Reforms of Alexander 2:

• peasant reform. The abolition of serfdom (1861);
• Financial reforms (since 1863);
• Education Reform (1863);
• Zemstvo reform;
• Urban reform (1864);
• Judicial Reform (1864);
• Reform of public administration (1870);
• Military reform (1874).

· The essence of the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of the state to a new type, which could more effectively build the economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.

The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the fact that the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move on with serfdom, so the changes were nevertheless implemented. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could redeem themselves from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for housekeeping. To make a ransom, a peasant could take a loan from a bank for 49 years. The redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landlords. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights, they could trade and carry out real estate transactions.

One more important reform- reform of the judiciary. The court ceased to focus on the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. A jury trial also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative system and formed into an independent institution.

Zemstvo reform and urban reform were designed to simplify the administration of the state and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own self-government bodies and deal with economic issues without waiting for an order from above. This made it possible to develop the economy of the regions, as the management began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.

The military reform was supposed to make the army more efficient so that the situation with the Crimean War would not be repeated. General conscription was introduced, the army received new weapons, the principle of educating soldiers was changed. Many educational institutions for the military have also opened.

Along with military schools, new ones began to open. ordinary schools and universities. University rectors received more rights and could make their own decisions - this helped the country make a leap in public education.

The reform of the press was also important. The principle of publicity was proclaimed and the press was given the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.

40. The liberation of the peasants and the implementation of land reform.

February 19, 1861, on the fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne, Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia and a number of "Regulations" that explained the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. Former landlord peasants moved from the category of land users to the category of owners and acquired personal freedom. The peasant could now freely take a job, go to the city or engage in crafts. General position about peasants who emerged from serfdom, recognized the right of ownership of the landowner to all lands. Proceeding from this, the peasants were endowed with estate and field land not free of charge, but for duties and then a ransom. Preference was given to an "amicable" agreement between the peasants and the landowner. In the event that such an agreement could not be reached, the norms envisaged by the reformers came into effect. During the first two years, statutory letters were to be drawn up, which determined the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The peasants were transferred to the position temporarily liable. They remained in this state until the transition to redemption. The size of peasant allotments was determined by local regulations. All provinces were divided into three bands (chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe). In the chernozem and non-chernozem zones in each locality, the highest and lowest norms for allotments were determined. The peasants were supposed to transfer those allotments that they used before the reform. If the allotment allotted to the peasant was more than the highest norm, then the landowner had the right to cut off the "surplus" to this norm. And vice versa, if the actual allotment of the peasant was less than the lowest norm, then the landowner had to cut the land to this norm.

The landowners tried to establish norms in such a size that they could cut off part of the peasant lands in their favor. The submission by the landlords to the Editorial Commissions of underestimated data on the size of peasant allotments led to the fact that even after the commissions increased the higher norms, the peasants in most provinces lost part of the land. As a result, the peasants received an average of 3.4 acres per capita. Meanwhile, in order to ensure a living wage, a peasant in the black earth belt had to have at least 5.5 tithes per capita, and in other areas - from 6 to 8 tithes.

Temporarily liable peasants had to perform temporary duties in the form of a cash quitrent or corvée in favor of the landowner. The period of transition from duties to ransom lasted for 20 years (from 1863 to 1883). Only in the western provinces were all peasants immediately transferred to the category of peasant proprietors. The main duty was recognized quitrent. The size of the corvée was limited to 40 men's and 30 women's days per year. Two years later, the peasants could switch from corvée to dues without the consent of the landowner.

The amount of the redemption of peasant duties was determined as follows: the amount of capital was found, which, being put into a bank paying 6% of the profit per year on deposits, would annually bring the amount of quitrent received by the landowner. For example, if the quitrent was 10 rubles, the amount of the ransom was 166 rubles 66 kopecks. In other words, by depositing an amount of 166 rubles 66 kopecks in the bank, the landowner received 6% of this amount per year, which was exactly 10 rubles.

Of course, the peasants could not immediately pay the full amount of the ransom to the landowner. But the landowner was interested in receiving exactly the entire amount at a time. Therefore, a redemption operation was carried out with the participation of the state. Peasants received a state loan in the amount of 80% of the redemption amount. The landlords received 80% of the entire ransom immediately after the conclusion of the redemption transaction. The remaining 20% ​​was to be paid by the peasants to the landowner by agreement. Then, for 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with interest in the form of redemption payments. The amount of these payments far exceeded the costs of the state.

According to the peasant reform of 1861, the community and its elected bodies became the lowest level of administrative control in the countryside on all categories of land. The functions of the community, which received the name rural society, the rights and obligations of the village assembly as a meeting of the heads of peasant households, as well as the headman elected by the village assembly.

Preparation of reforms
The preparation of the zemstvo reform began in 1859, when work on the peasant reform of 1861 was in full swing. N. A. Milyutin was the leader in this legislative activity of the government. Milyutin's resignation in April 1861. The Minister of the Interior, P. A. Valuev (Milyutin's opponent), who then headed the preparatory work, was forced to reckon with this project and accept it as a basis.
Formation of local bodies
The “Regulations of January 1, 1864” provided for the creation of a zemstvo in 34 provinces of the European part of Russia. Zemstvo reform did not extend to Siberia, Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where there was almost no noble land ownership, as well as to the national outskirts of Russia - the Baltic States, Poland, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia. In 1911-13 zemstvo institutions, in addition to 34 provinces, were introduced in 9 more.
According to the “Regulations”, zemstvo institutions were created in the county and province, consisting of zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils. The electoral system was based on a combination of estate and property principles. Every three years, residents of the county of different classes elected from 14 to more than 100 vowels - deputies of county zemstvo assemblies. Elections were held in curia (parts), into which the entire county population was divided. The first curia consisted of landowners who had 200 acres or more of land (including allotment land tenure of peasants who had not yet been redeemed) or other immovable property worth 15,000 rubles, or an annual income of 6,000 rubles. The tone in this curia was set by the nobles (landlords), but over time, representatives of other classes began to play an increasingly important role - merchants who bought noble lands, rich peasants who acquired land as property. The second curia consisted of citizens who owned merchant certificates, commercial and industrial enterprises with an annual income of at least 6 thousand rubles, owners of urban real estate worth at least 500 rubles. - in small and 2 thousand rubles. in big cities. The third curia mainly consisted of representatives of rural communities, peasants, for whom a special property qualification was not required. The creation of class peasant self-government (rural and volost) made it possible to give the peasants access to all-class zemstvo institutions. As a result of the first zemstvo elections of 1865-66, the nobles made up 42% of the county and 74% of the provincial councilors, the peasants, respectively, 38.5% and 10.6%, and the merchants, 10.4% and 11%. Vowels of county zemstvos were elected in curia, and provincial ones - in county zemstvo assemblies. The chairmen of the county and provincial zemstvo assemblies were the county and provincial marshals of the nobility. Zemstvo assemblies were administrative bodies, they elected executive power - provincial and district zemstvo councils (three, five people).
Pravozemstvos
The competence of the zemstvo was limited to local economic affairs (medicine, public education, agronomy, veterinary service, arrangement of local roads, organization of statistics, etc.). Zemstvo fees provided the financial basis for the activities of zemstvo institutions. The budget was approved by the zemstvo assembly. It consisted mainly of taxes on real estate, primarily on land, while the main burden fell on the possessions of the peasants. Within their competence, the zemstvos had relative independence. The Minister of the Interior approved the chairman of the provincial zemstvo council.
In the structure of zemstvo institutions there was no “small zemstvo unit”, that is, an all-estate volost zemstvo closest to the needs of the local population, and there was no all-Russian body that could coordinate the activities of local zemstvos. As a result, the Zemstvos turned out to be "a building without a foundation and a roof." The government also prevented the communication of zemstvos with each other, being afraid of constitutional trends. Zemstvos did not have their own enforcement authorities, which forced them to turn to the administration and the police. All this placed the Zemstvo from the first steps in opposition to the autocratic power and at the same time made it vulnerable, not protected from the pressure of the mighty state machine. A general revision of the zemstvo reform was carried out during the reign Alexander III. In 1890, the Zemstvo counter-reform was adopted, which significantly limited the rights of Zemstvos.
The value of the Zemstvo reform
Zemstvo reform created a new, modern institution in Russia local government, attached to civilian life the previously absolutely disenfranchised peasantry, it contributed to the development of local improvement. The zemstvo intellectual described by A.P. Chekhov - a doctor and teacher, a disinterested ascetic and an expert in his field - became the personification of the best features of the Russian intelligentsia

See No. 39 and 40

4. Zemstvo and city reforms held in 1864 and 1870, respectively, formed elected bodies of local self-government based on suffrage curial system (with different norms of representation for different classes) and property qualification. In the cities they became city ​​councils, whose executive bodies were city ​​councils and heading them mayor, and in rural areas - county and provincial zemstvo meetings(or simply zemstvos) with executive bodies represented by zemstvo councils.

Despite the limitation of their powers to issues of economy, health care and education (power still remained in the hands of government-appointed governors), zemstvos and city dumas gave the liberal intelligentsia their first experience organizations. The best forces of the intelligentsia were in them, thanks to which education and medical care were significantly improved, especially in rural areas.

5. Educational reforms consisted in the introduction of elective self-government of universities (1863), equality of estates when admitted to schools(with the exception of some elite ones) - while maintaining, however, high tuition fees. The main types of secondary schools were gymnasiums with a humanitarian focus and real schools who gave mainly technical education. The first women's gymnasiums and higher courses for women were created, which marked the beginning of women's education in Russia.

6. In a row military reforms the main thing was the replacement of the Petrovsky recruiting system for recruiting the army universal conscription(1874), which made it possible to deploy a mass army from a trained reserve during the war (following the example of advanced European countries). From now on, they were subject to conscription all estates (except clergy) not excluding and nobles. Those who had a secondary or higher education were called up on preferential terms and with a reduction in the term of service as volunteers. From now on, the conditions for exemption from military service were not class origin, but marital status(the only breadwinner in the family) or a socially significant profession (teachers, doctors, etc.).

In addition, the terms of service of soldiers and sailors were reduced from 25 to 6 years (later - 3 years in the army and 5 years in the navy), corporal punishment for them, which had been widely used before (1863), was abolished. The territory of the country was divided into military districts. The army was equipped with rifled weapons, the fleet - with steam, and then with armored ships.

The level of military education increased significantly: a network of military academies was founded (before that there was only one Academy of the General Staff, founded under Nicholas I) and schools separated from the senior classes of the cadet corps. Access to military educational institutions (except for the most elite ones, such as Corps of Pages) was opened again for all estates . Thanks to this, if in the era of serfdom the officers of the Russian army were almost entirely from the nobility, now access to the officer rank was open to almost everyone, and by the beginning of the First World War, more than half of the officers (with the exception of the guards) did not have a noble origin.

The General Significance of the Great Reforms as the Second Modernization of Russia can be formulated in three main directions :

1. Transition to a liberal, humanistic path political development no revolution (characteristic difference from most Western countries ).

2. Transition to a more efficient, market-capitalist path of development economy based not on coercion, but on such incentives as freedom of wage labor, competition and unemployment.

3. In social relations - the weakening of the estate system, which was a relic of feudal society.

42. Growth of social movement and opposition to autocracy. The activities of underground and terrorist organizations ("Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", "Black Redistribution").

"Land and freedom”, the society (the first) was born at the end of 1861. N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. N. Obruchev (author of revolutionary proclamations, under Alexander III - chief of the general staff) participated in it. A. A. Sleptsov, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solov'evichi, P. I. Bokov, N. I. Utin, and others. M. I. Mikhailov did not participate in Land and Freedom: he was arrested before it happened. The society was associated with A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev. At the end of 1863, after the suppression of the Polish uprising and the triumph of the reaction, Land and Freedom was liquidated by its participants.

The Party's main task was to work among the masses in order to prepare an uprising. Within the "Land and Freedom" party, two currents were formed: the landowners - "villagers" and the landlords - "townspeople". The former worked among the peasantry, preparing the ground for future revolutionary activity in the countryside, while the latter gathered in the cities, turning their attention to the workers, as to the most revolutionary stratum of the population. The most important point in the society's program was "the transfer of all land into the hands of the rural working class", and a number of democratic demands were put forward, which could be achieved "only through a violent revolution."

People's Will- a revolutionary populist organization that arose in 1879 after the split of the organization "Land and Freedom" with the main goal of forcing the government to democratic reforms, after which it would be possible to fight for the social transformation of society. Terror became one of the main methods of the political struggle of Narodnaya Volya. In particular, members of the terrorist faction Narodnaya Volya hoped to push political change by assassinating Emperor Alexander II. The name of its members is formed from the name of the organization - Narodnaya Volya. A small party, based on the sympathy of a part of the intelligentsia and having no ground among the broad masses, showed such energy that it itself believed in its own strength and forced to believe in it. By the policy of Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, a part of society that had previously sympathized with the "Narodnaya Volya" was repelled from it. When the party, not softened by concessions, assassinated Emperor Alexander II on March 1, 1881, this assassination provoked not only a government reaction, but also a public reaction on a much wider scale than Narodnaya Volya had expected. Nevertheless, in the following years the party still continued its activities.

Black Redistribution- a secret society associated with the magazine of the same name. "Black Redistribution" was formed during the collapse of the "Earth and Freedom" society in 1879; the terrorist wing of the latter formed Narodnaya Volya, and the wing that remained true to purely populist tendencies - the Black Redistribution society. The Chernoperedelites set as their immediate task the organization of a broad people's militant party, but by the end of 1879 the conditions and conditions of revolutionary activity in Russia had changed so much that the fulfillment of this task under the given political conditions became completely impossible. The former landowner settlements in the villages have completely disintegrated; attempts to restore them failed, and the Chernoperedelites had to concentrate all their activities in the cities on propagating populist ideas among the intelligentsia and workers. But even here they were not successful; the call to activity among the people had by this time lost its former charm. The party-organizational work of the "Black Redistribution" was also extremely unsuccessful. Among the persons included in the "Black Repartition" (in the printing group), was the worker Zhirnov, who turned out to be a traitor and soon betrayed all members of the group. The organization has suffered an irreparable blow. At the beginning of 1880, the main members of the "Black Repartition" - Plekhanov, Susudit Stefanovich, Deitch - went abroad and there formed a social-democratic division in 1883. group "Emancipation of Labor".

43. The reign of Alexander III: the state of the economy, the development of capitalist relations. Foreign policy.

The domestic policy of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) was consistent. It was based on a set of quite definite ideas about what Russia should become. Alexander III was a conservative by nature, upbringing, and life experience. His convictions were formed under the influence of the bitter experience of the struggle between the government and the populist revolutionaries, which he witnessed and the victim of which was his father, Alexander II. The instructions of K. P. Pobedonostsev, a prominent ideologist of Russian conservatism, found in the person of the new monarch a grateful student who was ready to follow them.

Having removed from power the liberal ministers (D.N. Milyutin, M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Abaza, and others), and having executed the March First people by court verdict, the tsar firmly announced his intention to establish and protect the autocracy. Alexander III believed in the historical mission of Russia, in autocracy, called to lead her on the road of victories, in Orthodoxy, the spiritual support of the people and power. Autocratic power, the tsar believed, should help a confused society find ground under its feet, surround it with care and guardianship, and severely punish disobedience. Alexander III felt like the father of a large family that needed his firm hand.

Politics in the peasant question. In 1881, a law was passed on the obligatory redemption of peasants from their allotments.

Politics at work. Laws of 1882-1886 the foundations of labor legislation were laid: the labor of children under the age of twelve was prohibited; night work of women and minors is prohibited; the terms of employment and the procedure for terminating the contracts of workers with entrepreneurs were determined.

Police activities. The Decree on "Strengthened Guard" (1881) allowed the introduction of a special position in unreliable provinces.

Activities in the field of press and education. The new "Provisional Rules on the Press" (1882) established the most severe censorship and made it possible to freely close objectionable publications.

Counter-reforms. 1889-1892 Law of 1889 established the position of zemstvo chief. Zemstvo chiefs received administrative and judicial powers, they could dismiss village elders, subject peasants to corporal punishment, fines, and arrest. They were appointed by the government from among the local hereditary nobles.

The law of 1890 effectively deprived peasants of the right to nominate vowels to county and provincial zemstvo institutions. Now they were appointed by the governor.

The law of 1892 introduced a high property qualification, artisans and small merchants were excluded from elections to the city duma.

In the 80s. the government got the opportunity to remove judges at its own discretion, withdrew political cases from jury trials, and fired many prosecutors who served in the 60s and 70s.

Historians call these measures counter-reforms to emphasize that they were directed against the transformations of the reign of Alexander II.

The assessment of the reign of Alexander III cannot be unambiguous. On the one hand, the government ensured internal stability, industry developed rapidly, and foreign capital flowed into the country. On the other hand, the tsar's attempts to reverse the processes begun during the years of the "great reforms" did not meet the needs of a rapidly changing society. The modernization of the economy that began in post-reform Russia gave rise to acute, qualitatively new problems and conflicts. The government, which saw its purpose in restraining society, protecting it from change, could not cope with the new problems. The results were not long in coming: the revolution that shook the foundations of the old system took place ten years after the death of Alexander III.

44. Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century: characteristics of the economic potential. A crisis political system autocracy. Formation of illegal political parties. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

Calm, according to the definition of the Minister of Foreign Affairs N.K. Girs, the policy of Alexander III was continued in the first decade of the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). "Calmness" consisted of maintaining friendly relations with France, respectful but lacking trust with Germany, aimed at maintaining the status quo in Balkan affairs - with Austria-Hungary, friendly and not too warm - with Great Britain.

The “calm policy” of Nicholas II in European affairs was determined by the need to provide favorable external conditions for the economic development of Russia, which solved the painful tasks of modernization, on the one hand, and to strengthen Russian influence in the Far East, on the other. It was in the Far East that the most important foreign policy event took place Russian history early 20th century - Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. The situation that arose in the Far East required active actions from Russia. China, weakened by a protracted crisis, has riveted the selfish attention of all the major participants in world politics: Great Britain, France, Germany, the USA, Japan, and Russia. There was a fierce struggle for the division of spheres of influence in China. Japan in 1894 sent troops to Korea, entered the war with China, imposed humiliating peace conditions on it (they were partially revised under pressure from Russia, France and Germany). Russia in 1891 began the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, considering it as the beginning of the vigorous development of its Siberian and Far Eastern outskirts. In 1896, China granted Russia a concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), in 1898 it obtained the right to lease the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula with the port fortress of Port Arthur and the port of Dalniy. The Boxer Rebellion in China provided an excuse for foreign powers to openly intervene in internal Chinese affairs. Russia sent troops into Manchuria and, despite the protests of Japan, which enlisted the support of Germany and Great Britain, refused to withdraw them (although the Russian-Japanese treaty provided for the withdrawal of troops by the autumn of 1904). Japan, in turn, imposed on Russia unacceptable terms of the agreement on Korea. Things were heading for an open confrontation.

On the night of January 27, 1904, Japanese destroyers attacked Russian ships stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur, as well as the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. The war has begun.

The course of hostilities. On land, the Russian troops (A. N. Kuropat-kin was appointed commander-in-chief, devoid of any significant military talents) were defeated in battles near Laoyang (August 1904), near the Shahe River (October 1904), and near Mukden (February 1905). In all battles, the numerical superiority was behind the Russian armies. The Japanese turned out to be stronger in military-technical terms, their generals had a better command of the art of modern warfare. In December, Port Arthur fell, besieged in July - it was surrendered by the ignorant and cowardly General A. M. Stessel.

Reasons for the defeat of Russia. The unpreparedness of the top leadership for war; military-technical lag; mediocre command; lengthy communications, remoteness of the theater of operations; foreign policy isolation (Russia was not supported by any major state that feared its strengthening in the Far East).

Results and consequences of the war. The peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth, in the United States, which acted as mediators in the negotiations. Despite the extremely unsuccessful course of the war, S. Yu. Witte managed to conclude a favorable (taking into account the current situation) peace: Russia ceded South Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan, recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests, but avoided paying indemnities. Both countries pledged to withdraw troops from Manchuria.

The consequences of a military defeat for Russia were significant: the authority of the authorities in the eyes of society was catastrophically undermined; opposition and revolutionary sentiments intensified. The war, perceived as a national disgrace, which claimed tens of thousands of human lives, played a role in the development of the revolution of 1905-1907.

As a result Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905 Japan emerged as a leading power Far East. Russia's foreign policy positions were seriously undermined. The defeat also exposed the vices of its military organization (the technical backwardness of the fleet, the weakness of the senior command staff, the shortcomings of the management and supply system) and contributed to the deepening of the crisis of the monarchical system.

Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. (conservative, liberal, radical)

Events 1905-1907 created favorable conditions for the formation of many political parties - both all-Russian and local, of which there were up to 50. All these parties belonged to three main areas: conservative-monarchist; liberal opposition; revolutionary-democratic (radical).

During the revolution, monarchist and nationalist parties arose - the Russian Monarchist Party (spring 1905), the Union of the Russian People (November 1905), etc. The leaders of the right were V.M. Purishkevich, A.I. Dubrovin, N.E. Markov 2nd, I. I. Vostorgov, G. G. Rosen, and others. The social basis of these parties was the aristocracy, officials, Orthodox clergy, small merchants and petty bourgeois, part of the monarchist-minded peasants and intelligentsia. "

In October 1905 liberal parties arose. On October 12-18, the 1st Congress of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) was held, which since 1906 was also called the “People's Freedom Party”.

The second major liberal party was the "Union of October 17" (Octobrists), which arose in October 1905 - February 1906. The leaders of the party were well-known entrepreneurs and financiers A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, brothers P.P. and V.P. Ryabushinsky, N.S. Avdakov, as well as representatives of the intelligentsia L.N. Benois, prof. IN AND. Guerrier. The Octobrists were the party of big capital. They advocated the strengthening of a constitutional monarchy of a non-parliamentary type, their program involved the exercise of civil liberties, but while maintaining a "united and indivisible Russia." The program stated the need social reforms- social insurance of workers and limitation of the working day, transfer of state lands and lands of the imperial family to the peasants. An intermediate position between the Cadets and the Octobrists was occupied by the Peaceful Renewal Party and its successor, the Progressive Party.

The Socialist-Revolutionary Party during the period of the revolution reached its maximum number - 50-60 thousand people, and most of its members were peasants, although the intelligentsia dominated the leadership. The main goal of the Social Revolutionaries in the revolution was the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of a democratic republic, so they boycotted the elections to the First State Duma. The Social Revolutionaries took part in almost all armed uprisings and uprisings, carried out acts of terror. February 4, 1905 I.P. Kalyaev killed the Emperor's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (Governor-General of Moscow).

Neo-populist ideology was also adhered to by representatives of the Labor People's Socialist Party (populists), created in September-November 1906.

The Socialist-Revolutionaries and Socialist-Revolutionaries had a great influence on the peasantry and on its representatives in the State Duma, who formed the Labor Group. In addition, peasant organizations arose in 1905, the largest of which was the All-Russian Peasant Union, with up to 200 thousand members (leaders - S.V. Kurnin, V.F. Krasnov, SP. and V.P. Mazurenko) .

During the revolution, the Social Democrats remained divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, which greatly complicated their actions.

The largest political parties Russia took part in the main events of the revolution, including the activities of the I and II State Dumas. But one should not exaggerate the degree of their influence on the population of the empire: in 1906-1907. the total membership of all parties was only about 0.5% total strength population of Russia.

45. Revolution of 1905–1907: causes, the course of the protest movement, the growth of the political crisis. Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and its influence on the revolutionary movement.

Very different from all previous Russian 19th century reforms(and even more so from 18th century reforms).

1. Peasant reform of Alexander. On February 19, 1861, the abolition of serfdom. The reforms, of course, were spontaneous and unfinished. However, all the peasants became free. Not all of them were ready for this, and many simply could not find themselves after their release. The only serious disadvantage of the reform was its implementation during the economic crisis. All other shortcomings were a matter of time. The main "advantage" was that the peasants were not just driven out into the street, but received plots of land for use with the right to purchase on credit.
2. In 1857 they were liquidated military settlements founded by Alexander I.
3. In 1863, a financial reform took place in order to modernize the financial structure of the state under the capitalist industrial type of state economy (according to the European model). Was created National Bank.
4. In the same year, the education reform took place ( University charter). The result was a global transformation in the structure higher education. Universities have become more independent and similar to the current institutions of higher education.
5. In 1864, a Zemstvo reform(reform of local self-government, which gave more powers to local authorities).
6. The judicial reform of the same year also brought the structure of judicial institutions closer to the modern look.
7. 1870 - the year of the reform of urban self-government (gave impetus to the industrial development of cities).
8. In 1871, the education reform was finally completed. This time, Alexander took up secondary education not without the help of the Minister of Education Dmitry Tolstoy.
9. In 1874, a military reform was carried out. The reform was multi-structural and affected military education, technological moments, organizational issues, uniforms and many other nuances, such as the abolition of corporal punishment or the introduction of universal military service instead of recruiting and military settlements.

reforms Alexander II in the 60s-70s of the 19th century they became really “ Great Reforms”, although not all were completed. Nevertheless, the Russian Empire became in fact a state of law. In addition, these changes resolved many social and economic problems in society and made it possible for the normal development of industry in the country.

In 1880, Alexander II began to develop the Constitution of the Russian Empire, but did not have time to complete it due to death.

Death of Alexander II.

Many historians of the Soviet era describe the general discontent of the people internal politics AlexandraII. In fact, this information is greatly exaggerated. The fact is that in several multinational cities of the Russian Empire (primarily in Moscow and St. Petersburg), the radical "intelligentsia" decided to continue the activities of failed revolutionaries ( Decembrists).

Secret organizations began to form throughout the country. Some of them even had several cells in different cities. Most of these terrorist organizations were sponsored from abroad by supporters of the expansion of the Russian Empire, and there were enough of them in Europe.

Over the last 15 years of the reign of Alexander II, six assassination attempts were made on him. At least three recent assassination attempts were organized by a radical terrorist group " People's Will”, the ideas of which, in fact, were far from the popular will.

1. 1866 - a bullet whistled over Alexander's head in St. Petersburg.
2. 1867 - in Paris, a Polish terrorist fired, but hit a horse.
3. 1879 - in St. Petersburg, a terrorist shot four times at the emperor, but he had serious problems with shooting, because not a single bullet reached the target.
4. 1879 - "Narodnaya Volya" blew up a train car, but the emperor, by a lucky chance, moved to another train before that.
5. 1880 - the same individuals planted an explosive device in winter palace, but Alexander did not have time before the explosion, as he was delayed due to a meeting with the Prince of Hesse.
6. On March 1, 1881, Rysakov, a Narodnaya Volya member, threw a bomb into the imperial carriage on Malaya Sadovaya in St. Petersburg. Alexander Nikolaevich was not injured, but the Cossack of his Life Guards was seriously wounded. Despite the requests of the guardsmen, the emperor jumped out of the carriage and bent over the wounded man, trying to help him. At this moment, another Narodnaya Volya Grinevitsky crept up to the emperor and threw a bomb at his feet. An hour later, the All-Russian Emperor died of wounds incompatible with life in the Winter Palace. Grinevitsky was killed immediately by his own bomb. In addition, the same wounded Life Guardsman and a passer-by, a 14-year-old boy from a butcher shop, died as a result of the assassination attempt. Another 17 people were injured.

All participants in the crime were captured (only 6 people) and sentenced to death. Just on this day, Alexander II was going to approve the draft constitution, but it did not work out.

Unfortunately, the entire "Narodnaya Volya" could not be identified and liquidated. A little later, this organization broke away " Terrorist faction", one of the members of which was the elder brother IN AND. Lenin .

After the death of Alexander II, his second son Alexander Alexandrovich ascended the throne (

Chronology

• 1855 - 1881 Reign of Alexander II Nikolaevich
• 1861 February 19 Abolition of serfdom in Russia
• 1864 Conducting judicial, zemstvo and school reforms
• 1870 City reform implemented
• 1874 Military reform

Zemstvo reform (1864)

On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” - a legislative act that introduced the zemstvo.

It should be borne in mind that for a country whose majority of the population were peasants who had just liberated from serfdom, the introduction of local governments was a significant step in the development of political culture. Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-class organizations, such as noble assemblies. The feudal lords were indignant at the fact that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly "a slave of yesterday is sitting next to his recent master." Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, philistines and peasants.

Members of zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The chairmen of the meetings were the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The assemblies formed the executive bodies - county and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and to hire employees.

The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-estate self-government was limited only to economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local means of communication, care of medical care population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc. New bodies of all-estate self-government were introduced only at the level of provinces and districts. There was no central zemstvo representation, and there was no small zemstvo unit in the volost. Contemporaries wittily called the Zemstvo "a building without a foundation and a roof." The slogan "crowning the building" became from that time the main slogan of the Russian liberals for 40 years - right up to the creation of the State Duma.

Urban reform (1870)

Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was marked by the rapid development of cities, a change in the social structure of their population, and led to an increase in the role of cities as centers of economic, socio-political and cultural life country.

The city reform of 1870 created all-estate bodies of local self-government. Administrative functions were no longer assigned to the entire city society, but to its representative body - the Duma. Elections to the Duma took place every four years. The number of members of the Duma - vowels - was quite significant: depending on the number of voters in the city - from 30 to 72 people. There were much more vowels in the capital's dumas: in Moscow - 180, St. Petersburg - 252. At a meeting of the duma, an executive body of public administration was elected - the council and the mayor, who was the chairman of both the executive and administrative bodies.

Suffrage was based on the bourgeois property qualification. The right to participate in elections, regardless of class, was given to owners of immovable property taxed in favor of the city, as well as persons paying certain commercial and industrial fees to it. Various departments, institutions, societies, companies, churches, monasteries also used the right to vote as a legal entity. Only men who had reached the age of 25 were allowed to take part in the voting personally. Women who had the necessary electoral qualifications could participate in elections only through their proxies. In fact, hired workers, the overwhelming majority of whom did not own real estate, as well as representatives of the educated part of the population, people of mental labor: engineers, doctors, teachers, officials, who mostly did not have their own houses, turned out to be deprived of the right to vote, but rented apartments.

The tasks of managing the municipal economy were entrusted to new public institutions. A wide range of issues of urban economy and improvement were transferred to their jurisdiction: water supply, sewerage, street lighting, transport, landscaping, urban planning problems, etc. City dumas were also obliged to take care of the “public welfare”: to assist in providing the population with food, to take measures against fires and other disasters, to help protect “public health” (set up hospitals, help the police in carrying out sanitary and hygienic measures), to take measures against begging, to promote the spread of public education (to establish schools, museums, etc.).

Judicial Reform (1864)

Judicial statutes of November 20, 1864 decisively broke with the pre-reform judiciary and legal proceedings. The new court was built on a non-estate basis, the irremovability of judges, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings were proclaimed; when considering criminal cases in the district court, the participation of jurors was envisaged. It's all characteristics bourgeois court.

Magistrate's Court was created in counties and cities to consider minor criminal cases. The magistrate's court had jurisdiction over cases for which a punishment in the form of a reprimand, remark or suggestion, a fine not exceeding 300 rubles, arrest not more than three months, or imprisonment not more than a year followed.

When considering criminal cases in the district court, it was provided jury institute. It was introduced despite the resistance of conservative forces and even the reluctance of Alexander II himself. They motivated their negative attitude towards the idea of ​​jurors by the fact that the people had not grown up to this yet, and such a trial would inevitably have a “political character”. According to the judicial statutes, a juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70, who was not under trial and investigation, who was not excluded from service in court and was not subjected to public condemnation for vices, who was not under guardianship, who did not suffer from mental illness, blindness, dumb and lived in this county for at least two years. A relatively high property qualification was also required.

The second instance for district courts was judicial chamber, having departments. Its chairman and members were approved by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice. It served as the appellate court for civil and criminal cases heard in district courts without a jury.

The Senate was treated as the supreme court of cassation and had criminal and civil cassation departments. Senators were appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of Justice.

The prosecutor's office was reorganized, it was included in the judicial department, it was headed by the prosecutor general, who is also the minister of justice.

Chairmen of courts, prosecutors and judicial investigators were required to have a higher legal education or solid legal practice. Judges and judicial investigators were irremovable, they were assigned high salaries in order to secure honest professionals for judicial institutions.

The largest step towards the introduction of the principles of bourgeois justice was the establishment of the institution of the Bar.

On November 20, 1866, it was allowed "to print in all time-based publications about what happens in the courts." Court reports reporting on Russian and foreign trials are becoming a prominent phenomenon in the press.

Military reforms (60-70s)

By revising military reform one should take into account its dependence not only on the socio-economic situation in the country, but also on the realities of the international situation of those years. Second half of the 19th century characterized by the formation of relatively stable military coalitions, which increased the threat of war and led to a rapid buildup of the military potential of all powers. Emerging in the middle of the XIX century. the decomposition of the state system of Russia was reflected in the state of the army. The unrest in the army was clearly revealed, there were cases of revolutionary actions, there was a decline in military discipline.

The first changes were made in the army already in the late 50s - early 60s. Military settlements were finally abolished.

WITH 1862 A gradual reform of local military administration was begun on the basis of the creation of military districts. A new system of military administration was being created, eliminating excessive centralization and facilitating the rapid deployment of the army in case of war. The Military Ministry and the General Staff were reorganized.

V 1865 began to be carried out military judicial reform. Its foundations were built on the principles of openness and competitiveness of the military court, on the rejection of the vicious system of corporal punishment. Three courts have been established: regimental, military district and chief military courts, which duplicated the main links of the general judicial system of Russia.

The development of the army largely depended on the availability of a well-trained officer corps. In the mid-1960s, more than half of the officers had no education at all. It was necessary to resolve two important issues: significantly improve the training of officers and open access to officer ranks not only for nobles and non-commissioned officers who had served, but also for representatives of other classes. For this purpose, military and cadet schools were created with a short period of study - 2 years, in which people who graduated from secondary educational institutions were admitted.

On January 1, 1874, the charter on military service was approved. The entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. For the army, basically, a 6-year term of active service and a 9-year stay in the reserve were established (for the fleet - 7 and 3). Numerous benefits have been established. The only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, some national minorities, etc. were exempted from active service. New system allowed to have a relatively small peacetime army and significant reserves in case of war.

The army has become modern - in structure, weapons, education.

Education reforms

The economic process and the further development of social life in Russia were seriously hampered by the low educational level of the population and the lack of a system of mass training of specialists. In 1864 a new provision was introduced about elementary public schools, according to which the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people. In the same year it was approved charter of gymnasiums, proclaiming the availability of secondary education for all classes and religions. Adopted the year before university charter, which returned autonomy to universities: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced; the university council received the right to independently decide all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. The results were not long in coming: by 1870 there were 17,700 elementary schools of all kinds, with about 600,000 students enrolled; the number of university students increased by 1.5 times. It was, of course, not enough, but incomparably more than in the pre-reform period.

Internal unity and liberal orientation of the whole complex of reforms 60 - 70s allowed Russia to take an important step towards bourgeois monarchy and introduce new legal principles into the functioning of the state mechanism; gave an impetus to the formation of civil society, caused a social and cultural upsurge in the country. These are the undoubted achievements and positive results of the reforms of Alexander II.

The lost Crimean War showed the complete failure of the political and economic system of Nicholas I. Russia lost its prestige among the leading European powers and found itself in international isolation. Alexander II was clear that it was impossible for Russia to claim the role of a leading European power and at the same time remain a serf.

In 1856, Alexander II headed a special secret committee "to consider proposals for serfdom."

In 1857 - the liquidation of military settlements; the establishment of a Secret Committee for the preparation of the peasant reform.

February 18, 1864 - "Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom" and "Manifesto" on the liberation of the peasants.

Key points peasant reform:

Peasants received personal freedom (without redemption) and an established land allotment (for redemption).

Before the ransom, the peasant was considered "temporarily liable" in relation to the landowner, paid dues and processed corvée.

The size of land plots was established for each locality, taking into account various factors. If the pre-reform peasant land allotment exceeded the post-reform one, then the surplus went to the landowner. These "segments" amounted to 1/5 of the former peasant allotments.

the relationship between peasants and landlords was regulated by the Charter.

The peasants received the right to engage in entrepreneurship, to enter into any legal relations, to move to other classes.

The reform was the result of a compromise between landowners, peasants and the government.

The conditions for the emancipation of the peasants initially included future contradictions and a source of constant conflicts between them and the landowners.

The reform prevented mass demonstrations of peasants, although local ones took place.

With the liberation of the peasants, the old administrative system based on serfdom and the predominance of the nobility went into the past.

The main goal of subsequent reforms is to bring the state system and administrative management in line with the new social structure in which the peasantry received freedom.

Development of the system of state institutions.

In November 1861, to consider issues related to the planned reforms, was approved Council of Ministers. The State Council (in the 1960s and 1970s carried out a great deal of work on considering draft laws and preparing them for approval by the emperor) was replaced by the Committee of Ministers.

In the economic sphere:

1865 – Ministry of Railways (instead of the Directorate of Railways and Public Buildings). As part of the Ministry of Finance, the Main Redemption Institution was created (to control the timely payment of peasant loans), as well as the Department of Trade and Manufactory, which managed state and tsar-owned enterprises and provided financial assistance to private enterprises.

Principles judicial reform 1864:

The inconsistency of the court;

Equality of all subjects before the law;

Independence of the court from the administration;

Establishment of a jury trial and the institution of sworn attorneys (lawyers);

The public and representatives of the press were allowed to attend court sessions.

Acts approved and became law judicial reform: Judicial establishments; Charter of criminal proceedings; The charter about the punishments imposed by justices of the peace.

Instead of the cumbersome system of the class court, two types of courts were created: local(to deal with petty crimes and misdemeanors, petty civil claims; volost courts, magistrates and congresses of magistrates) and are common (district courts and judicial chambers, under which judicial investigators, bailiffs and prosecutors).

The Supreme Court, as well as the highest body of judicial review, was Senate, which included two cassation department- civil and criminal. In 1872, the Senate was formed Special presence for the judgment of state crimes and illegal communities- the highest political court of Russia.

Zemstvo reform of 1864

Zemstvos were introduced in uyezds and provinces (in 33 out of 50 Russian provinces), and each of them had administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. The leader of the nobility was the chairman of the Zemsky Assembly. Zemstvo assemblies held elections of zemstvo councils every three years. The basis of the electoral system is based on elective, property (qualification) and estate principles. The zemstvo bodies were dominated by landlords and nobles. The zemstvos were in charge of economic affairs relating to the "benefit" and "needs" of the province or district; engaged in the organization of charitable institutions, health care and public education.

The significance of the zemstvo reform is that, firstly, with the establishment of zemstvos, an attempt was made to create a new system of local self-government based on all-estate representation. Secondly, Zemstvo institutions soon became centers of liberal opposition to the government.

City government reform of 1870

All-class bodies of public self-government were created - city dumas. They dealt with issues of urban improvement, health care, etc. The competence of self-government bodies in cities corresponded to the competence of zemstvo institutions in rural areas.

Financial reform 1862 - 1866

The right to dispose of all the financial resources of the country was received by the Minister of Finance, whose activities were subject to accounting by State control. In 1860 was established National Bank, which began to lend to commercial and industrial enterprises. The main result of the transformation of the financial system was the establishment of budget transparency, financial control and progressive changes in the tax system.

Military transformations of the 60s - 70s.

Military reform (beginning 1860 - 1861, completion - 1874). Its preparation and conduct was led by D.A. Milyutin. He succeeded in changing the structure and armament of the army, updating and improving the quality of the officer corps, alleviating the position of the soldier, and introducing new principles of recruitment into the army. The main achievement of the military reform is the transition from recruitment to universal military service (men under the age of 20 were subject to conscription for military service - 6 years for ground forces, 7 years for the fleet, those liable for military service had a number of benefits, the service life depended on education).

Significant reforms have been carried out in the field of education. 1863 - a new university charter was approved, which expanded the autonomy of universities. The affairs of the universities were managed by academic councils, consisting of professors, teachers and employees.

1864 - the Charter of the secondary school was adopted, according to which gymnasiums were divided into classical (prepared for admission to the university) and real (prepared for admission to higher technical educational institutions). The school reform of 1864 democratized the sphere of primary and secondary education, expanded the network of educational institutions, and attracted new teaching staff.

In 1865, the Provisional Rules on censorship (press reform) were approved. Preliminary censorship was canceled for most of the book of literary magazines. Punitive censorship was introduced - the application of various sanctions after publication, up to the closure of the publication.

Reforms of the 60s - 70s of the XIX century. significantly advanced Russia along the path of economic and political modernization. However, the political reorganization of the country was not completed. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. Alexander II remained in the minds of the people as the tsar-liberator (despite the incompleteness of the peasant reform). The reforms could open the way for the peaceful modernization of Russian society. However, the era of reform was short-lived. The reform process was interrupted on March 1, 1881, as a result of the assassination of Alexander II by the People's Volunteer revolutionaries.

THEME #2

Russia at the beginningXXcentury.

In the nineteenth century Russian empire was in a state of still implicit, but deep crisis. The reasons were that the country lagged far behind its more developed neighbors in social and administrative terms. There were serious problems in management and in the use of resources, popular discontent grew, even the nobility began to demand change.

Alexander II made an attempt to solve all these problems. His reforms did not prevent the revolution that did happen later, but improved the life of the country for several decades.

What exactly did Alexander II change during his reign?

It is impossible to study the reforms of the emperor in all details in a brief review. But even a simple enumeration of them makes it possible to imagine how progressive and timely the actions of the ruler were.

Alexander II held:

• . Absolutely all the peasants of the empire ceased to be serfs and acquired the status of full-fledged citizens - and for this they did not need to “redeem” themselves from the landowner.
• military reform. First of all, the system of physical punishment was abolished, which caused enormous discontent during the reign of Nicholas I. In addition, now military service extended to all classes, and people from all walks of life could voluntarily enroll in military schools.
• financial reform. The emperor put things in order in the expenses and incomes of the state - from now on the budget was subject to mandatory approval by the state council and personally by the king, ministries were required to report on their spending. The implementation of the rules was monitored by special commissions, in addition, the established budget was published in the press.
• . The activities of the courts were completely removed from the control of other branches of government - in other words, the courts became independent and impartial. Also, Alexander II for the first time introduced the so-called adversarial principle - from now on, a person could not be convicted without a lawyer, any defendant was necessarily assigned a defender.
• . Their essence is approximately the same - in cities, provinces and counties, new government bodies were created, consisting mainly of local residents. From now on, all issues related to the life and development of the city, county or province were decided not by officials from distant lands, but by local commissions, well acquainted with the needs of the population and the realities of the geographical area.
• . Universities were granted greater freedom of self-government. In addition, it became easier for people from poor families to enroll in education, and the very first schools for women also appeared.

The reforms of Alexander II are often called liberal. And with this term it is impossible not to agree. Against the background of his predecessors, the emperor became a real "liberator" for the people, allowed civil society to develop, improved the life of the lower strata of the population.