Problems research methodologies will be relevant to any science, especially in modern era, when in connection with the scientific and technical revolution is extremelycomplete tasks, kums have to be solved by science, and the importance increases sharplythaws, it uses. Excluding the above, new ones arise in societyforms of organization of science, great research teams are being created,inside, some scientists need to develop a unified research strategy, unified system of adopted methods. In connection with the development of mathematics andcybernetics are born by a special class of so-called interdisciplinary methods,used as "through" in various disciplines. All ϶ᴛᴏ requiresresearchers are increasingly controlling ςʙᴏicognitive actions, analyze the funds themselves, use in research practice. Proof that interest modern science the problems of the methodology is especially great, there will be a fact that the special branch of knowledge inside philosophy will occur, namely the logic and methodology of scientificresearch. Characteristic, however, must be recognized that analysismethodological problems are increasingly beginning to engage not only philosophers,specialists in the field of discipline, but also representatives of specific sciences. There is a special kind of methodological reflection - internal scientificmethodological reflection.

All of the above applies to social psychology (methodology and methodssocial psychology, 1979), and here also come into effect causes, the first of course will be the relative youth of socialpsychology as science, complexity of its origin and status generatingthe need to be guided in research practice at the same time methodological principles of two different scientific disciplines: psychology and sociology. It creates a specific task for social psychology -ςʙᴏ-like correlation, "overlay" on each other of two rows of patterns:public development and development of the psyche of man. It is worth saying - the situation is aggravated yetand the lack of the own conceptual apparatus, which generatesthe need to use two genera terminological dictionaries.

Before more specifically talk about methodological problems in social psychology, it is extremely important to clarify what is generally understood undermethodology. We note the fact - that in modern scientific knowledge, the term "methodology"there are three different levels of scientific approach.

1. General Methodology - some common philosophical approach, commonthe method of knowledge taken by the researcher. The general methodology formulatessome of the most common principles, Kᴏᴛᴏᴩy - consciously or unconsciously -applied in studies. So, for social psychology is extremely important a certain understanding of the issue of the relationship between society and personality, natureman. As a general methodology, various researchers takevarious philosophical systems.

2. Private (or special) Methodology - a set of methodological principles used in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. Private methodology is the implementation of philosophical principles in relation to a specific object research. This is also a certain way of knowledge, but the method adapted for a narrower sphere of knowledge. In social psychology, due to its dual origin, a special methodology is formed subject to adaptation methodological principles both psychology and sociology. As an example, you can consider the principle of activity as it is used in the domestic social psychology. In very wide sense Words The philosophical principle of activity means recognizing activities by the essence of the method of human being.In sociology, activities are interpreted as a way of existencehuman society, as a realization of social laws, kum andi will try not otherwise how through people's activities. Activity and produces andchanges specific conditions for the existence of individuals, as well as society as a whole. It is through activity that the personality is included in the public system.relationship. In psychology, activities are considered as a specific specieshuman activity as a certain subject-object attitude, in Kᴏᴛᴏᴩ man - Subject - in a certain way refers to the object, mastering them.The category of activity, therefore, "opens now in ςʙᴏthe actual completeness as a computing both poles - and a pole object, andpole Subject "(Leontyev, 1975. P. 159) In the course of activity, a person sellsςʙᴏ Interest, transforming the subject world. With ϶ᴛᴏm a person satisfiesneeds, with ϶ᴛᴏm, new needs are born. Based on all above, we conclude thatactivities appears as a process, the human personality itself develops during the Kᴏᴛᴏᴩ.

Social psychology, taking the principle of activity as one ofprinciples of the special methodology, adapts it to the main subject It is a study - a group. In social psychology the most importantthe content of the principle of activity is revealed in the following provisions: a) an understanding of activities as a joint social activity of people, duringthere are very special connections, such as communicative; b)understanding as a subject of activity not only individivity, but also groups,societies, i.e. Introduction of the idea of \u200b\u200ba collective subject of activity; ϶ᴛᴏ allows you to explore real social groups as certain systems of activity;c) subject to understanding of the group as a subject of activityability to explore all the attributes of the subject of activity -needs, motives, objectives of the group, etc.; d) as an output followsincassibility of information of any research exclusively to the empirical description, to simple states of acts individual activity Outside"Social context" - this system public relations. The principle of activity is converted, thus, in the genus the standard of sociopsychological research, determines the research strategy. A ϶ᴛᴏ I. there is a function of a special methodology.

3. Methodology - as a combination of specific methodological methods of research, which is more often indicated by the term "technique". Wherein in a number of other languages, for example in English, there is no term, and undermethodologies are completely understood by the technique, and sometimes only it.Specific techniques (or methods, if the word "method" is understood in a narrowthe sense) applied in socio-psychological studies will not be absolutely independent of more general methodological considerations.

The essence of the introduction of the proposed "hierarchy" of various methodologicallevels are precisely in that, ɥᴛᴏ not allow in social psychologyinformation of all methodological problems only to the third value of ϶ᴛᴏgoconcepts. The main thought is essentially that, whatever empirical orexperimental techniques are neither applied, they cannot be considered isolated on general and special methodology. This means that anymethodical reception - questionnaire, test, sociometry - always applied ina specific "methodological key", i.e. Subject to the decision of a number of more fundamental research issues. The essence of the case is also the fact that philosophical principles cannot be applied in the studies of each scienceimmediately: they are refracted through the principles of a special methodology. what also concerns specific methodological techniques, then they may be relativelyindependent of the methodological principles and apply practically inthe same form within the various methodological orientation, although totala set of techniques, the general strategy of their use, of course, carrymethodological load.

Note that it is now extremely important to clarify what is understood in modern logic andscience methodologies under the expression "Scientific Research". Should be remembered by ϶ᴛᴏ that social psychologyXX in. especially insisted on the fact that her differencefrom tradition XIX. in. It is precisely in support for "research", and not on the "speculation".Opposition to the research of speculation is legally, but provided that itit is observed exactly, and not replaced by opposition "Study -theory". I will have identifying the features of modern scientific research, it is importantcorrectly put these questions. The following features of scientific are usually calledresearch:

1) it deals with specific objects, in other words, with foreseeable
the volume of empirical data, which can be collected by the means available in
disposal of science;

2) it solves the differentiated empirical (selection of facts,
development of measurement methods), logical (elimination of some provisions from others
establishing a connection between them) and theoretical (search for causes, identification
principles, formulating hypotheses or laws) cognitive tasks;

3) it is characterized by a clear distinction between the established facts
and hypothetical assumptions because the test procedures are worked out
hypotheses;

4) his goal is not only an explanation of facts and processes, but also the prediction
them. If you briefly summarize the distinguishing features, they can be reduced to three:
obtaining carefully collected data, combining them in principles, checking and
use of these principles in predictions.

56 Methodological problems of socio-psychological research

Existing philosophical principles cannot be applied in studies of each special science directly: they are refracted through the principles of a special methodology.

Select scientific research features:

1) it always deals with specific objects;

2) it is characterized by distinction between established facts and hypothetical assumptions;

3) In it, logical, empirical and theoretical informative tasks are differently solved;

4) its goal is not only building explanations of facts and processes, but also the prediction of them. These features can be reduced to three: thorough data collection, combining the data obtained in principles, verification and use of principles in predictions.

Typically, the scientific research model is based on the examples of the exact sciences, above all physics. As a result, many of the features are essential for other scientific disciplines turn out to be lost. For social psychology, a number of specific problems relating to each of these Parties should be stated.

The first problem is the problem of empirical data. Data in social psychology may be data on the open behavior of individuals in groups, etc. In the behavior social psychology, only the facts of open behavior are accepted. Data problem: What should be their volume? Accordingly, what amount of data is present in a socio-psychological study, they all divide into two types:

1) correlations based on a large array of data, among which are searched for various correlation;

2) Experimental, where the researcher works with a limited amount of data and where the point of work consists in randomly introduced by a researcher of new variables and control over them.

The second line of scientific research is the integration of data into principles, the construction of hypotheses and theories. The hypothesis represents theoretical form of knowledge in a socio-psychological study. Hence the most important link of socio-psychological research - the formulation of hypotheses. One of the reasons for the weakness of many studies is an illiterate construction of hypotheses or their absence.

The third trait of scientific research is mandatory hypotheses and construction on this basis reasonable predictions.

Two important consequences are distinguished: the first - science can only use the experiment, and the second - science is essentially can not deal with theoretical knowledge.

The value of methodological problems in modern science.Problems of research methodology are relevant to any science, especially in a modern era, when, in connection with the scientific and technical revolution, the tasks that have to be addressed by science are extremely complicated, and the importance of the funds with which it uses. In addition, new forms of science organization arise in society, large research teams are being created, within which scientists need to develop a unified research strategy, a single system of adopted methods. In connection with the development of mathematics and cybernetics, a special class of so-called interdisciplinary methods used as "through" in various disciplines are born. All this requires the researchers to continue to control their informative actions, analyze the funds themselves enjoyed in research practice. Proof of the fact that the interest of modern science to the problems of the methodology is especially great, is the fact of the occurrence of a special branch of knowledge within philosophy, namely the logic and methodology of scientific research. Characteristic, however, should be recognized that not only philosophers, specialists in the field of this discipline, but also representatives of specific sciences themselves are increasingly begin to analyze the analysis of methodological problems. There is a special type of methodological reflection - intra-scientific methodological reflection.
All of the above applies to social psychology (methodology and methodology of social psychology, 1979), and here also come into effect special reasonsThe first of which is the relative youth of social psychology as science, the complexity of its origin and the status, which generate the need to be guided in research practice at the same time methodological principles of two different scientific disciplines: psychology and sociology. This creates a specific task for social psychology - a kind of correlation, "imposition" of each other of two rows of patterns: the social development and development of the human psyche.
The situation is also aggravated by the lack of its own conceptual apparatus, which generates the need for two types of various terminological dictionaries. Before more specifically, talking about methodological problems in social psychology, it is necessary to clarify what is generally understood under the methodology. In modern scientific knowledge The term "methodology" is denoted by three different levels of the scientific approach.
1. General methodology - some common philosophical approach, the general way of knowledge taken by the researcher. General methodology formulates some of the most general principleswhich - consciously or unconsciously apply in studies. So, for social psychology, a certain understanding of the issue of the relationship between society and the individual, human nature is necessary. As a general methodology, various researchers take various philosophical systems.
2. Private (or special) Methodology - a set of methodological principles used in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. Private methodology is the implementation of philosophical principles in relation to the specific object of the study. This is also a certain way of knowledge, but the method adapted for a narrower sphere of knowledge.
In social psychology, due to its dual origin, a special methodology is formed under the condition of adaptation of the methodological principles of both psychology and sociology. As an example, it is possible to consider the principle of activity as it is used in domestic social psychology. In the broadest sense of the word, the philosophical principle of activity means recognizing activities by the essence of the method of human being.
In sociology, activities are interpreted as a way of the existence of human society, as the implementation of social laws, which manifest themselves not otherwise through the activities of people. Activities and produces, and changes specific conditions for the existence of individuals, as well as society as a whole. It is through activity that the personality is included in the system of social relations. In psychology, activities are considered as a specific type of human activity, as some subject-object attitude, in which a person is a subject - in a certain way refers to the object, mastering them. The category of activity, thus, "opens now in its actual completeness as a comprehensive band - and a pole object, and a pole subject" (Leontyev, 1975. P. 159). In the course of activity, a person implements its interest, transforming the subject matter. At the same time, a person satisfies the needs, and new needs are born. Thus, the activity appears as a process during which the human personality itself develops.
Social psychology, taking the principle of activity as one of the principles of its special methodology, adapts it to the main subject of his research - a group. Therefore, in social psychology, the most important content of the principle of activity is disclosed in the following provisions:
a) understanding of activity as a joint social activity of people, during which there are very special relations, such as communicative;
b) understanding as a subject of activity not only individual, but also groups, societies, i.e. Introduction of the idea of \u200b\u200ba collective subject of activity; This allows you to explore real social groups as certain systems of activity;
c), subject to the understanding of the group as a subject of activity, it is overwhelmed with the opportunity to learn all the relevant attributes of the subject of activity - the needs, motives, the objectives of the group, etc.;
d) As an output, an inadmissibility of any study is imposed only to the empirical description, to a simple statement of acts of individual activity outside a certain "social context" - this system of public relations. The principle of activity is turning, thus, in a kind of standard of socio-psychological research, determines the research strategy. And this is the function of a special methodology.
3. Methodology - as a combination of specific methodological methods of research, which is more often indicated by the term "technique". However, in a number of other languages, for example, in English, there is no term, and the methodology is completely understood by the technique, and sometimes only it is. Specific techniques (or methods, if the word "method" is understood in this narrow sense), used in socio-psychological studies are not absolutely independent of more general methodological considerations.
The essence of the introduction of the proposed "hierarchy" of various methodological levels is precisely in order not to admit information in social psychology to all methodological problems only to the third value of this concept. The main idea is that, whatever empirical or experimental techniques are applied, they cannot be considered isolated from a common and special methodology. This means that any methodological method - a questionnaire, test, sociometry - always applied in a specific "methodological key", i.e. Subject to the decision of a number of more fundamental research issues.
The essence of the case is also the fact that philosophical principles cannot be applied in the studies of each science directly: they are refracted through the principles of a special methodology. As for the specific methodological techniques, they can be relatively independent of the methodological principles and apply almost in the same form within the framework of various methodological orientations, although the general set of techniques, the general strategy of their use, of course, carry a methodological burden.
Now it is necessary to clarify what is understood in the modern logic and the science methodology under the expression "scientific research". It should be remembered that the social psychology of the twentieth century. Particularly insisted on the fact that her difference from the tradition of the Xih century. It is precisely in support for "research", and not on the "speculation". Contrasting the research of speculation is legal, but provided that it is observed exactly, and not replacing the opposition "Study - theory". Therefore, revealing the features of a modern scientific study, it is important to correctly set these questions. The following features of scientific research are usually called:
1) it deals with specific objects, in other words, with a foreseeable amount of empirical data, which can be collected by the means available to science;
2) the empirical (identification of the facts, the development of measurement methods), the logical (elimination of one positions from others, the establishment of communication between them) and theoretical (search for the causes, identification of principles, formulating hypotheses or laws) cognition tasks;
3) it is characterized by a clear distinction between established facts and hypothetical assumptions, since the procedures for testing hypotheses are worked out;
4) His goal is not only an explanation of the facts and processes, but also the prediction of them. If you briefly summarize these distinctive features, they can be reduced to three: obtaining carefully collected data, combining them into principles, check and use these principles in predictions.

Specificity of scientific research in social psychology.Each of the science studies mentioned here has specifics in social psychology. The scientific research model offered in the logic and methodology of science is usually built on the examples of the exact sciences and above all physics. As a result, many of the features are essential for other scientific disciplines turn out to be lost. In particular, for social psychology, a number of specific problems relating to each of these features should be stated.
The first problem that gets here is the problem of empirical data. Data in social psychology can be either data on the open behavior of individuals in groups, or data characterizing some characteristics of the consciousness of these individuals or psychological characteristics The group itself. On the issue of "allowing" the data of these two species in the study, in social psychology there is a fierce discussion: in various theoretical orientations, this issue is solved in different ways.
Thus, in behavior social psychology for data, only the facts of open behavior are accepted; Cognitiveness, on the contrary, focuses on the data characterizing only the cognitive world of the individual: images, values, installations, etc. In other traditions, data of socio-psychological research can be represented by both types. But this immediately puts forward certain requirements and to the methods of their collection. A source of any data in social psychology is a person, but one number of methods is suitable for registration of acts of its behavior, the other - to fix its cognitive entities. Recognition as full data and other genera requires recognition and diversity of methods.
The data problem also has the other side: what should be their volume? Accordingly, the amount of data is present in a socio-psychological study, they are all divided into two types:
a) correlations based on a large array of data, among which are established by various kinds of correlation, and
b) Experimental, where the researcher works with a limited amount of data and where the point of work consists in randomly introduced by a researcher of new variables and controls. Again, in this issue, the theoretical position of the researcher: what objects, from his point of view, are generally "admissible" in social psychology (suppose whether large groups are included in the number of objects or not).
The second trait of scientific research is the integration of data into principles, the construction of hypotheses and theories. And this feature is quite specifically revealed in social psychology. Theories in the understanding, in what about them are stated in the logic and methodology of science, it does not possess. As in other humanitarian sciences, theories in social psychology do not wear a deductive nature, i.e. Do not constitute such a well-organized connection between the provisions so that you can with one to bring any other.
In social and psychological theories there is no rigor of such order, as, for example, in the theories of mathematics or logic. In such conditions, an important place in the study begins to occupy a hypothesis. The hypothesis "presents" in a socio-psychological study theoretical form of knowledge. Hence the most important link of socio-psychological research - the formation of hypotheses. One of the reasons for the weakness of many studies is the absence of hypotheses or illiterate their construction.
On the other hand, no matter how difficult it was to build theories in social psychology, more or less complete knowledge and here cannot develop in the absence of theoretical generalizations. Therefore, even a good hypothesis in the study is not a sufficient level of inclusion of theory into research practice: the level of generalizations obtained on the basis of testing the hypothesis and on the basis of its confirmation, there is still the most primary form of "organization" of data. The next step is to transition to generalizations more high level, To generalizations theoretical. Of course, it would be optimal to build some common theory explaining all the problems social Behavior and the activities of the individual in the group, the mechanisms of the dynamics of the groups themselves, etc.
But the development of so-called special theories is more affordable (in a certain sense, they can be called the theories of medium rank), which cover the narrower sphere - some separate parties of socio-psychological reality. These theories can be used, for example, to attribute the theory of group cohesion, the theory of group decision-making, theory of leadership, etc. Just as the most important task of social psychology is the task of developing a special methodology, the creation of special theories is also extremely relevant here. Without this, the accumulated empirical material can not be values \u200b\u200bfor the construction of forecasts of social behavior, i.e. To solve the main task of social psychology.
The third feature of the scientific research, according to the requirements of the logic and methodology of science, is the mandatory verifiability of the hypotheses and the construction of reasonable predictions on this base. Check hypotheses naturally necessary element Scientific research: without this item, strictly speaking, the study is generally deprived of meaning. And at the same time in checking hypothesis social psychology experiencing whole line Difficulties associated with its dual status.
As an experimental discipline, social psychology obeys the standards for testing hypotheses that exist for any experimental sciences, where various models of testing hypotheses have long been developed. However, possessing features and humanitarian discipline, social psychology falls into difficulties associated with this characteristic. There is an old controversy inside the philosophy of neosopitism on the matter that general means checking the hypotheses, their verification. Positivism announced a legitimate only one form of verification, namely, a comparison of the judgments of science with the data of direct sensual experience. If such a comparison is impossible, then relatively verified judgment cannot be said at all, it is true or false; It simply cannot in this case is to be judged, it is a "pseudo-custody."
If it is strictly followed by such a principle (i.e., take the idea of \u200b\u200b"tough" verification), no more or less general judgment of science has no right to exist. From here there are two important consequences taken by positivist oriented researchers:
1) Science can only use the experiment using the method (for only under these conditions it is possible to organize a comparison of judgment with the data of direct sensory experience) and
2) Science essentially can not deal with theoretical knowledge (for not any theoretical position can be verified).
The nomination of this requirement in the philosophy of neopotivism closed the possibilities for the development of any non-experimental science and put restrictions in general theoretical knowledge; It has long been criticized. However, in the environment of researchers, experimenters, there are still well-known nihilism with respect to any forms of non-experimental research: the combination within the social psychology of two began gives a well-known space for neglecting the part of the problems that cannot be studied by experimental methods, and where, therefore, the verification of hypotheses in The only form in which it is designed in the non-stop-off version of the logic and the methodology of science.
But in social psychology, there are subject areas such as the area of \u200b\u200bstudy of the psychological characteristics of large groups, mass processes, where it is necessary to use completely different methods, and on the grounds that verification is impossible here, these areas cannot be excluded from science issues; Here we need to develop other ways to check the hypotheses extended. In this part, social psychology is similar to most of the humanities and, like them, must approve the right to the existence of its deep specificity. In other words, there are also other criteria for scientific relations, except those developed only on the material of the exact sciences. It is impossible to agree with the statement that any inclusion of elements of humanitarian knowledge reduces the "scientific standard" of discipline: crisis phenomena in modern social psychology, on the contrary, show that it is completely losing precisely because of the lack of "humanitarian orientation".
Thus, all three formulated requirements for research Provide applicable in social psychology with famous reservations, which multiplies methodological difficulties.

The problem of the quality of socio-psychological information. Closely related to the previous information of the quality of information in a socio-psychological study. Other this problem can be formulated as a problem for obtaining reliable information. IN general The quality of information problem is solved by providing the principle of representativeness, as well as by checking the method of obtaining data on reliability. In social psychology, these common problems Acquire specific content. Whether it is an experimental or correlation study, the information that is collected in it must satisfy certain requirements. Accounting for the specifics of non-experimental studies should not turn into disregard for the quality of information. For social psychology, as for other sciences about a person, two types of quality parameters of information can be allocated: objective and subjective.
Such an assumption follows from the particular discipline that the source of information in it is always a person. It means that it is impossible not to reckon with this fact and it should be only possible to ensure the maximum possible level of reliability and those parameters that are qualified as "subjective". Of course, the answers to the questions of the questionnaire or interview make up the "subjective" information, but it can be obtained in the maximum full and reliable form, and you can miss many important points that arise from this "subjectivity". To overcome this kind of errors and a number of requirements are entered regarding the reliability of information.
The reliability of the information is achieved primarily by checking the reliability of the tool by which the data is collected. In each case, at least three reliability characteristics are provided: validity (validity), stability and accuracy (poisons, 1995).
The validity (validity) of the tool is its ability to measure exactly the characteristics of the object, which must be measured. The researcher is a social psychologist, building some scale, must be sure that this scale will measure precisely those properties, such as the installations of the individual, which he intends to measure. There are several ways to verify the tool for validity. You can resort to the help of experts, the circle of persons whose competence in the question studied is generally accepted. Distribution of the characteristics of the test properties obtained using the scale can be compared with those distributions that will give experts (acting without a scale). The coincidence of the results obtained to a certain extent convinces the validity of the scale used.
Another way, again based on the comparison is to carry out an additional interview: questions in it must be formulated so that the answers to them also gave an indirect characteristic of the distribution of the property being studied. Coincidence and in this case is considered as a certain evidence of the validity of the scale. As can be seen, all these methods do not give an absolute guarantee of the validity of the instrument used, and this is one of the significant difficulties of socio-psychological research. It is explained by the fact that there are no ready-made methods that have already proven their validity, on the contrary, the researcher is essentially to build a tool every time.
Sustainability of information is its quality to be unequivocal, i.e. Upon receipt of it in different situations, it must be identical. (Sometimes this quality of information is called "confidence"). Methods for checking information on stability are as follows:
a) re-measurement;
b) measurement of the same property with different observers;
c) the so-called "scale splitting", i.e. Check scale in parts.
As can be seen, all these rechecking methods are based on a multiple repetition of measurements. All of them must create confidence from the researcher in the fact that it can trust the data obtained. Finally, the accuracy of the information (in some works coincides with stability - see Saganneco, 1977. P. 29) is measured by how fragments are the metrics, or in other words, how sensitive to the tool is.
Thus, it is the degree of approximation of the measurement results to true significance Measured value. Of course, each researcher should strive to obtain the most accurate data. However, the creation of a tool possessing the desired degree of accuracy is a rather difficult case in some cases. It is always necessary to decide which measure of accuracy is permissible. In determining this measure, the researcher includes the entire arsenal of its theoretical ideas about the object.
Violation of one requirement negates the other: let's say, the data may be justified, but unstable (in a social and psychological study, such a situation may arise when the conducted survey turned out to be situational, i.e. the time for it could play a certain role, and in The strength of this arose some additional factor that is not manifested in other situations); Another example when the data may be stable, but are not substantiated (if, suppose, the entire survey turned out to be shifted, then the same picture will be repeated on a long period of time, but the picture will be false!).
Many researchers note that all ways to verify information on reliability are not perfect enough in social psychology. In addition, R. Panto and M. Gravitz, for example, rightly notice that these methods work only in the hands of a qualified specialist. In the hands of inexperienced researchers, the test "gives inaccurate results, does not justify mortgaged labor and serves as the basis for insolvent assertions" (PZNTO, Gravitz, 1972. P. 461).
Requirements that are considered elementary in other science studies in social psychology are a number of difficulties in virtue of the specific source of information. What characteristic features of such a source, as a person, complicate the situation? Before becoming a source of information, a person must understand the question, instructions or any other requirement of the researcher. But people have a different ability to understand; Consequently, in this paragraph of the researcher, various surprises are waiting.
Further, to become a source of information, a person must have it, but after all, the sample of the subjects is not built in terms of the selection of those who have information, and the rejection of those who do not possess it (for to identify this distinction between the subject, again spend special research). The following circumstance concerns the properties of human memory: if a person understand the question, has information, he still has to remember everything that is necessary for the completeness of information. But the quality of memory is the thing is strictly individual, and there are no guarantees that in the sample the subjects are selected on the principle of more or less than the same memory.
There is another important circumstance: a person must give consent to issue information. Its motivation in this case, of course, to a certain extent can be stimulated by the instructions, the conditions for conducting the study, but all these circumstances do not guarantee the consent of the subjects under cooperation with the researcher. Therefore, along with ensuring the reliability of data, the question of representativeness is especially acute in social psychology. The statement of this issue itself is associated with the dual character of social psychology.
If it were about it only as an experimental discipline, the problem would be relatively simple: the representativeness in the experiment is quite strictly determined and is checked. But in the case of a correlation research, a social psychologist is faced with a completely new problem for him, especially if we are talking about mass processes. This new problem is to build a sample. The conditions for solving this task are similar to the conditions for solving it in sociology. Naturally, in social psychology, the same norms of sampling are applied as described in statistics and how they are used everywhere. The researcher in social psychology in principle is given, for example, such types of sampling, such as random, typical (or stratified), sample by quota, etc.
But in what way to apply one or another type - this question is always creative: you need or not in each separate case To share a pre-general set of classes, but only then make a random sample, this task is to decide this task again in relation to this study, to this object, to these characteristics general aggregate. The allocation of classes (types) inside the general population is strictly dictated by the meaningful description of the object of the study: when it comes to behavior and activity of people of people, it is very important to accurately determine which parameters of behavior types can be highlighted here.
The most difficult problem, however, is the problem of representativeness arising in a specific form and in the socio-psychological experiment. But before lighting it, you need to give overall characteristic those methods that apply to socially psychological Research.

The overall characteristics of the methods of socio-psychological research.The entire set of methods can be divided into two large groups: research methods and methods of impact. The latter refer to the specific area of \u200b\u200bsocial psychology, to the so-called "impact psychology" and will be discussed in the chapter on practical applications of social psychology. Here are analyzed by research methods in which, in turn, the methods of collecting information and methods of its processing are distinguished. There are many other classifications of social and psychological research methods. For example, three groups of methods distinguish:
1) methods of empirical research,
2) modeling methods,
3) management-educational methods (Svenzitsky, 1977. P. 8).
At the same time, all those about which will be discussed and in this chapter will go to the first group. As for the second and third groups of methods designated in the given classification, they do not have any special specificity in social psychology (which recognize at least relative to modeling, and the authors of the classification).
Data processing methods are often simply not highlighted in a special block, since most of them are also not specific to socio-psychological research, but use some general scientific techniques. This can be agreed, but nevertheless, for a complete idea of \u200b\u200ball methodological armaments, social psychology should be mentioned on the existence of this second group of methods.
Among the methods of collecting information, it is necessary to name: observation, study of documents (in particular, content analysis), various types of surveys (questionnaires, interviews), various types of tests (including the most common sociometric test), finally, experiment (as laboratory, so And natural). It is hardly advisable in the general course, and even at its beginning it is in detail each of these methods. It is more logical to indicate cases of their use in the presentation of certain meaningful problems of social psychology, then such a statement will be much clearer.
Now it is necessary to give only the most overall characteristics of each method and, most importantly, to designate those moments where they are found in their application. In most cases, these methods are identical to those used in sociology (poisons, 1995). Observation is the "old" method of social psychology and is sometimes contrasting the experiment as an imperfect method. At the same time, not all the possibilities of the observation method today are exhausted in social psychology: in case of obtaining data on open behavior, the actions of individuals the observation method plays a very important role.
the main problemThat comes up when applying the observation method is how to ensure fixation of some specific characteristics classes so that the "reading" of the observation protocol was clear to another researcher, could be interpreted in terms of the hypothesis. In ordinary language, this question can be formulated as: what to watch? How to fix the observed?
There are many different proposals for organizing the so-called monitoring of observation data, i.e. Selects in advance of some classes, for example, personal interactions in the group, followed by fixing the number, the frequency of the manifestation of these interactions, etc. Below will be described in detail by one of these attempts taken by R. Beiles. The question of the allocation of classes of observed phenomena is essentially the question of the observation units, as is known, and in other sections of psychology.
In a social and psychological study, it can be resolved only separately for each specific case, subject to the research subject. Another fundamental question is a time interval that can be considered sufficient to fix any units of observation. Although there are many different procedures in order to ensure fixation of these units at certain intervals and their coding, the question cannot be fully solved. As can be seen, the observation method is not as primitive, as it seems at first glance, and undoubtedly can be successfully applied in a number of social psychological studies.
Studying documents has great importancebecause with the help of this method it is possible to analyze products of human activity. Sometimes it is unreasonably opposed by the method of studying documents, for example, the method of polls as the "objective" method "subjective" method. It is unlikely that this opposition is appropriate: after all, in the documents, the source of information is a person, therefore, all the problems that arise are in force.
Of course, the measure of "subjectivity" of the document is different depending on whether official or purely studies is studied personal documentBut it is always present. A special problem arises here and due to the fact that the document interprets is a researcher, i.e. also a person with his own who inherent individual psychological features. Crucial role When studying the document plays, for example, the ability to understand the text.
The problem of understanding is a special problem of psychology, but here it turns on in the process of applying the technique, therefore, can not be taken into account. To overcome this new type of "subjectivity" (interpretation of the document by the researcher), a special reception is introduced, called "Content analysis" (literally: "Content Analysis") (Bogomolova, Stefenenko, 1992). This is a special, more or less formalized document analysis method, when special "units" stand out in the text, and then the frequency of their use is calculated.
The content analysis method makes sense to apply only in cases where the researcher is dealing with a large array of information, so it has to analyze numerous texts. Almost this method is applied in social psychology in research in the field of mass communications. A number of difficulties are not removed, of course, and the use of the content analysis technique; For example, the process of selection of text units, naturally, largely depends on the theoretical position of the researcher, and on his personal competence, the level of its creative possibilities. As with the use of many other methods in social psychology, here the causes of success or failure depend on the art of the researcher.
Polls - a very common reception in social and psychological studies, causing perhaps the greatest number of complaints. Usually, critical comments are expressed in bewilderment on how it is possible to trust the information obtained from the immediate responses of the subjects, essentially from their self-reports. The accusations of this kind are based or on a misunderstanding, or on absolute incompetence in the field of surveys. Among the numerous types of polls, the greatest distribution is obtained in social psychology interviews and questionnaires (especially in research of large groups).
The main methodological problems that arise when applying these methods are concluded in the design of the questionnaire. The first requirement here is the logic of building it, providing that the questionnaire deliver exactly the information that is required on the hypothesis, and that this information is as reliable as possible. There are numerous rules for building each issue, their location in a certain order, grouping into separate blocks, etc. The literature describes in detail (lectures on the method of specific social research. M., 1972) Typical errors arising from the illiterate design of the questionnaire. All this is to ensure that the questionnaire does not require the answers "in the forehead" so that it is clear to the author only under the condition of a certain intent, which is not set out in the questionnaire, but in the study program, in the hypothesis constructed by the researcher. The design of the questionnaire is the most difficult job, it cannot be fulfilled hastily, because every bad questionnaire serves only compromising the method.
A separate big problem is an interview, since the interaction of the interviewer and the respondent takes place here (that is, a person who answers the questions), which in itself is some socio-psychological phenomenon. During the interview, all the ways described in social psychology are manifested by one person on another, all laws of perception of each other, the norms of their communication. Each of these characteristics can influence the quality of information, can bring another kind of "subjectivity", which it was above

It appears in a completely different position, compared with the previous one. Psychological relations are a relatively independent form of social relations. Business relations are no longer considered as an example of interpersonal and differentiated from them. In interpersonal relations, not only the estimated, but also an effective component is isolated, and they are considered as a state of readiness of subjects to interaction. The complete agreement of the presented positions is obviously in one - interpersonal relationships, this is the relationship of individual people to each other, and they can be opposed to relations between social groups. G.M. Andreeva allocates relationships public, interpersonal, relational relations, intergroup relations. Initiality of assigning interpersonal relations of only informal, emotional relations. Interpersonal relationships: Mezhindividual relations - intergroup relations. Can be carried out or as intrastable or intersystem, depending on the perception of another personality in a particular social context. Social psychology analyzes, first of all, the patterns of interpersonal relations, which are due to the fact of communication and interaction of people. There are two main types of relationships: public and interpersonal structure of social relations are investigated by sociology. They are a materialized projection of those interpersonal relations that regulate the real process of interaction between subjects. As a result, they turn into conditions social environment, social context, the perception of which forms socially psychological relations of people. There are production, material relations in public relations, the whole ranges are awaited over them: social, political, ideological. The specifics are that perceiving them, two people are "found" not as an individual with an individual, but as representatives of certain public groups (classes, professions, political parties etc.). Interpersonal relationships are the socio-psychological relations of specific, "living" people who construct their behavior or on an individual or intergroup level of organization of their behavior. The most important feature of interpersonal relationship is the modest basis. For a set of feelings, two large groups can be distinguished: 1) conjunctive - here include different kinds of rapping people who combine their feelings. The parties demonstrate willingness to cooperate, to joint action. 2) Diauncutiveness - here include disconnecting people feelings, there is no desire to cooperate. The task of interpersonal relations is the contribution to the unity of the social system and the desire for its transformation and the formation of a new system. The formation of interpersonal relations occurs in the process of communicationsubjects What actually is the main purpose of communication, in contrast to activities, aimed, first of all, to transformobject external reality The interactive side of communication is a conditional term that denotes the characteristics of those communication components that are associated with the interaction of people with the direct organization of their joint activities. The principles of such an organization we considered when studying the problem of interaction. The problem of psychophysiological compatibility of individuals also plays a major role in the formation of interpersonal relationships. But this refers to other industries of psychological science. A person comes into communication always as a person and is perceived by a partner for communication as well as a person. When communicating, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe idea of \u200b\u200bitself through an idea of \u200b\u200banother, and each individual "relates" itself to others is not abstract, but within the framework of the social activity, which includes their interaction. So, when building a strategy of interaction to each have to take into account not only the need, motifs, installation of another, but also how this other understands myneeds, motives, installation. I.e interpersonal relationships are necessarily mutual. The main mechanisms of awareness of themselves through the other - identification and reflection. Identification Indicates how to like himself to another. In this way, people use in real interaction situations when the assumption of the internal state of communication partner is based on an attempt to put itself in its place. There is a close relationship between identification and other, close by the phenomenon - empatia. It is also defined as special way Understanding another person. Only here there is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but rather, the desire to emotionally respond to his problems, i.e. The situation is not so much "thought out", as "felt". Our interaction will depend on both how to communicate a partner will understand me, i.e. The process of understanding each other "is complicated" by the phenomenon reflection. In social psychology, the reflection is understood as awareness of the acting individual of how he is perceived by a partner for communication. This is a kind of doubled process of mirror relations of each other, a deep, consistent relationship, the content of which is to reproduce the inner world of the partner in interaction. People do not just perceive each other, but they also form a certain relationship with each other, which give birth to a variety of gamut of feelings - from the rejection of one or another person to sympathy, even love for him. The area of \u200b\u200bresearch related to the clarification of the formation mechanisms of various emotional relations to the perceived person received the name of the study attraction.It is mainly connected with interpersonal relationship. It is examined not by itself, but in the context of the perceptual side of communication. Attraction- this is process The formation of the attractiveness of a person for perceiving, and the product of this process, i.e. Some quality relations. Research of the attraction is mainly devoted to clarifying those factors that lead to the emergence of positive emotional relations between people. Most of the work shows that we begin to experience a lot to others if, comparing themselves with other people, we discover similar features (and not vice versa). Bero with employees (1969). Students filled at one of the first classrooms on Attituds, asked at the end of the day to get acquainted with the same questionnaire filled with a stranger, and then express their opinion about him at the points of a special scale of interpersonal judgment, which revealed the degree of student sympathy for a stranger. Results: The more similarity with the formation of students are attached to the answers of a stranger, the more sympathies student speaks towards him. Senn (1971).Param students gave one task together. It turned out that mutual gravity is higher when both members received a high assessment, weaker when the work of that and the other was assessed as bad, and very small, when students said that one deserves high marks, and the other is low. That is, mutual sympathy turned out to be higher with positive similarity than with negative. When members were estimated differently, it was possible to expect a different level of sympathies between them, but in fact the level turned out to be about the same, which confirms the opinion on the decisive value of the degree of similarity in the occurrence of sympathies, and not the degree of sense of the individual in the task. Milton Rokich and his colleagues. Offered a test hypothetical individual. His description included information about race, profession, faith or world. It has always been that the tests rather simply sympathized with the face of similar beliefs than similar skin or races. Marilyn Brewer (1968), compa and levine (1972).Tribes with the same soc. The structure (the expense of kinship on the father's or maternal line), the general linguistic origin, or faith in a common ancestor is located significantly more friendly. As the group increasingly draws attention to major differences between themselves and another group, relatively small differences lose importance. In other words, the comparison and conflict with a third party often strengthens and mutual solidarity inside the group. Zimmel argued that a certain amount of nonlands with a surroundings organically connected with those the most basics on which the group is ultimately held, the unity of the group. Lewis Cupper, developing the thought of Zimmel, noticed: "With a solid social structure and the delicacy of its basic values, the war leads to cohesion, because it threatens the values \u200b\u200band goals that were previously considered to be granted, and thus gives them new life and strength. " During World War II, according to a psychiatric clinic, improving the mental health of the public, France, Norway, Belgium. Aranson (1968). Students performed a test for creativity and listened to the assessment (sharply negative or pleasant) from the graduate student test. Then they were given the opportunity to hear how the teacher was spread or praised the same graduate for the work, nothing to do with the test having. The results were then spent the assessment of the teacher in the test students showed that offended students converged with teachers in hostility to a graduate, and this led to ascending in such students of sympathy for the teacher. Walter (1963). Studies have shown that students choose unlike themselves, if they knew that these people would treat them with sympathy. But not having such confidence, chose similar. You can think that we consider a more likely good attitude from those who at least look like us. In one of the experiments, Worthel and his colleagues, the only difference in the conditions were the presence of an identical laboratory form in members of the interacting groups. The results showed that with the unsuccessful interaction, the identity of clothing of members of the interacting groups reduced the conflict tension (447). And vice versa, we often automatically assume that one who seems very nauseous with us will be dismissively referring to us. Three field experiments were accurate in this regard, which were held by Gornstin, Marton and Soul (Hornstein, Marton, Sole). In the experiments, the degree of desire to assist the "stranger" was measured. The results found that sympathies grew directly proportional to the likeness of the subjects with unfamiliar man, but the desire to assist arose only after the subjects, at a certain level of similarity, the awareness of the stranger belongs to the same social groupthat the subject itself. That is, the degree of similarity should overcome a certain qualitative threshold of the perception of another as belonging to the same social system as we ourselves. Research of married couples held in the laboratory N.N. Bozova showed that: 1. Paras with the highest coefficient Disorganization of relations are characterized by the maximum discrepancy on the importance of family functions, i.e. disagreement on the targets of marriage. 2. Couples with a low disorganization ratio of relations showed complete agreement on the importance of family functions, but the discrepancy of opinions in the distribution of family roles was shown: the roles of the spouse did not coincide with the role-playing of the partner. That is, the influence of value of values \u200b\u200bon the relationship is related to hierarchical structure Systems of these values.

Before talking about methodological problems in social psychology, we clarify what they understand under the methodology. In modern scientific knowledge, three of its levels were:

1. General methodology - Some common philosophical approach taken by the researcher. So for social psychology, the philosophical installation on the problem of the relationship between society and individuals, nature and society is important.

2. Private (or special) Methodology - A combination of the methodological principles used in this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge. Private methodology is the implementation of philosophical principles in relation to the specific object of the study. So the activity approach is applied to domestic social psychology. Through activity, the personality is included in the system of social relations, mental activity is considered as a specific type of social activity. In the course of activity, a person implements his internal potency, satisfies the needs, new needs are born in it. In social psychology, the content of the activity is disclosed in the following points: a) an understanding of activities as a joint social activity of people, during which special connections arise, for example, communicative, b) understanding as a subject of activity not only individual, but also groups, society as a whole, That is, the introduction of the idea of \u200b\u200ba collective subject of activity, c), subject to the understanding of the Group as a subject of activity, it is overwhelmed with the possibility of investigating all attributes of the needs, motives, goals, etc., d) as an output follows the inadmissibility of research information only to the empirical description, to A simple statement of individual acts outside a certain "social context" is a given system of public relations.

3. Methodology As a combination of specific methodological methods of research, which in Russian is more often used as a technique.

Before switching to the analysis of specific socio-psychological methods, we draw attention to some problems of a socio-psychological study. One of the problems is the reliability of information. In general, the quality of the quality of information is solved by providing the principle of representativeness, as well as by checking the method of obtaining data on reliability. The reliability of information is achieved by checking the reliability of the tool by which the information is collected, especially since the subject of this process is a person. In each case, at least three reliability characteristics are provided: rationalth (validity), stability and accuracy.

Rationalth (validity) - This is his ability to measure exactly the characteristics of the object, which should be measured. There are several ways to verify the tool for validity. It can be resorted to the help of experts whose competence in this issue is generally accepted, or to carry out additional interviews in order to compare the results obtained.

Sustainability of information - This is its quality to be unequivocal, that is, in different situations, it must be identical. There are a number of methods for verifying the identity of information: a) re-measurement, b) measurement of the same property with different observers, c) "splitting of the scale", that is, the scales check in parts. All methods are based on multiple repetition.

Accuracy of information (In some sources, it is identified with stability) is measured by how sensitive tool is.

It is believed that all ways to verify information on reliability are not perfect enough in social psychology and they work only in the hands of qualified specialists. One of the complex problems in social psychology is the problem of source of information. Before becoming a source of information, a person must understand the question, instructions or other Researcher Requirements. We possess varying degrees Understanding, the memory of a person is a complex tool: we forget very much, on the issue, which is examined not all the same competent, etc.

From here, very acute in social psychology is a problem representativeness. If we were talking about social psychology as an experimental discipline, then this problem would be easier: Representativeness in the experiment is strictly determined and is checked. But in the case of a correlation (based on a large data array) study, the researcher faces the problem of building a sample. In social psychology, both in statistics are used, such sampling methods such as random, typical, quota sample, etc., but here there are problems.

In social psychology, methods are divided into two groups: research methods and methods of exposure.

Research methods In turn, divided into methods for collecting information and methods for its processing. There are other approaches to the classification of social and psychological research methods: a) the methods of empirical research, b) modeling methods, c) management-educational methods.

Methods for collecting information. Among them can be called: observation, study of documents, various types of surveys (interviews, interviews), various types of tests (including the most common sociometric test), experiment (both laboratory and natural).

Observation One of the "old" methods of social psychology. There are many proposals for organizing the structuring of observation data, that is, the allocation of in advance classes, for example, personal interactions in the group, followed by fixing the number, the frequency of their interaction, etc. The question of allocating classes of observed phenomena is the question of observation units. In social psychology, he is solved for each specific case. Another fundamental question is a question of the time interval, which is considered sufficient to fix any observation units.

Studying documents. With this method, the information obtained information is analyzed. A special problem arises in the fact that the information processes a person with the psychological characteristics inherent in it, the abilities for understanding the text. To overcome this "subjectivity" in the study, a receipt applied "Content analysis" (Literally: "Content Analysis"). This is a special method of analyzing a document when special "units" stand out in the text, and then often consistently calculated. This method makes sense to use if there is a large array of information. In social psychology, it is mainly used in the study of the problems of mass communications. But this method does not remove all the difficulties of sociole-psychological research.

Interview- A fairly common technique in social psychology and causes a lot of critical comments. Among the numerous types of polls are the most common in social psychology are interviews and questionnaires. The main problem here is to construct a questionnaire. The first design requirement is the logic of construction. The questionnaire must deliver the information that the hypothesis requires and the information must be extremely reliable.

The implementation of the recruitment process between the interviewer and the respondent (a person responsible for the questions) is quite difficult, all parties are manifested here between personalities. This is one of the most difficult methods in social psychology.

Tests Used in all areas of psychology, in social psychology they are personally character, less often group. This is a special kind of test, during which the subject responds to the developed issues, or performs certain tasks. Questions in tests are indirectly, and they differ from questions in an interview. Using the "key", the data obtained are processed. The most important thing in testing is the question of the compliance of the results obtained with the personal characteristics of the subject. There is an illusion about absolute adequacy, the coincidence of the test results and the characteristics of the real person. This is not so. It is necessary to compare the results with the results that were obtained from the use of other methods. In addition, the use of tests is local and they, as a rule, relate to one area of \u200b\u200bsocial psychology - personal problems.

Experiment It is one of the main methods of social psychology. Two groups of the experiment of a socio-psychological study differ: laboratory and natural. For them there are several rules: an arbitrary introduction by an experimenter of independent variables and control over them, as well as as amended by dependent variables; Allocation of the control and experimental group so that the measurement results can be comparable to some standard.

The experiment differs from observation in that it is possible to actively interfere with the situation by the researcher, which carries out systematic manipulation by one or more variables (factors). The experimentally supplied experiment allows you to test hypotheses about causal relations, not limited to the establishment of communication (correlation) between variables. Traditional and factor plans are distinguished. With traditional planning, only one independent variable changes, and in factant - several. If the area of \u200b\u200bthe study has been little studied and the hypothesis system is absent, in this case, they are talking about a pilotal (sample search) study, in which the results can help clarify the direction of further research.

Type of research social phenomena Through the study of them in normal, natural conditions are called field research. Important condition The field study is observing this presence of the researcher, when it does not affect the course of the experiment, does not distort the natural course of the observed process.

Output. Social psychology is an independent industry of psychology, which studies the patterns of behavior and activities of people, their existence in groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves. As a science, social psychology includes sections: the patterns of communication of people, the psychology of the individual, the problems of socialization, etc.

Literature

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., 1998.

2. Bogomolova N.N., Stephenko T.G. Content analysis. - M., 1992.

4. Essays on the history of theoretical sociology XIX- XX centuries. - M., 1994.

5. Rudensky E.V. Social Psychology. - M., Novosibirsk. 1997.

6. Smelzer N. Sociology. - M., 1994.

7. Shibutani T. Social Psychology. - Rostov-on-Don. 1998.

8. Yadov V.A. Sociological research. Methodology, program, methods. - Samara. 1995.

Topic 2.

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