struggle was the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich Seversky in 1185, which served as the theme of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". However, by the mid-90s of the XII century, the surge in the external activity of the Polovtsy ceased, and in the future they only participate in the civil strife of the Russian princes as mercenaries.

The Polovtsians were defeated and subjugated by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century (some of them went to Hungary).

Article content:

The Polovtsians (Polovtsy) are a nomadic people who were once considered the most warlike and strong. The first time we hear about them is in history class at school. But the knowledge that a teacher can give in the framework of the program is not enough to understand who they are, these Polovtsy, where they came from and how they influenced the life of Ancient Russia. Meanwhile, for several centuries they haunted the Kievan princes.

The history of the people, how it arose

Polovtsy (Polovtsy, Kipchaks, Cumans) are nomadic tribes, the first mention of which dates back to 744. Then the Kipchaks were part of the Kimak Khaganate, an ancient nomadic state that formed on the territory of modern Kazakhstan. The main inhabitants here were the Kimaks, who occupied the eastern lands. The lands near the Urals were occupied by the Polovtsians, who were considered relatives of the Kimaks.

By the middle of the 9th century, the Kipchaks achieved superiority over the Kimaks, and by the middle of the 10th century they had swallowed them up. But the Polovtsy decided not to stop there, and by the beginning of the 11th century, thanks to their militancy, they had come close to the borders of Khorezm (the historical region of the Republic of Uzbekistan).

At that time, the Oguzes (medieval Turkic tribes) lived here, who, due to the invasion, had to move to Central Asia.

By the middle of the 11th century, almost the entire territory of Kazakhstan submitted to the Kipchaks. The western limits of their possessions reached the Volga. Thus, thanks to an active nomadic life, raids and a desire to conquer new lands, a once small group of people occupied vast territories and became one of the strong and wealthy among the tribes.

Lifestyle and social organization

Their socio-political organization was a typical military-democratic system. All the people were divided into clans, the names of which were given by the names of their elders. Each clan owned land plots and summer nomadic routes. The heads were khans, who were also the heads of certain kurens (small divisions of the clan).

The wealth obtained in the campaigns was divided among the representatives of the local elite participating in the campaign. Ordinary people, unable to feed themselves, fell into dependence on aristocrats. The poor men were engaged in cattle grazing, while the women served the local khans and their families.

There are still disputes about the appearance of the Polovtsy, and the study of the remains continues using modern capabilities. Today scientists have some portrait of these people. It is assumed that they did not belong to the Mongoloid race, but were more like Europeans. by the most hallmark is blond and reddish. Scientists from many countries agree on this.

Independent Chinese experts also describe the Kipchaks as people with blue eyes and "red" hair. Among them, of course, were dark-haired representatives.

War with the Polovtsians

In the 9th century, the Cumans were allies of the Russian princes. But soon everything changed, at the beginning of the 11th century, the Polovtsian detachments began to regularly attack the southern regions of Kievan Rus. They ravaged houses, took away prisoners, who were then sold into slavery, and took away cattle. Their invasions were always sudden and brutal.

In the middle of the 11th century, the Kipchaks stopped fighting the Russians, as they were busy fighting with the steppe tribes. But then they took it up again:

• In 1061, Prince Vsevolod of Pereyaslav was defeated in a battle with them, and Pereyaslavl was completely ravaged by nomads;
• After that, wars with the Polovtsians became regular. In one of the battles in 1078, the Russian prince Izyaslav died;
• In 1093, an army assembled by three princes to fight the enemy was destroyed.

These were difficult times for Russia. Endless raids on the villages ruined the already simple economy of the peasants. Women were taken prisoner, and they became servants, children were sold into slavery.

In order to somehow protect the southern borders, the inhabitants began to build fortifications and settle there the Turks, who were military force princes.

Campaign of the Seversky Prince Igor

Sometimes the princes of Kiev went with an offensive war against the enemy. Such events usually ended in victory and inflicted great damage on the Kipchaks, cooling their ardor for a while and enabling the border villages to restore their strength and life.

But there were also unsuccessful campaigns. An example of this is the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavovich in 1185.

Then he, united with other princes, went out with an army to the right tributary of the Don. Here they encountered the main forces of the Polovtsy, a battle ensued. But the numerical superiority of the enemy was so palpable that the Russians were immediately surrounded. Retreating in this position, they came to the lake. From there, Igor rode to the aid of Prince Vsevolod, but could not carry out his plan, as he was captured, and many soldiers died.

It all ended with the fact that the Polovtsy were able to destroy the city of Rimov, one of the major ancient cities of the Kursk region, and defeat the Russian army. Prince Igor managed to escape from captivity and returned home.

His son remained in captivity, who returned later, but in order to gain freedom, he had to marry the daughter of a Polovtsian khan.

Polovtsy: who are they now?

On the this moment there is no unequivocal data on the genetic similarity of the Kipchaks with some peoples living now.

There are small ethnic groups that are considered distant descendants of the Polovtsy. They are found among:

1. Crimean Tatars;
2. Bashkir;
3. Kazakhs;
4. Nogaytsev;
5. Balkars;
6. Altaians;
7. Hungarians;
8. Bulgarian;
9. Polyakov;
10. Ukrainians (according to L. Gumilyov).

Thus, it becomes clear that the blood of the Polovtsy flows today in many nations. The Russians were no exception, given the rich common history.

To tell about the life of the Kipchaks in more detail, it is necessary to write more than one book. We have touched on its brightest and most important pages. After reading them, you will better understand who they are - the Polovtsy, how they are known and where they came from.

Video about nomadic peoples

In this video, historian Andrey Prishvin will tell you how the Polovtsians arose on the territory of ancient Russia:

Who do we mean by Germans now? First of all, the inhabitants of Germany, as well as Austria, Switzerland and other countries speaking the current German language, meaning also a certain conditional “Aryan” anthropological type of the German-speaking population. In exactly the same way, by Lithuanians we mean, first of all, the inhabitants of Lithuania who speak the modern Lithuanian language (and just as tacitly refer them to the conditional “Baltic” anthropological type). And by Russians, we mean primarily the population of Russia, as well as Russian-speaking population neighboring countries, speaking Russian and belonging, in our opinion, to the conditional “Slavic” anthropological type.

At the same time, the “Aryan”, “Baltic” or “Slavic” type of the stranger almost indistinguishable until he spoke. So (as Pushkin accurately said - “every existing ... language”), language, first of all, determines the modern national differences of the majority of the population of North-Eastern Europe, and only then - citizenship.

But until the 16th century, there were no “nations” and “national states” at all, and the spoken language in almost all of Europe, except for the Mediterranean, was unified, therefore, the current Germans, Lithuanians and Russians made up one conventionally “Arian” or, if you like, Balto-Slavic people, along with Czechs, Poles, Danes, Swedes, etc.

To this people should be attributed both part of the modern Hungarians (descendants of the Balto-Slavic settlers on the left bank of the Danube), and part of the Ashkenazi Jews (cf. for example, a similar settlement Russians Jews from the village of Ilyinka in Israel), and even part of the Greeks. This is evidenced, in particular, by the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771). It says that the “Hungarian language” (Eng. Hungarian) is the same Slavic(Sclavonic), as well as “Corinthian” (Carinthian, i.e. the language of the inhabitants of the Greek Peloponnese with the capital city of Corinth).

The reader may be surprised - the modern Hungarian or Greek languages ​​cannot be called closely related to German, Russian or Lithuanian. But the casket opens simply: the capital of Hungary (“Ugric land”) from the 13th century. until 1867 was Bratislava (in 1541 - 1867 under the Habsburg name Pressburg), and most of the population of Hungary were the ancestors of the current Slovaks and Serbs. The Ugrians (today's Hungarians) moved to these places only in the 14th century. due to climate cooling and famine in the Volga region.

The population of the Peloponnese peninsula up to Napoleonic Wars spoke a language practically indistinguishable from modern Macedonian, i.e. the same Slavic. The current Greek language is marginal Newspeak, i.e., the mixed language of the former Judeo-Hellenic population of the Mediterranean who converted to Orthodoxy - only less than 30% of the Balto-Slavic roots have been preserved in it, in contrast to Bulgarian (more than 90% of common roots) and Romanian (more than 70%). In so-called. The "ancient Greek" language (i.e. the language of the population of Greece in the 14th - 15th centuries, excluding Macedonia and the Peloponnese) had more than a half of Balto-Slavic roots. (The same late medieval Newspeak is also Turkish language, in which, due to the adoption of Islam, Arab influence turned out to be stronger.)

As for “Lithuania”, in the 14th century it meant practically not only the entire Baltic and East Prussia, but also Poland, and Ukraine, and Belarus, and part of Russia - including Smolensk, Ryazan, Kaluga, Tula and Moscow up to Mytishchi, from where “Vladimir Rus” only began. Remember the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 - then "friends" fought with "strangers" (Teutons-Latins): Poles, Lithuanians, Swedes and Russians under the command of Vladislav Jagiello.

Yes, and the main city of “Great Lithuania” (lit. Letuva) were not the legendary Troki (now Trakai), not Kuna (now Kaunas) and not Vilna (i.e. Volnaya, now Vilnius), but, most likely, the city of Ltava, from 1430 until now called Po ltava. That is why in 1709 the Swedish king Charles XII climbed so far to the south, challenging the “Lithuanian” inheritance from Peter I.

All "Old Lithuanian" literary monuments are written in the Slavic alphabet, not in the Latin alphabet. From “lithuania” we also have the modern akai (Moscow-Ryazan) literary dialect (cf., for example, Lithuanian Maskava- Moscow), and not the rounding Arkhangelsk-Vologda-Yaroslavl - by the way, more ancient, preserving the original Proto-Slavic harmony.

So the then population of “Lithuania”, “Germany” and “Rus” could not call each other “Germans”: they perfectly understood each other - there were no translators in the Battle of Grunwald! After all, a “German” is someone who speaks incomprehensibly, indistinctly (“mumbles”). In modern German, "indistinct" - un deut lich, i.e. not " deut lich”, stupid (from deuten - to interpret), i.e. not- Deutsch, i.e. non-German!

In the Middle Ages, the Balto-Slavic population of North-Eastern Europe did not understand only strangers: Chud - Yugra - Hungarians. In the Laurentian Chronicle, it is so directly written: “Yugra people are the language of the Germans.” And it is clear why - in Hungarian nem means "no", for example: nem tudom - "I do not understand." Therefore, medieval “Germans” are Yugras, Ugrians (i.e. the ancestors of modern Hungarians and Estonians), i.e. Ugrian-Finnish Koine speakers ( spoken language). Medieval “Germans” cannot be identified with “Germans” also because the word “Germans” until the 19th century. denoted relatives by blood, so that it could be any tribe, not only among a single Balto-Slavic population, but also among the same Ugric-Finns.

Now about medieval Russians. Russians are not only part of the Balto-Slavs, speakers of a single language. In general, this is the entire non-urban population of not only Eastern, but also Central, and even parts of Southwestern Europe, who spoke one common (= Proto-Slavic) language. And Pushkin’s ingenious “Latin” epigraph to the 2nd chapter of “Eugene Onegin” is far from accidental: “O Rus!” (i.e. literally from Latin: “Oh, Village!”), i.e. "Oh, Russia!"

Hence the later “Latin” rustica “village, muzhik”, i.e. Russian (i.e. from “Rust of the Earth”, “Book of Powers” ​​by architect Macarius, 16th century). Hence the lamentations of the pillars Roman Catholic Church at the Council of Tours at the beginning of the same XVI (!) century, that “sermons should be read not in Latin, but in “rusticam romanam”, i.e. in Russian-Romance, i.e. Western Slavic dialect, otherwise “no one understands their Latin”!

The population of all medieval European cities, including the current Russian ones, was mixed. In the XII-XIII centuries. they were small Byzantine garrisons of servicemen hired in different parts of the Empire. In the service of Yaroslav the Wise was, in particular, the Dane Harald, the future Norwegian king. Novgorod veche a certain Lazar Moiseevich was sent to negotiate with Prince Tverdislav. Among those close to Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky were his future assassins Joachim, Anbal Yasin and Efim Moizovich. The defenders of Kiev glorified their prince Izyaslav-Dmitry, who did not die in the battle with Yuri Dolgoruky, who was besieging Kiev, with the Greek exclamation “Kyrie eleison!” instead of the Russian “Lord have mercy!”. So, under the Russian princes, Varangians, Greeks, Jews, etc. lived in the cities.

Let us now take a closer look at the medieval concept of “city”. The first “cities” were seasonal camps of nomads, the analogue of which is still today the gypsy camp. Ring-shaped carts-arbs (cf. lat. orbis “circle” and orbita “track from the cart”), serving as a circular defense against robbers, were the prototype of the city - it is no coincidence that in the Old Testament the capital of the “Moabites”, i.e. nomads, (English Moabites, cf., for example, English mob “crowd, mob”) is called Kiryat-A(g)rby (with an aspirated “g”, the current Croatian city of Zagreb, kiryat = city). It is also known as the legendary Phoenician city-republic of Arvad. The same meaning is in the name of the capital of Morocco - Rabat (Arabic for “fortified camp”).

Hence the Latin urb(i)s “city”, and the Moscow Arbat (“road to the city”, i.e. to the Kremlin). Hence the Popes Urbana (i.e. "city"), and the dynasty of "Hungarian" kings Arpadov (Hungarian Arpadi, allegedly 1000 - 1301, a reflection of the Byzantine rulers of 1204 - 1453 and their heirs - Russian tsars 1453 - 1505) with the Slavic-Byzantine names Bela, Istvan (aka Stefan, i.e. Stepan), Laszlo (aka Vladislav), etc.

Where did the Polovtsy live?

Mass stone urban planning in Europe became technically possible only in the second half of the 13th century - i.e. about two hundred years later than the first stone city of Tsar-Grad and a hundred years later than the first stone buildings of Vladimir Russia, Kiev, Prague and Vienna - after the laying of roads and the appearance of horse transport.

Thus, initially a city is always a colony, a new settled settlement of former nomads or forced migrants. At the same time, for other nomads who have come to the same, always advantageously located place (high and unflooded, most often on the shore of a flowing reservoir), the townspeople-colonists who have already settled there, naturally, are just as alien as newcomers for the townspeople. The “city-village” conflict is a continuation of the natural conflict of the subject, who has already occupied the cave, with the newly arrived applicant for the lair.

Therefore, it is amusing to read in the annals how the army of Yuri Dolgoruky besieged Kiev: one part of the army - the Polovtsians - went through the Dnieper ford, and the other part - Russia - swam across in boats. However, everything is clear here: the Polovtsians are the equestrian part of the advancing army, and Russia is the foot rural militia.

As for the townspeople, according to the state of the economy of the XIII century. in any city it was hardly possible to constantly feed even a hundred horses. The prince's squad, his honorary escort, consisted of no more than 20-30 horsemen. The cavalry, on the other hand, could only be a mobile army of the steppe and forest-steppe zones. Therefore, the Polovtsy, they are also “Lithuanians” (because earlier the “Polovtsian” Polotsk was the capital city of the “Lithuanian” Ltava-Poltava, cf. same Russia, but top! We also note that in the self-names of the Lithuanian sheep, Lat ysh and Lyakh ov, there is the same Proto-Slavic root lakt as in the verb to fly, which even today has the meaning of “jump, rush at full speed”. The “Tatar” temnik Mamai (Hungarian Mamaly) could well have been just such a “horse”, i.e. Nemanich from Memel (now Klaipeda) in the service of the “Lithuanian” Prince-Khan Jagiello-Angel.

Polovtsy who are they now?

Polish history also states that “the Polovtsy were robber people, originating from the Goths (!)”: “Polowcy byli drapieżni ludzie, wyrodkowie od Gottow” (“Chronika tho iesth historya Swiata, Krakó w, 1564.). Ready on the occasion of the Polovtsian victory speaks of the joy of the "Lay of Igor's Campaign". However, there is nothing strange in this, since the word “Goths” meant “idolaters” (see the article “Ancient” and medieval population of Europe and its rulers”). And the unbaptized ancestors of the Poles, the pagan Poles, are also Polovtsy, whose country was called Polonia in Latin, i.e. Poland.

As for the Polovtsians - “robbers”, they were also the ancestors of modern Poles, since in German “to kill” - schlachten, i.e. a word with the same root as “gentry”, which meant by no means “Polish nobility”, but an equestrian gang of robber relatives from the main road, i.e. from the way (cf. also Swedish slakta “relatives” and English slaughter “massacre”). By the way, the famous trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” with the only necessary portage from the Western Dvina = Daugava to the Berezina (a tributary of the Dnieper) was originally such a path, i.e. the shortest route from the Baltic to the Black Sea - without the “traditional” Ladoga hook and additional portage from Lovat to the western Dvina! So the exhausting medieval “Russian-Lithuanian” and “Russian-Polish” struggle is a completely understandable struggle of local princes for control over the most important trade routes.

The traditional opinion about the Polovtsy as “Turkic tribes” is incorrect, since the Polovtsy are by no means a tribe in the ethnic sense, and there were enough idolaters among the “Turkic”, and among the “Germanic”, and among the “Slavic” tribes. The names of the Polovtsian khans mentioned in the annals, for example, Otrok, Gzak (i.e. Cossack) or Konchak, are completely Slavic, and the nickname of Konchak’s daughter, the wife of Vsevolod (brother of Prince Igor) - Konchakovna - is a typical Mazovian surname of a married woman. The chronicles also mention the “Tatar prince” Mazovsh, i.e. prince from Mazovia (region of present-day Poland).

These are the medieval, no one knows where disappeared, "Polovtsy". And how can one not recall the brave Mstislav from the Tale of Igor's Campaign, who slaughtered the “Polovtsi” with the Russian name Rededya in front of the “Kasozhsky regiments”, i.e. Adyghe, i.e. Circassian, i.e. Cossack.

As for medieval Russians, all farmers (they are peasants = Christians), cattle breeders, artisans, elder monks and horse (Cossack) troops living outside the city limits were called “Russians” (Rus), and the current word “Russian”, not carrying a nationalistic meaning - a synonym for the old meaning of the word "Russian".

Wealthy medieval cities hired guards from Russia, and preferably from another region, without family ties with Russia, i.e. non-urban population: the Varangians (whom the rural, i.e., Russia, naturally, called enemies), Janissaries = Junkers, Poles, Khazars = Hussars (i.e., Hungarians, i.e. Germans), etc. This custom exists in some places to this day, for example, Chechens - Vainakhs, i.e. former guard the supreme ruler of Vanakh (i.e. John), now in the guards serve the king of Jordan, like their ancestors in the 15th century. - Ivan III.

The above considerations allow us to interpret the concepts of “Galician Rus”, “Novgorod Rus”, etc. differently, since each city had its own relations with the surrounding Rus. After all, even today we say: Moscow is the heart of Russia, but not all of Russia. And today Moscow is naturally the most multinational city in Russia. Yes, and other modern large cities are as multinational as any city in Russia in the Middle Ages. And Russia is always beyond the 101st kilometer ... In its open spaces there has always been enough space for all its inhabitants, regardless of what is written or not written in their passport about nationality.

If you speak Russian, you mean Russian... This tracing-paper from the Lithuanian proverb about Lithuanians perfectly reflects the essence of the national idea, free from racism, chauvinism, separatism and religious fanaticism generated by ideology, politics and political historiography.