Term vocabulary (gr. lexikos. - verbal, vocabulary) serves to designate the dictionary composition of the language. This term is also used in narrower values: to determine the set of words used in one way or another functional variety Language ( bookvocabulary ), in a separate work ( vocabulary "Words about the regiment of Igor"); You can talk about the vocabulary of the writer ( vocabulary Pushkin) and even one person ( The speaker is richvocabulary ).

Lexicology (gr. lexis - Word +. logos. - Teaching) is called the section of the science of language learning the vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn. - together +. chronos. - time), then it explores the vocabulary of the language in his modern condition, I. historical, or diachronic (gr. dia - after +. chronos. - time), then its subject is the development of vocabulary of this language.

Descriptive lexicology is considered aware of the modern Russian language. The synchronous study of vocabulary involves studying it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at present.

However, the synchronous language system is not fixed and absolutely stable. It always has elements that go into the past; There are also nascent, new. The coexistence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous slice of the language indicates its constant motion, development. In the descriptive lexicology, this dynamic balance of the language is taken into account, which is the unity of stable and moving elements.

The objectives of the lexicology include the study of the meaning of words, their stylistic characteristics, a description of the sources of formation of the lexical system, analysis of the processes of its update and archaeization. The subject of consideration in this section of the course of the modern Russian language is the word as such. It should be noted that the word is in the field of view and other sections of the course. But the word formation, for example, attention focuses on laws and types of word education, morphology - the grammatical doctrine of the word, and only lexicology explores the words by itself and in a certain connection with each other.

Lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, as well as any other, is not a simple set of words, but the system of interrelated and interdependent units of one level. Study lexical system Language reveals an interesting and long-fashioned picture of the life of words connected with each other various relations and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexicophy-phraseological system of the native language.

No word in the language exists separately, isolated from its common nominative system. Words are combined into various groups on the basis of certain signs. Thus, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which includes, for example, words that call specific household items, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first easy to highlight the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words in the group is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarities of the concepts indicated by them.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, linguistic features of words allow them to group them in part of speech on lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relations within various lexical groups that make up the nominative language system. In the most general features, the system relations in it can be described as follows.

In the lexical system of the language allocate groups of words related to the generality (or opposite) of the value; similar (or opposed) by stylistic properties; United common type word formation; associated with the generality of origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to the active or passive stock of vocabulary, etc. System bonds cover and whole classes of words, uniform in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the value of the subject, feature, actions and under.). Such system relations in groups of words united by the generality of signs are called paradigmatic (gr. paradeigma. - Example, sample).

Paradigmatic ties of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is crushed into a variety of microsystems. The simplest of these are pairs of words associated with the opposite of values, i.e. Antonyms. More complex microsystems consist of words grouped on the basis of similarity of values. They form synonymic rows, a variety of thematic groups with a hierarchy of units associated as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words are poured into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are rather stable and are not subject to change under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests system connections in vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the system relationships of words is their ability to connect with each other. Combination Words are determined by their subject-semantic ties, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, a word glass can be used in conjunction with the words ball, Glass; Combination are possible glass jar (bottle, dishes)Even glass pan (frying pan) - from refractory glass. But impossible - "Glass Book", "Glass Cutlet" And under. Since the subject-semantic links of these words exclude mutual combination. You can not associate words glass and running, glass and long away: This is opposed by their grammatical nature (adjective can not be combined with the verb, the circumstantial adverb). Lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop portable values, which allows you to build phrases hairglass smoke (EU.), glass sight. Words not possess such ability ( refractory, metal cuttingand under), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their combination `already.

System links that are manifested in the patterns of combining words with each other are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma. - Something connected). They are detected when connecting words, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection of the meaning of words, and therefore their systemic communications in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also due to the lexical system of the language as a whole. Features of the combination of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore syntagmatic bonds are more than paradigmatic, subject to change due to the content of speech. So, lexical synthagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass Skovorod.), expanding our ideas about the world around ( walk along the moon), figurative energy ( glass smoke hair).

System links of words, interaction different values One word and his relationship with other words is very diverse, which indicates a great expressive strength of vocabulary. At the same time, it is impossible to forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system, in which certain relations of the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical signs, phonetic traits, and also formed the dependence of the word value from paralyingvistic (gr. para. - about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extliningVistical (Lat. extra - super-, out- + language) factors: factories, gestures, intonation, conditions of operation, time consolidation in language, etc.

General-language system and lexical like her component, detected and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development, enrichment. The study of systemic relations in vocabulary is a prerequisite for the scientific description of the dictionary composition of the Russian language. Decision theoretical problems Receives direct exit to practice and in the preparation of various dictionaries, and when developing literary and linguistic norms of the wording, and when analyzing individual-copyright techniques expressive opportunities Words in artistic speech.

Word in the lexical system

All the words of the Russian language are included in his lexical system, and there are no such words that would be outside of it, perceived separately, isolated. This obliges us to study words only in their systemic links, as nominative units, one way or another related to each other, close or identical in some respect, and in something opposite, unlike. The characteristic of the word may be more or less complete only in the case, if its various systemic communications are installed with other words included with it into certain lexico-semantic groups.

Take, for example, adjective red. Its basic meaning in modern Russian is "having a color of one of the main colors of the spectrum that goes in front of orange", "blood color". In this meaning red synonymous such words like scarlet, crimson, crumb, cougaric; He has no antonym. Mac 1 shows the second meaning of this word: red (only in full form) - "Extreme left for political beliefs": [Vlasich] liberal and is considered in the countyred but it goes boring(C.). In this case, the word enters the synonymic range: red - left, radical; It has antonyms: right, conservative. Third importance arose relatively recently: " revolutionary activities"," related to Soviet Build ": Shortly before that white were knocked out of Krasnovodskred parts(Paust.). Synonymous ratios of words change: red - revolutionary, Bolshevik, and antonymic: white - Belogvardeysky - counter-revolutionary.

The fourth meaning of the word (as all subsequent) is given with a stylistic litter: outdated poetic - "good, beautiful, beautiful": Notkrasnaya Izba corners, andkrasnaya Pies. It is in this meaning that this word acts in combination Red Square(The name of the area was given in the XVI century.) The fifth value is a peopetic: "clear, bright, light" - persisted in combination red Sun, Spring-Krasnova: Oh, summerred ! I would love you when not knowing, yes dust, yes mosquitoes, yes fly(P.). And the fourth, and the fifth value in the dictionary are interpreted using synonyms; You can call antonyms for them 1) ugly, unprecedented, non-fried; 2) pale, colorless, dim.

The sixth value is manifested only in the full form of adjective and is given with the mark outdated - "the main, honorable" - red porch. Nowadays it is significantly archased and therefore not perceived surrounded by synonyms and antonyms, and retains its meaning only in sustainable combinations red angle- "The angle in the hut, where the icons hang." So semantics words (gr. sEMA. - Sign) Determines its place in the lexical language system.

The same word characterized by various features can be assigned to several structural-semantic discharges. So, red stands in one row with words that call colors ( yellow, blue, green), and belongs to the category qualitative adjectives. The proximity of the values \u200b\u200ballows to build the following word-forming series: red, red, reddish, red, blush; paint, paint, beautiful, decorating, beauty. The relationship of words of this kind is called derivation(Lat. Derivatio.- Distribution, assignment). Derivational relationships associate single-corpus words, as well as those that have a common historical root. These words reflect the associative rapprochement of words.

Invoking Russian nature red Combines it with other unfolded words (as opposed to foreign language by origin). The ability to use in any speech style gives reason to attribute the word red In its main value to the interstilic neutral vocabulary, while in the last three values \u200b\u200b(see above) this word belongs to certain stylistic groups of vocabulary: outdated, poetic, peopetic and archaic.

There are a lot of stable phrases of a terminological nature in which this word becomes special: red line,red tie.

Combining words can be based on denotative Relations (lat. denotare. - Notify), since all words denote this or that concept. Indicated by the words concepts, items (or denotati) ourselves suggest their grouping. In this case, the base for the allocation of lexical groups is non-ninguistic characteristics; Words denotes, for example, colors, taste sensations ( sour, bitter, salty, sweet), the intensity of the sound ( loud, quiet, muted, shrill) etc.

Other reason to identify systemic relationships of words represent them connotative Values \u200b\u200b(lat. cUM / CON. - together +. nOTARE - Mark), i.e., those added values \u200b\u200bthat reflect the assessment of the corresponding concepts are positive or negative. This feature can be combined, for example, the words are solemn, high ( touch, non-permanent, organize, sacred), reduced, joking ( faithful, wrapped, calculate), smear, diminishing ( gasnobushka, Paw, Babe), etc. The basis of this division is already lingu-stylistic signs.

According to the selection of words, they are divided into groups reflecting their distribution in a limited territory and consolidate in a particular show, professional use of representatives of a certain kind of activity, etc. Significant layers of vocabulary are opposed to its active or passive role in the language: Some words in our time is almost not used (they are forgotten or not enough), others - are constantly used in speech; Wed: mouth, lunits, pecy, man - lips, cheeks, chest, forehead.

Thus, the study of the lexical language system discloses the multidimensional and diverse life of words. The history of the language and the people itself was captured in their systemic links. The development and interaction of the words and the relationship of it with other words deserve the most serious study. It can be carried out in several directions.

1. Within one word - analysis of its value (or values), identifying new shades of values, their development (up to a complete breaking and formation of new words).

2. Within the vocabulary of the vocabulary - the combination of words in groups on the basis of common and opposite signs, a description of different types of semantic ties (synonyms, antonymy and under.).

3. within the general language system - the study of the dependence of the semantic structure of the word from grammatical signs, phonetic changes, linguistic and nonlineuistic factors.

The vocabulary of any language is a system of interdependent and interrelated lexical units of one level. There is no language in which any word would exist separately from others - all of them are part of a single lexical system.

The concept of a lexical system

All words form groups of words that denote the identical phenomenon. For example, there are groups of words that we use when describing furniture items, people's appearance, weather, etc.

From this we can conclude that the basis of such groups is the thematic factor. There are groups of words that are combined by grammatical and lexico-semantic signs. In the lexical system of the Russian language, there are groups of words related to the following signs:

Generalization or the opposite of value;

Similarity or opposite of stylistic properties;

General type of word formation;

Functions in speech;

Belonging to the active or passive stock of vocabulary.

Lexical micro and macrosystems

Systemic relationships of words in joint groups of words are called paradigmatic. It is paradigmatic bonds that represent the basis of the lexical system of the Russian language. As a rule, there are lexical micro and macrosystems inside each lexical group of words.

A vivid example of a microsystem in the lexical system of the Russian language is antonyms - words that have the opposite value in vocabulary. Synonymous rows are formed by macroshropic vocabulary.

The largest semantic associations in Russian are part of speech, extensive lexico-grammatical classes.

The main characteristics of the lexical system of the Russian language

The main factor in the lexical system of the Russian language is the ability of words to connect to other words, based on objective relationships. At the same time, the lexical features and the grammatical properties of a certain word are taken into account.

So the word "glass", we can use in relation to the word glass. We cannot use the word glass in conjunction with the word book, cutlet, cat, as the phrase "glass cutlet" eliminates the semantic and grammatical filling of both words.

Similar phrases are permissible in the artistic context in a figurative sense, when it is necessary to emphasize the properties of the noun, for example: a glass view, a glass heart.

Infidency of statements in the lexical system

The lexical system of the Russian language admits the incompleteness of statements in neutral, expressive and interstile stylistic terms. Such phenomenon contributes to the formation of words of functional spoken style in the lexical system.

Most often, the incompleteness of statements is allowed in the conversational style. Similar cutting syntax constructions Quite often found in the dialogues.

Words in terms of meaning. Synonymos - the same name - these are the words different on the sound, but identical or loved ones: my wife's cheerful wife - joyful to look - look easily - just. The words used to eliminate the sharpness or rudeness of the phrase are called euphemisms gr.

Share work on social networks

If this job does not come up at the bottom of the page there is a list of similar works. You can also use the Search button.

Lexical system language

The vocabulary of any language is a system of interrelated units - anex (words). Inside this system, groups of words combined by different criteria are allocated, for example, on the thematic basis -thematic groups(TG). TG "Terms of Rodation":mother, Father, Son, Daughter, Brother, Sister, Aunt, Uncle etc.

Words can be combined into groups on the basis of different relationships.

1. Semantic relationships:
   1. Hypero hyponimic relationships.
   2. Synonymic.
   3. Antonymic.
2. Formal relationships:
   1. Omonial.
   2. Paronimic.

I. . Semantic relations

combine words from point of view of meaning.

1. Hypero hyponimic relations -

this is a generic semantic relationship.Hyperonym (Greek. hyper - over, above) - a word with a generic value.Gyonim (Greek. Gipo - Under) - Word with a species value. So,plants (hyperonym) are divided intotrees, shrubs, herbs (hyponim). Trees (hyperonym), in turn, onbirch, oak, lip (hyponyms), etc.

2. Synonymic relationships -

this is a relationship of a complete or partial semantic coincidence.

Synonyms (gr. Synonymos - The same name) - these are words, various sounds, but identical or loved ones: wife - spouse, cheerful - joyful, look - look, easy - just.

Two or more lexical synonym, correlated with each other with the designation of the same phenomena, objects, signs, actions formsynonymous series: High, tall, long, long-grade. In the synonymic row stands outdominanta (lat. Dominans - dominant)- The head of the synonymous series is usually semantically the simplest and stylistically neutral word. Other members of the synonymic series clarify, expand its semantic structure, complement it with estimated values. So, in synonymic rowbrave, unrelated, removal, dashing, brave, fearless, fearless The adjective brave most excitation transmits the value that combines all synonyms, "not experiencing fear" and freely from expressive-stylistic shades.

Types of synonyms

1. Full (absolute) synonymsdo not differ from each other with shades of value and stylistic coloring, eg:hurry to hurry. These are mainly parallel scientific terms:linguistics - Linguistics, Orphography - Spelling.

2. Most synonyms differ by any signs.

1) semantic synonyms are characterized by shades of meaning: laugh - laugh; Step, march, minced.

1. Style Synonyms: wife (neutr.) - spouse (book), face (neutr.) - Mord (simple) - Lick (book.).
2. Synonyms, characterizedthe degree of modernity: finger (statute, archaism) - finger, guide (statute.) - Actor, led (statute.) - Know.
3. Synonyms, characterizedsphere of use: Tsibulya (Dial.) - Onions, Kok (Morning) - Cook.
4. Synonyms, characterizedcombatibility : Cary (only eyes) - brown, etc.

In some cases, synonyms can be intermedied in speech in order to impart a polite form; so better to saythin (or even slender) than skinny; Full than fat; elderly than old . Words used to eliminate the sharpness or rudeness of the phrase are calledeufemism (gr. EU is good, Phemi - I say).

Synonyms help to clarify, supplement our concepts about objects and phenomena, brightly and versatilely characterize them, allow you to avoid repeats.

Strengthening synonyms often generatesgraduation (Lat - Gradatio - gradual increase), when each next synonym enhances (or weakens) the value of the previous one: smile, laughing, laughing.

1. Antonymic relationship -

relationships of the meaning opposite.

Antonyms (gr. Anti - against, Onyma - Name) - the words of the same part of speech having opposite values:true - lie, talk - be silent.

By structure Antonyms are divided into:

1) Single-dorn : honest - dishonest, gifted- mediocre, comesl - goes out b, moral - immoral;

1. uphols : Cheerful - tired, wealth - poverty.

Opposite values \u200b\u200bcan develop within the same word. It is intrastalous antonymy (antonym of meaningful words) -enantiosemia . For example, verbdisagree Maybe mean 'coming to normal, feel better, "but he can mean' die, say goodbye to life."Lend 1. We loose loan. 2. Consider. Enantiosemia is the reason for the ambiguity of such statements:I looked through this article in the magazine "Spark". Victor listened to Romance Yahina.

Antonyms are also divided into:

1. general language I.
2. okkazional.

Along with the antonyms of general-language (commonly used), regularly used, in one or another context, there may be words that in normal use do not constitute an anthony pair (do not express opposite values). In this case aboutcontextual, or occasional(lat. Casus - case) speech, copyright antonyms. Words opposed in a specific context:

... They agreed. Wave and stone,

Poems and prose, ice and flame

Not so different among themselves(A. Pushkin).

Proper use of antonyms in speech helps to reveal the contradictory essence of objects, phenomena, qualities.

Antonyms are the most important means of creatingantithesis (gr. Antithesis - Contrast) - a stylistic figure of contrast, sharp opposition to concepts, images, states. This technique has long been known. folk poetry, presented in proverbs and sayings:

Rich and on weekdays singing

And the poor and the holiday flashes (proverb).

Big Master to face Antonyms was M.Yu.Lermonts:

In the eyes, as in the sky, light,

In the soul it is dark as in the sea.

Writers widely use antonyms in the headlines of their works:"War and World" L.N. Tolstoy, " Thick and thin"A.P.hehhova," Live and Dead "K. Simonova.

Antonimia phenomenon is used inoxymoron (gr. Oxymoron - witty-stupid). This technique consists in combining words expressing logically incompatible concepts in order to image a new, unusual phenomenon. Some oxymifiers are built on antonyms (start end, old New Year ), others - in words with opposite values, united as defined and determining: "Live corpse "L.N. Tolstoye," Optimistic tragedy"V.Vischnevsky, ToponymDry river.

II. . Formal relations

combinate words from the point of view of form (identical or similar).

1. Omonial relations -

the ratio of the coincidence of the forms of words.

Omonimi (gr. Homos - Same, Onyma - Name) - these are words that have the same form, but different meanings, for example: Sol1 'Substance for seasoning' and Sol2 'note of a certain sound'.

In modern Russian stand out:

1) Lexical Omonimi- words of one part of speech having the same sound and writing, but different meanings:key1 and key2, Luk1 and Luk2, English Light 1 - Light and Light 2 - Easy, Tat. tosh1 - Sleep and Tosh - bone.

2) Omophones (phonetic homonyms) They are pronounced equally, but they are written differently:meadow - bow, code - cat, pond - rod; carry - lead; Tank - barrel, eng. Night - Night and Knight - Knight. The coincidence in the pronunciation of different words occurs due to the action of various phonetic laws: stunning ringing consonants at the end of the word, assimilation of ringing consonants according to deafness, reduction of vowels.

3) Omographs (graphic homonyms)they are written in the same way, but are pronounced in different ways:atlas - Atlas, Castle - Castle, get to get.

4) Omophos (grammatical homonyms)- Words different parts Speech coinciding in one form:three (souche) - three (ch.), flow (land) - leak (ch.), Know (souche.) - Know (ch.), Glass (SUMS.) - Glass (ch.),tat. tosh (S.) - Sleep and Tosh (ch.) - Go away.

2. Paronymic relations

Paronima (gr. Para - near, about, Onyma - name) - these are words close to sound(and writing), but different by meaning, for example: Patronymic - Fatherland, Subscriber - Subscription.

Two understandings have developed, two points of view on paronyms and two groups are distinguished accordingly.

1. Paronyms are words onlysingle-dorn: patronymic - Fatherland, Commandable - Travel, Subscriber - Subscriptionand etc.

2. Paronyms - words and single, anduphols: escalator - excavator.

The similarity of paronyms (especially single-dorn) can lead to errors in their use. It is necessary to know their values.

Nevezha - rough, non-public person;ignorant - A poor educated person.

Subscription - A document providing the right to service, using something, as well as the right to this (subscription to the theater, subscription to the lectures cycle, interlibrary subscription);subscriber - the one who uses the subscription;

Indian - Indian, diplomat - diploma and etc.

Multivality (Polycemia)

In any language there are two groups of words - unambiguous and multivalued. Words that have one lexical importance -unambiguous, monosamplentic,eg, words with a narrow-permanent value (binoculars, trolleybus),terminological names:diez (music), gastritis (honey). M. non-standard, polishenantic Words have several values, the ability of words to have several values \u200b\u200bis calledmultigid, or polishey.

For example, meaningful wordold: 1) On Zavalinka sat the old grandfather (reached maturity); 2)an old friend is better than two new ones(longtime); 3) Visited the old apartment(former, former to something else).

Among the meaning of the meaningful words are highlighted direct and portable meaning of words.

1) Direct (main, most important) meaning of the word Directly correlated with reality phenomena. For example,konk - 'Little horse'.

2) Portable (indirect) values Arise as a result of the transfer of the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, the generality of their signs, functions, etc. Portable meanings wordskonk : 'Ice riding fixture', 'Hobby', 'Wooden Carved Decoration on the Roof of His'.

Types of Transfer Names

1. Metaphor (gr. Metaphora - Transfer) - transfer the name from one subject to another on the basis of any similarity of their signs.

Items can be similar

1. in the form: Draw a circle -\u003e Lifebuoy, Baranca 'Drying, Bublik' -\u003e Bancage 'Rule';
2. in bloom: gold ring -\u003e golden hair, golden autumn;
3. by function: janitor (person) -\u003e wipers (wipers);
4. according to the location of the objects and their parts: the tail of the animal -\u003e the tail of the comet, the sole of shoes -\u003e the sole of the mountain;
5. transfer of qualities, properties, actions of people and animals to inanimate objects -elimination (Howl Wolf -\u003e Whea Wind) and vice versa (empty bucket -\u003e empty head, iron parts -\u003e Iron, steel nerves, water boiled -\u003e Crowd boiled), etc.

2. Metonimia (gr. Metonymia - renaming) - transfer the name from one subject to another on the basis of their adjacency. it

1) transfer of the name of the material on the product from it: our athletes brought from the Olympicsgold and silver ;

2) transfer of the name of the place (room) to groups of people who are there:The audience listened carefully;

3) Transfer of the name of the vessel to its contents: eat morespoon , porcelain dish -\u003e deliciousdish ;

Metonimia variety -synecdoche. This is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and on the contrary:

Aksakal (Turkic) literally "white beard".

"And it was heard before dawn, as it was shyfrenchman "(M.Lermonts)

"Hey, beard ! And how to drive from here to plush? " (N.Gogol)

Historical changes in the dictionary composition

Language as the system is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it first responds to all changes in society. Some items, phenomena exist from the long time, and the words they call them are actively used by native speakers, others die - and with them their names, the third appear, new words are created for their name or rethink old.

The following types of changes are allocated.

1. The appearance of neologisms.

Neos NEOS - New, Logos - Concept) - new words and speech turns, created to designate a new subject or expressing a new concept. Neologisom groups:

1) Lexical neologismsappear as a result:

a) education on productive models from the ones in the language of roots and affixes (comprehensive words likeVAT, ChP. et al., suffixing-prefixes type predictedprimarion (according to the model at-earth, at the moon)) or

b) borrowing from other languages \u200b\u200b(economic vocabulary:leasing, dealer, mortgage, tender, know-how).

2) (Lexico-) semantic neologisms- New values \u200b\u200bof famous words, for example:bush 'Association of enterprises, institutions';shuttle 'The trader delivered goods'.

1. Obsolescence and loss of lexical units and

individual values \u200b\u200bof words

Outdated words- words that came out of active use and in modern languageAs a rule, they are not found, but they have been preserved in the passive dictionary and most of them are understandable of native speakers, known in fiction.

Outdated words divide into two groups.

1) Historisms - the names of the disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: king, hussar, governor, chain mail. Their appearance is caused by unsatual reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, updating of household goods, weapons, etc.

2) Archaisms (gr. Archaios - Ancient) - the names of the currently existing objects and phenomena, for any reason those who are displaced in other words: the man - forehead, verbat - to speak, etc. The main difference between Archaisov from historians is the presence of synonyms in modern language.

1. Changing words

1) Narrowing the word value. So, the word beer originally had the meaning of "any drink",powder - "Dust, a substance consisting of small particles", compare one-cornepowder.

2) Expansion of the word meaning. So, finger In ancient Russian language was called only thumb, the rest are calledfraps (And now they are all called fingers).

Lexicography

Lexicography - The section of linguistics engaged in the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

Main types of dictionaries

Dictionaries of two types are distinguished:

1) encyclopedicThey explain their realities (subjects, phenomena), information about various events: children's encyclopedia, literary encyclopedia;

2) philological ( linguistic), the words are explained, their meanings are interpreted, etc.

Linguistic dictionariesIn turn, are divided into two types:

a) multilingual, i.e. Translated which we use when studying foreign language In working with foreign language text: Russian-Tatar, Anglo-Russian;

b) single-speaking : intelligent, phraseological, historical and etymological, dictionaries foreign words, grammatical, word-formative, dialect, frequency, reverse, spelling and orphoepic dictionaries etc.

Other similar works that may interest you. Ishm\u003e
7875.		Phonetic Russian language system	101.66 Kb.
	In the formation of soft consonants to the main sound-forming movement, an additional movement of the speech organs is added: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to a solid nebu, as when sound
14792.		Lexical characteristics of political discourse	14.29 Kb.
	Cupin defines an ideological as a verbal unit directly associated with political denotate and received sustainable ideological increment fixed by regulatory intelligent dictionaries Cupina 2003: 90. Immovable opponents agree only that the highest value is freedom, but everyone knows what freedom and ...
7876.		Fonmemon and phonological system of the Russian literary language in Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) phonological	19.59 Kb.
	Boduen de Courtae considered the background of a mental version of the sounds of the language: "Fonmem - a single presentation belonging to the world of phonetics, which arises in the shower by the psychological merger of impressions received from the pronunciation of the same sound - the mental equivalent of the sounds of the language"
4138.		Alternative vote system. Cumulative vote system. SYSTEM BALIV.	4.28 Kb.
	Alternative vote system. Cumulative vote system. The system of the Bal_V method of the Dolois is not integrating the Systems of Absolutely Bіlshostі VZHA in the first tour of Vib_v є Alternative to Viblotnia Vibor Viborsi voting for one candidate ale to get the order of their Pereviag for the Obli. Taka The system of constriction of the Avustralia during Vibributs of the Chamber Represents the Lyunoia Palati Australian Parliament.
9740.		Party Political System of Japan and Point and System	47.98 KB.
	The main human rights are guaranteed by the Constitution of Japan. They are defined as eternal and unshakable. These rights include the right to equality, freedom, social rights, the right to protect fundamental human rights. The Constitution allows you to limit human rights if they violate the public joint well-being or rights of other people.
2668.		Energy system (power system). Electricity (electric) system	44.5 Kb.
	Natural natural sources of which energy is drawn to prepare it in the necessary forms for various technological processes are called energy resources. Distinguish the following types of basic energy resources: and the chemical energy of fuel; b atomic energy; In water energy, that is, hydraulic; r energy of radiation of the sun; D wind energy. e of the energy of tides and ties; Well geothermal energy. Primary energy source or energy coal gas oil uranium concentrate hydropower solar ...
6929.		History of Delphi language	13.01 Kb.
	Delphi is a Greek city where the Delphic Oracle lived. Delphi is a combination of several most important technologies: high-performance compiler in machine code Object-oriented model component visual and therefore high-speed construction of software prototype applications Scalable tools for building databases Compiler in machine code The compiler built-in Delphi provides high performance necessary to build applications in architecture ...
6028.		English gramatic	80.08 Kb.
	Often they are a combination of verb with a subsequent pretext which often significantly changes the original meaning of the word creating a new concept of phrase verbs. For example: to go to Go in to go out to go out to Go Wy to go to Go Down Go down and t. They are used with the infinitive of the semantic The verb vocabulary is followed by them and show the possibility of the need for the desirability of the action of a pronounced infinitive. All of them are written with a capital letter and if ...
113.		Phraseology of Russian language	7.62 Kb.
	Frameology - these are stable phrases used to build speech statements reproducible in the finished form of a unit of language possessing constant and independent of the context. Unlike free phrases, the elements of which are injured in their composition to read the book. The magazine newspaper phraseologism has a permanent set of components and the sustainable value of the entire expression. The lexical value of the phraseological turnover has in general. 7 Availability of a component with outdated individual value ...
7082.		Graphic Interface C #	177.14 KB.
	DrWStringst New Font Times New Romn 8 Brushes. Turning the meter to carry out the tacting pulses for interrupting from the Timer.7 element. The CHRT1 element Series window for the Timer1 element in its properties on the Events page set the interrupt Timer1_tick and on the shared property page set the interval value of 1 second. As a result of working with the properties of the Timer1 element in the form1 code1, an empty blank on interrupts from the timer will appear: Privte void Timer1_TickObject ...

The vocabulary of the Russian language, as well as any other, is not a simple set of words, but the system of interrelated and interdependent units of one level. Study lexical system Language reveals an interesting and long-fashioned picture of the life of words connected with each other various relations and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexicophy-phraseological system of the native language.

No word in the language exists separately, isolated from its common nominative system. Words are combined into various groups on the basis of certain signs. Thus, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which includes, for example, words that call specific household items, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first easy to highlight the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words in the group is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarities of the concepts indicated by them.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, linguistic features of words allow them to group them in part of speech on lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relations within various lexical groups that make up the nominative language system. In the most general features, the system relations in it can be described as follows.

In the lexical system of the language allocate groups of words related to the generality (or opposite) of the value; similar (or opposed) by stylistic properties; combined common type of word formation; associated with the generality of origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to the active or passive stock of vocabulary, etc. System bonds cover and whole classes of words, uniform in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the value of the subject, feature, actions and under.). Such system relations in groups of words united by the generality of signs are called paradigmatic (gr. paradeigma. - Example, sample).

Paradigmatic ties of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is crushed into a variety of microsystems. The simplest of these are pairs of words associated with the opposite of values, i.e. Antonyms. More complex microsystems consist of words grouped on the basis of similarity of values. They form synonymic rows, a variety of thematic groups with a hierarchy of units associated as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words are poured into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are rather stable and are not subject to change under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words can reflect the features of the context, which also manifests system connections in vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the system relationships of words is their ability to connect with each other. Combination Words are determined by their subject-semantic ties, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, a word glass can be used in conjunction with the words ball, Glass; Combination are possible glass jar (bottle, dishes)Even glass pan (frying pan) - from refractory glass. But impossible - "Glass Book", "Glass Cutlet" And under. Since the subject-semantic links of these words exclude mutual combination. You can not associate words glass and running, glass and long away: This is opposed by their grammatical nature (adjective can not be combined with the verb, the circumstantial adverb). Lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop portable values, which allows you to build phrases hair glass smoke (EU.), glass sight. Words not possess such ability ( refractory, metal cuttingand under), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their combination `already.

System links that are manifested in the patterns of combining words with each other are called syntagmatic (gr. syntagma. - Something connected). They are detected when connecting words, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection of the meaning of words, and therefore their systemic communications in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also due to the lexical system of the language as a whole. Features of the combination of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore syntagmatic bonds are more than paradigmatic, subject to change due to the content of speech. So, lexical synthagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass Skovorod.), expanding our ideas about the world around ( walk along the moon), figurative energy ( glass smoke hair).

System links of words, the interaction of different values \u200b\u200bof one word and its relationship with other words is very diverse, which indicates a great expressive strength of the vocabulary. At the same time, it is impossible to forget that the lexical system is an integral part of the larger language system, which has developed certain relations of the semantic structure of the word and its formal-grammatical signs, phonetic traits, and also formed the dependence of the word value from paralyingvistic (gr. para. - about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extliningVistical (Lat. extra - super-, out- + language) factors: factories, gestures, intonation, conditions of operation, time consolidation in language, etc.

The general-language system and lexical, as its component, are detected and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development, enrichment. The study of systemic relations in vocabulary is a prerequisite for the scientific description of the dictionary composition of the Russian language. The solution to theoretical problems is directly in practice and in the preparation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of the wording, and when analyzing the methods of individual-author's use of the expressive capabilities of the word in artistic speech.

Comparative study of semantic groups is conducted in modern science Enough intensively, the material of such research most often become languages \u200b\u200bin the distant relationship: Russian and Romano-German languages \u200b\u200b(see: The Anthology of Concept 2007; Borodkina 2004; Budyanskaya, Milkovo 1999; Butenko 2006; Welgezkaya 1996, 2001; Volosbitsa, Vorkchev 2003; Meanwhile, the comparative studies of semantic groups with the value "relief" in Russian and Romano-Germanic languages \u200b\u200bare practically single, presented in the main articles (Sternov, 1985; Korobov, 1996) and relatively rarely poured into monographic works (Korobov, 1996).

It should also be noted that most of these studies have been implemented in the framework of the traditional structural semantic comparable linguistics and their authors did not have to consider the national specifics of words, as well as analyze the relevant fragments of the Language paintings of the world, "Drawn" based on the contrastable comparison of the semantics of lexical units complained languages . We will try in our work to explore the national-cultural paintings of the world of two non-good languages: English and Russian.

On the initial stage The theoretical integral understanding of the problem should be considered ways to describe the lexic composition of the language within the framework of modern lexical semantics and establish the direction of semantic studies of vocabulary with a parametric value, followed by the realization of the goal.

Turning to the description of the theoretical region of lexical semantics, it should be noted that the term "semantics" for the designation of the science section was first introduced in 1883 by the French linguist M. Brealam (Essai De SighiQue). This term, like most terms, is multi-rival . Definition semanticsand semanticthere are as many as semantic theories created. It seems necessary to clarify our own position on this issue.

We are based on generally accepted, classicfor our linguistics, the definition of semantics, under which it is understood: 1) all content, information transmitted by the language or any unit (in a word, a grammatical word, phrase, proposal); 2) section of the linguistics studying this content, information; 3) one of the main sections semiotics . It seems to us that all these three perspectives are interrelated and, on the basis of the goals of our study, we believe that this definition can be reformulated as follows: semantics is a linguistic discipline, exploring the meaning and information aspect of the language and language activity, based on a certain sign model.

We put the relative independence of semantics as linguistic discipline in the chapter, since other sections of a linguistics of linguistics are also addressed to the content side of the language: lexicology, grammar, stylistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, etc. In other words, we want to emphasize that we are talking about a separate branch of linguistics that is engaged in advantage, linguistic questions and access methods for the meaningful side of the language units. When we talk about the fact that it is not only about the language, but also about language activities, we mean the fact that modern semantic theories are not limited to studying the language "in itself and for themselves", but interpreted widely, including language justice-cognitive aspect. I mention signal modellanguage, we emphasize that the construction of one or another semantic theory is based, first of all, on a specific approach to understanding the value of the linguistic sign is the main "point of reference" in each theory.

Having considered the definition of the term semantics in the triune aspect, we consider it necessary to determine the parameters of the semantics ratios of such concepts as:

• (but) level of language system;
• (b) Language sign structure.

This minimum coordinate system in which it seems to be included with semantics as a modern linguistic discipline should be included.

In the first sense, the semantic component was always present, throughout the history of the existence of the science of language, long before the semantic selection in separate linguistic discipline. To make sure this is enough, for example, contact modern textbooks latin languagewho are essentially translating at the current stage of development grammatical science Classical samples of the description of the Latin language system. To a certain extent it can be said that the classic languages \u200b\u200band their grammar are a sample semanticdescriptions of the language system.

After conducting a tours to the history of linguistics, the following conclusions can be drawn:

• - in the linguistic tradition, up to the institutionalization of linguistics as a separate science in the XIX century and semunting semantics in independent linguistic discipline at the beginning of the 20th century semanticfocus;
• - this semantic focus is associated with a logical approach in scholastic grammar and general grammar;
• - Logic-semantic analysis in theoretical grammar is carried out not only at the level of the word, but also suggestions. To a certain extent, we can talk about a certain "prototype" modern theories Syntax semantics.

The study of the relationship between the language and non-language reality is carried out in our work in terms of study: "picture of the world" is a language.

The picture of the world is not just a picture of the world, not something drawn: "The picture of the world means not the picture depicting the world, but the world, understood in the sense of such a picture." On Hydeggerger, "where the world becomes a picture, there to be generally embark on that a person is aimed and that he, therefore, accordingly wants to present himself, to have in front of him in front of him", and to submit it to All that is inherent in and this combination of ideas is organized into the system.

The picture of the world is a private, historically determined method of that universal phenomenon, which can be called peace modeling in a semiotic understanding of this word.

Language painting of the world historically established in the ordinary consciousness of this language team and reflected in the language set of ideas about the world, a certain way of conceptualization of reality.

Modern ideas about the language picture of the world in the presentation of academician Yu.D. Apresan look like this. Everyone natural language Reflects a certain way of perception and organization (that is, conceptualization) of the world. The values \u200b\u200bexpressed in it are folded into a certain unified system of views, a kind of collective philosophy, which is imposed as a mandatory language of all native speakers. Peculiar to this language method of conceptualization of reality partly universal, partly nationally specific, so carriers different languages May see the world a little differently, through the prism of their languages. It should be especially noted that each language "draws" his picture depicting reality is somewhat different than other languages \u200b\u200bdo. The reconstruction of the language painting of the world is one of the most important tasks of modern linguistic semantics. The study of the language painting of the world is conducted in two directions. On the one hand, on the basis of a systemic semantic analysis of vocabulary of a certain language, a solid system of representations reflected in this language is renovated, regardless of whether it is specific for this language or universal, reflecting the "naive" look at the world as opposed to "scientific". On the other hand, individual characteristic of this language are investigated - linguity-specific concepts with two properties: they are "key" for this culture and simultaneously or are not transferred to other languages \u200b\u200bor are translated by approximate equivalents.

IN last years In domestic semantics, a direction integrating both approaches is developing; His goal is to recreate the language picture of the world on the basis of an integrated (linguistic, cultural, semiotic) analysis of linguity specific concepts of the language in the intercultural perspective (see: Yu.D. Apresyan, 1991; N.D. Arutyunova, 1995, A. Wiegebitskaya, 1992; . Alisnyak, 1997; I.B. Levontina, 1994; E.V. Rachilin, 1998; E.V. Uryson, 1996; A.D. Shmelev, 1999; E.S. Yakovlev, 1997, etc.).

To the vocabulary to this day, most of the work continue to be among the construction material, and not as a system level of language, while the systemic study of vocabulary, the study of the word as structural element Language can give a lot in learning the semantic side of the language as a whole.

Speaking of the system in vocabulary, as in any other aspect of the language, it is necessary to distinguish between two interrelated and interdependent parties: the lexical system as an inventory of lexical elements, words and phrases as nominative means of language, and the system itself as the form of organization and interaction of these elements. However, "distinction" does not mean tearing and oppose as mutually exclusive.

The term "lexico-semantic system" indicates both in shape and essentially that it integrates two levels: "lexical" with the limit linguistic unit in the word and "semantic" with the limit language unit "Lexico-semantic version of the word".

Thus, the study of the lexico-semantic grouping with a spatial value involves consistent allocation and study of its separate elements and, accordingly, relations between their semantic content to establish the specifics of the world's lingown paintings of compared languages, and this puts the task of studying the methods of organizing lexical importance and combinatorial capabilities inside His.