empirical knowledge It is fact-detecting and fact-descriptive cognition that answers the question “how”. Theoretical knowledge, on the other hand, is essential knowledge that answers the question "why", the question of internal reasons phenomena, which ultimately makes it possible to control the phenomena and events under study, accelerate their arrival or, conversely, delay and prevent them, as well as predict fundamentally new facts.

Empirical knowledge to a greater extent needs formal logic, theoretical also - and first of all - in content. Empirical knowledge is fundamentally necessary, since theoretical, categorical analysis must necessarily be based on empirical knowledge. However, one cannot imagine that the transition from empirical to theoretical knowledge is simple and formal: it is enough, de facto, to accumulate the required amount of empirical facts and this alone will provide a new quality of knowledge. The fact is that theoretical knowledge is not derived from empirical knowledge in a formally logical way, it is derived by dialectical thinking, processing empirical knowledge into theoretical. And this processing is connected, first of all, with finding the essence, with the emergence of an idea on this occasion. Let us dwell on the division of all methods into two large groups - empirical and theoretical methods. The methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge are schematically presented in Fig.2. Empirical methods (observation, modeling, analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, etc.) do not follow from the essence of the object, and therefore contain many subjective moments. But they are such only if they do not enter, as a necessary moment, into the scope of the system of theoretical methods, which are built on the unity of subject and method. Since theoretical methods (idea, hypothesis, theory) act as a way for the subject to organize his activity in accordance with the essence of the subject, the empirical methods involved in the scope of the theory receive direction and objectivity within it.

Consider the features of some methods of scientific knowledge. The ratio of general scientific methods can also be represented as a diagram in Fig.3.

Figure 2. Methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge

Figure 3. The ratio of general scientific methods

Analysis and synthesis. Empirical analysis is simply the decomposition of a whole into its component, simpler elementary parts. Synthesis, on the contrary, is the combination of the components of a complex phenomenon. Theoretical analysis provides for the selection in the object of the main and essential, imperceptible to empirical vision. The analytical method in this case includes the results of abstraction, simplification, formalization. Theoretical synthesis is an expanding knowledge that constructs something new that goes beyond the existing framework.

Induction and deduction. Induction can be defined as a method of moving from knowledge of individual facts to knowledge of the general. Deduction is a method of moving from knowledge general patterns to their private manifestation. Theoretical induction and the deduction based on it differ from empirical induction and deduction in that they are not based on the search for an abstractly general, identical in different subjects and facts (“All swans are white”), but on the search for the concrete-universal, on the search for the law of existence and development of the system under study.

Abstraction is a method that boils down to distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific side of it. The result of abstraction is the development of abstract concepts that characterize objects from different angles.

In the process of cognition, such a technique as analogy is also used - a conclusion about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects. This technique is associated with the modeling method, which has received special distribution in modern conditions. This method is based on the principle of similarity. Its essence lies in the fact that not the object itself is directly investigated, but its analogue, its substitute, its model, and then the results obtained during the study of the model are transferred to the object itself according to special rules. Modeling is used in cases where the object itself is either difficult to access, or its direct study is economically unprofitable, etc. There are a number of types of modeling:

• 1) Subject modeling, in which the model reproduces the geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics of the object.
• 2) Analog modeling, in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship.
• 3) Sign modeling, in which schemes, drawings, formulas act as models.
• 4) Mental modeling is closely connected with the sign, in which models acquire a mentally visual character.
• 5) Finally, a special type of modeling is the inclusion in the experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Idealization is organically connected with modeling - the mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and are not feasible in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in the real world. All sciences operate with this kind of ideal objects - an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, a socio-economic formation, the state, etc.

Consider the methods of theoretical knowledge. The idea as a form of cognition, first of all, is the unity of the objective and the subjective. Objective reality is not simply reflected in the idea, but is, as it were, mentally completed in it, namely: the existent is completed to the proper. “An idea is “invented”, “seen” (i.e., found so far only in consciousness), a possible way out of the existing contradictory situation - beyond the existing state of affairs and the concepts expressing it. At the starting point and at the end of its formation, the idea is the unity of the subjective and the objective. And in relation to theory, it is its germ and a kind of bridge between the empirical and the theoretical. The idea expresses the creative, transformative nature of human thinking. Expressing the needs and interests of people, it acts as a program and method of their theoretical and practical activities.

Hypothesis. The development of an idea first necessarily takes the form of a hypothesis. A person moves from one level of mastering reality to another, and the contradiction between these levels forces him to look for more and more new ideas, to try to substantiate and systematize them. And it is precisely this contradiction that gives the hypothesis an objective and absolutely necessary character. In other words, the hypothesis is fundamentally irremovable from the process of the development of knowledge. The hypothesis contains both reliable and unreliable, proven and unproven moments. In this it differs from the theory, which is reliable, scientifically proven.

Theory. Noting such important features of the theory as consistency, completeness, reliability, formal consistency, the presence of a set of conclusions, etc., it is important to emphasize the presence in it of the initial concepts on which all its development is based, deployment into a certain unity of the diverse, the identification of universal conditions spiritually the concrete integrity it reproduces.

And yet, the most profound difference between a theory and a hypothesis and empirical generalization lies in the particular practice that underlies it, sets the direction of its development and tests its conclusions.

Of course, practice and theory in their development determine and support each other, interact with each other, however, not every practice generates a need for theory, but only practice that has reached the state of holistic objective activity, focused not just on the transformation of things, the natural forms of objects, but on the transformation of processes, internal interconnections of the systems of these subjects. This practice has been historically formed since the emergence of capitalist production, and with it, science arises as special form public consciousness.

scientific simulation cognition

The analysis of differences in the severity of indicators assumes that you present in a tabular or graphical form average values the severity of psychological indicators for a group of data on the scales of the corresponding methodology. Let's look at an example.

Let one of the methods used in the work be “Methodology for diagnosing the level of empathic abilities of V.V. Boyko”.

The technique allows you to determine the level of empathic abilities on 6 scales that reflect different kinds(channels) of empathy: rational, emotional, intuitive, attitudes towards empathy, penetrating, identification.

The scores for each scale can range from 0 to 6 points.

General empathy is defined as the sum of 6 components.

The final indicator of the level of empathy varies from 0 to 36 points. At the same time, the author of the test offers the following gradation general level empathy levels:

Less than 14 points - very low level of empathy;

15-21 - low level of empathy;

22-29 - average level of empathy;

30 points and above - very high level empathy.

The table of initial data for 10 subjects is as follows:

Table 1. Results of psychodiagnostics of the level of empathy

Such summary tables of the results of psychodiagnostics are usually placed in the application.

If calculations are made in statistical program, then it has convenient functions for constructing histograms of averages and distributions.

It is important to note that the description of the data for each of the test methods ( average values and distribution) is not always directly related to the essence empirical research. These results are often not even included in the conclusions. For more serious studies, such an analysis is appropriate, as it allows for a preliminary analysis of the data, which is important for subsequent calculations (for example, checking the indicator for normal distribution). But in most term papers, theses and master's theses in psychology, this kind of primary data analysis is purely illustrative. Nevertheless, the competent design of this part of the empirical study shows the student's understanding of the essence of the psychological indicators diagnosed by the tests.

Statistical processing and data analysis

A mandatory requirement for all term papers, diploma and master's theses in psychology of the research type is the presence of statistical analysis in them.

The essence of empirical economic analysis.

Remark 1

empirical method in economic theory is the first way to learn economic phenomena and connections.

Empirical analysis is characterized by the following features:

1. Collection of facts;
2. Primary processing;
3. Description of the data used.

The most important task of the empirical method is the initial collection of the necessary information in order to generalize, as well as to use it for further theoretical analysis.

Empirical economic research is independent, but nevertheless linked to the theoretical level of knowledge.

The theoretical approach studies the logical connections between the objects under study and is another method of economic analysis.

Empirical analysis is based on theoretical knowledge.

Characteristics of empirical analysis:

• The object of research is certain systems of economic relations.
• Orientation - description of economic phenomena and processes.
• Research methods - observation, data measurement, comparison, experiment.

Characteristics of research methods.

Economic observation is the purposeful perception of economic facts. In this case, the auditor notes the economic facts, while not actively influencing the object of observation. These facts, processed and meaningful, are used in theoretical models and constructions.

The main requirements that observation must meet:

• predictability;
• Planned;
• Consistency;
• Selectivity;
• Purposefulness.

1. The economic dimension is the definition of quantitative values, the properties of an object. In this case, technical devices are used, as well as units of measurement. In this case, the use of mass-produced machines that comply with GOST, supported by official documents, or it may be necessary to create specialized devices and any other installations.

   This research method increases the accuracy of knowledge in economics. The basis for such a method as measurement is metrology.

   Definition 1

   Metrology is a science that studies the methods and means of measurement.

   The economic dimension as a separate operation deepens economic analysis, allows you to complement the qualitative method in economic study quantitative method also increases the accuracy of economic knowledge.

   An economic experiment is a study of an economic phenomenon by actively influencing it.

   Classification of experiments:

   • Depending on the branch of science - biological, chemical, social, etc.;
   • Depending on the objectives of the study - search, control, etc.;
   • Depending on the method of formation of conditions - natural, artificial;
   • Depending on the organization of the place of the experiment - laboratory, field, production, etc.;
   • Depending on the type of models used - material, mental;
   • Depending on the nature of the analyzed objects - technological, sociometric and some other features.

2. Comparison - this method establishes similarities and differences between objects. Comparison occurs when the analyzed objects have general characteristics, as well as more important features.

main form scientific knowledge are scientific facts, sets of empirical generalizations, empirical laws and regularities; concepts that generalize observed objects or phenomena.

An example is the statistical patterns of distribution. These patterns reflect the properties of economic phenomena.

Stratification is the only way to explore and control the values ​​of variables other than exposure and disease in data analysis. Stratification refers to the division of data into subgroups, or strata. For example, stratification by sex or age means that the data is classified by male and female, or by age category. The section contains a section on standardization, which uses age standardization as an example. The standardization procedure is one of the types of stratified analysis.

The main purpose of a stratified analysis is to evaluate and, if necessary, control for interfering factors. Confounding occurs when some cause other than the exposure under study is more prevalent in the exposed group than in the unexposed group. When data are stratified by a confounding factor, for example, males and females, each stratum will be free from the confounding effect of the stratified variable. That is, if the association between exposure and disease is analyzed separately, say for men and women, each of the two sex strata will provide an estimate of the effect of exposure free from the confounding factor of sex. Such stratified results are often not reported separately, but are combined into a single result. An example of this is age standardization in the same section, where age bias is controlled in this way.

Another purpose of conducting a stratified analysis is to analyze the effect modification. Effect modification means that the exposure effect is stronger in some strata than in others. If, for example, the relative risk of disease due to exposure is 2 for women and 3 for men, sex will modify this effect and is thus an effect modifier.

The basic principle of using stratification to control confounding will be illustrated with two examples: from a cohort study and from a case-control study.

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1. Program of sociological research. The goals of sociological research are the analysis of problems that are of key importance for the life of society. The main reason for turning to sociological research is the need for extensive, meaningful and up-to-date information that reflects the most important aspects of life and interaction of individuals, groups, collectives, social strata of society, which are most often hidden.

Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodical and organizational-technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomenon under study.

Methodology - component and a special area of ​​sociological knowledge, which has as its content a set of principles and methods of organizing, developing and evaluating theoretical and empirical sociological knowledge, a system of norms and regulations for conducting sociological research. When creating research programs, a sociologist-methodologist must know what should be selected, observe how to analyze the collected empirical material, transform it in accordance with theoretical provisions. The theory provides an explanation for this or that phenomenon and process, indicating what needs to be investigated, what specific problem situation to be studied, and the methodology shows how to study, i.e. gives an explanation of the situation and how to study it.

stage of sociological research - preparation - thinking over goals, programs, plans, determining the means, timing, methods of processing information, etc.

stage - the collection of primary sociological information - the researcher's notes, extracts from documents, individual answers of the respondents, etc.

stage - preparation of information collected in the course of sociological research (questionnaire survey, interviews, content analysis, etc.) for processing on a computer, drawing up a processing program, processing on a computer.

stage - analysis of the processed information, preparation scientific report based on the results of the study, the formulation of conclusions and recommendations for the customer, the subject of management.

Types of sociological research: reconnaissance (pilot, probing), descriptive, analytical.

intelligence - the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to decide limited tasks. In fact, there is a “run-in” of tools: a questionnaire, an interview form, a questionnaire, observation cards, documents study cards, etc. The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The survey populations are small: from 20 to 100 people. Intelligence research allows you to obtain operational sociological information.

Descriptive research – more complex view sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. It is usually carried out in the case when the object of analysis is a relatively large set, characterized by various characteristics, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise, where people of different professions, gender, age, length of service, etc. work. Allocation in the structure of the object of study of relatively homogeneous groups (for example, by level of education, age) makes it possible to evaluate, compare the characteristics of interest, to identify the presence or absence of links between them. In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and sound recommendations.

The most serious type of research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. The search for cause-and-effect relationships is the main purpose of such a study. In an analytical study, a combination of many factors that determine a particular phenomenon is studied. Usually they are classified as main and non-main, permanent and temporary, controlled and uncontrolled, etc.

Analytical research is impossible without a detailed program and polished tools. It usually completes exploratory and descriptive research, during which information is collected that gives a preliminary idea about certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied. Analytical research is most often complex. In terms of the methods used, it is richer, more diverse than not only exploratory, but also descriptive research.

The program of sociological research consists of two sections: methodological and methodical.

Methodological: formulation and justification of a social problem; definition of the object and subject of sociological research; definition of the researcher's tasks and formulation of hypotheses.

Methodical: definition of the studied population; characteristics of methods for collecting primary sociological information; sequence of application of tools for its collection; logical scheme for processing the collected data on a computer.

social problem- "social contradiction", recognized by the subjects as a significant for them discrepancy between the existing and the proper, between the goals and results of activity, arising from the absence or insufficiency of means to achieve goals, obstacles on this path, the struggle around goals between various subjects of activity, which leads to the dissatisfaction of social needs.

The object of study is any social process, sphere social life, labor collective, any public relations, documentation. The main thing is that all of them contain a social contradiction and give rise to a problem situation.

The subject of the study is certain ideas, properties, characteristics inherent, for example, in a given team, the most significant from a practical or theoretical point of view, i.e. that is subject to direct study.

Definition of goals, objectives of the study.

Hypothesis - a scientific assumption put forward to explain any factors, phenomena and processes, which must either be confirmed or refuted. The advancement of hypotheses in the research program determines the logic of the process of sociological analysis.

Logical concept analysis– ordering of the main categories – the most general concepts to be used in the study. The main categories occupy a leading place in determining the subject of research.

A sample is a certain number of elements population selected according to a strictly defined rule. The elements of the sample to be studied are the units of analysis.

The work plan of the study - the main procedural activities that must be carried out during the study.

2.Methods of sociological research. Questionnaire poll is the most important source of information about real social facts, about social activity. It begins with the formulation of program questions, with the "translation" of the problems posed in the research program into questions that exclude various interpretations and are accessible to the understanding of the respondents.

Interview - a kind of purposeful conversation "eye to eye" with the interviewee. The nature of communication, the degree of contact, mutual understanding between the interviewer and the respondent largely determine the depth and quality of the information received about a particular social fact or phenomenon.

Observation- collection of primary special information through direct and indirect registration by the researcher of events and conditions in which they take place.

Experiment- a general scientific method of obtaining new knowledge under controlled and controlled conditions. To identify the effectiveness of the experiment, it is advisable to conduct it multiple times, during which the purity of the experiment is worked out and the main options for solving a social problem are checked.

Document analysis. A document in sociology means one or another source containing information about social facts and phenomena of social life, about certain social entities that function and develop in society. Content - analysis or scientific analysis text content is a research method used in a variety of disciplines, areas of humanitarian knowledge: in social and general psychology, sociology and criminology, historical science and literary criticism.

3. Analysis of empirical data. The analysis of the data obtained in the course of a sociological study begins with monitoring the quality of filling in the instrumentation, correcting errors and culling (culling) of poorly completed questionnaires, forms, cards, etc. The categories of the quality of filling in the toolkit are diverse, the approaches here are ambiguous. It all depends on the working conditions of the questionnaires, interviewers, the place of the survey and other factors.

Documents admitted for processing are numbered, starting with No. 1, in order to control their passage. In the future, an array of documents is transferred for encoding.

Coding is the link between qualitative and quantitative information. On this basis, numerical operations are carried out with the information entered into the computer memory. If a failure, replacement or loss of the code occurs during encoding, the information will be incorrect.

The essence of the processing of primary information lies in its generalization. The results of generalization are called sociological information.

Each question in the questionnaire or interview form represents, to some extent, a measurement scale. The units of measurement are the corresponding alternatives (positions), answer options. Respondents are grouped according to these positions (answer options). In addition, a certain scale of measurements is represented by the objective characteristics of the respondents, their subjective assessments, preferences, etc.

The simplest form of generalization of primary sociological information is grouping. At this stage, essential features or one feature are identified, and the respondent is assigned to one or another group in accordance with the selected feature. When the answers of the respondents are summed up taking into account, for example, gender, then a simple grouping is carried out. Exactly the same work can be done by taking the level of education as the most important feature. But in this case, there will be not two groups, but at least three or four.

A more profound analysis of sociological information is made possible by statistical and mathematical methods of analyzing the information received, which are widely used in empirical research. However, with all the importance of the distributions obtained, the mathematical and statistical methods used in the study, the decisive role in the interpretation of the data obtained is played, first of all, by the very concept of the study, the scientific erudition of the sociologist.

The results of the analysis of the information received are reflected, as a rule, in a report on the conducted sociological research, which contains information of interest to the customer (researcher), scientific conclusions and recommendations. The structure of the report on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of the operationalization of the main concepts, but the sociologist, preparing this document, goes the way induction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, the answer to the main hypothesis is given.

The annex to the report contains all the methodological and methodological documents of the study: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the answer are most often taken out in the application. This must be done because these documents, answers can be used in the preparation of a new research program.

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