Since the time of Aristotle, only five senses have been in the focus of attention of many generations of scientists: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In the XIX century. knowledge about the composition of sensations has expanded dramatically. This happened as a result of the description and study of their new types - vestibular, vibrational, musculo-articular, or kinesthetic, etc., as well as due to the clarification of the composition of some complex types of sensations (for example, scientific awareness of the fact that touch is a combination of tactile, temperature, pain sensations and kinesthesia, and in tactile sensations, in turn, sensations of touch and pressure can be distinguished). The increase in the number of types of sensations made it necessary to classify them.

Several attempts are known to classify sensations on different grounds and principles. The most successful and thought-out is the classification proposed by the English physiologist Charles Sherrington. The basis for this classification was the nature of the reflections and the location of the receptors. C. Sherrington identified three types of receptive fields: interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive.

Interoceptive receptors located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflect the state of the internal organs. These are the most ancient and most elementary sensations, however, they are very important as signals about the state of our body. Proprioceptors are found in muscles, ligaments and tendons. They supply information about the movements and position of our body in space, and of individual parts of the body relative to each other. These sensations play an essential role in the regulation of movement.

Exteroceptive receptive field coincides with the outer surface of the body and is completely open to external influences. Exteroceptors represent the largest group of sensations. C. Sherrington divided them into contact and distant. Contact receptors (touch, including tactile, temperature and pain sensations, as well as taste buds) transmit irritation through direct contact with objects affecting them. Distant sensations (smell, hearing, sight) arise when a stimulus acts from a certain distance.

From the point of view of modern science, the division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors), proposed by C. Sherrington, is not enough. Some kinds of sensations - for example, temperature and pain, taste and vibration, muscle-articular and static-dynamic receptors - can be considered external-internal.

To general properties of sensations attribute them quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization. Qualities - these are the specific features of this sensation that distinguish it from other types. For example, auditory sensations differ in timbre, pitch, volume; visual - by saturation and color tone, taste - by modality (taste can be sweet, salty, sour and bitter). Duration sensations are its temporal characteristic. It is largely determined by the functional state of the sense organs, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. It must be borne in mind that when a stimulus is applied to the sensory organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time, which is called the latency period. The latency period for different types of sensations is not the same: for tactile sensations, for example, it is 130 milliseconds, for painful sensations - 370 milliseconds, taste sensations appear 50 milliseconds after a chemical stimulus is applied to the surface of the tongue. Just as sensation does not arise simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear with the cessation of the latter. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect.

Spatial localization the stimulus also determines the nature of sensations. Spatial analysis carried out by distant receptors provides information on the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations relate to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. In this case, the localization of pain is more "diffuse", less accurate than tactile.

Regularities of sensations:

1. Thresholds of sensations. For sensations to arise, it is necessary that the irritation reaches a certain value, a certain strength. The smallest amount of a stimulus that causes a hardly noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. The lower (min) the threshold value, the higher (max) the sensitivity. The upper threshold of sensitivity is the largest value of the stimulus at which this sensation is still preserved. (Beyond this threshold, for example, the light is already blinding). Threshold of discrimination (differential threshold of sensitivity): the minimum difference between 2 stimuli that causes a subtle difference in sensation. For each type of sensation, this value is more or less constant. For example, in order to notice the difference in weight, it is necessary to subtract or add to the original value - 0.33 of the original; for auditory sensations, the threshold is 0.1; for visual - 0.01 of the original value; as for the olfactory analyzers, a person can feel musk if it contains 1/100000000 part. The value of the thresholds of sensitivity depends on many reasons: fitness; interests; the nature of the activity (textile workers distinguish up to 40 shades of black); motives, attitude to the task.

2. Compensation. In the field of sensations and perceptions, the psycho-integral system. This unity, with a complete or partial loss of individual sense organs, is manifested in the phenomena of compensation: in the current situation, the surviving organs, as it were, partially assume the functions of the lost ones. In the blind, the sense of touch, hearing, and smell becomes more acute.

3.Adaptation. The sensitivity of the analyzers is not constant. A change in the sensitivity of analyzers occurs under the influence of their adaptation to acting stimuli. The general pattern is as follows: in the transition from weak to strong stimuli, sensitivity decreases; in the transition from strong to weak - increases. Strong adaptation is observed in temperature (thermal), tactile, olfactory, visual sensations. Weak adaptation in pain, auditory.

4. Interaction of sensations. Sensations do not exist in isolation from each other. The work of one analyzer can affect the work of another analyzer - weaken or, conversely, enhance it. This phenomenon is called sensitization. So, for example, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer can be stimulated by: weak musical sounds (sharp strong sounds, on the contrary, impair vision); rubbing the face with cool water (temperature sensations); weak sweet and sour taste.

5. Synesthesia. Synesthesia (from the Greek synáisthesis) is a simultaneous sensation, a joint feeling, consisting in the fact that under the influence of irritation of one analyzer, characteristic of another analyzer of sensation, an impression is created corresponding to a given stimulus of the sensory organs, while it is accompanied by another, additional sensation or image ... The most common are visual-auditory synesthesias, when visual images appear in a subject when exposed to sound stimuli. It is known that composers such as Scriabin and Rimsky-Korsakov possessed such an ability as the ability to hear color.

The basic patterns of sensation include thresholds of sensitivity, adaptation, interaction, contrast, and synesthesia.

Let's characterize each concept in more detail.

Sensitivity thresholds. Not every strength of the stimulus is capable of evoking sensations. So, for example, the touch of a fluff to the body cannot be felt. And with the action of a very strong stimulus, a moment may come when sensations cease to arise at all. We do not hear sounds with a frequency higher than 20 thousand hertz. And a super-strong stimulus instead of a sensation of this kind causes pain. Consequently, sensations arise when exposed to a stimulus of a certain intensity. The psychological characteristic of the relationship between the intensity of sensation and the strength of stimuli is expressed by the concept of the threshold of sensations, or the threshold of sensitivity. In psychophysiology, two types of thresholds are distinguished: the threshold of absolute sensitivity and the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination. The smallest stimulus strength at which a barely noticeable sensation first occurs is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. And the greatest strength of the stimulus, at which the sensation of a given type still exists, is called the upper absolute threshold of sensitivity.

Thresholds limit the zone of sensitivity of the analyzer to this type of stimuli. For example, of all electromagnetic vibrations, the eye is capable of reflecting wavelengths from 390 (violet) to 780 (red) nanometers; vibrations, perceived by the ear as sound, occupy the range from 20 to 20 thousand hertz. At present, the characteristics of the upper and lower thresholds of all types of sensitivity have been studied in detail. The effect on the nervous system of stimuli that do not reach the threshold value does not remain unnoticed. These stimuli change the thresholds of sensitivity and can subconsciously adjust movements and actions. To measure the thresholds of absolute sensitivity, devices with scales for continuous changes in the strength of the stimulus have been created. Starting the action on the analyzer with a subthreshold stimulus, the experimenter gradually increases the strength of the stimulus until the subject says that he has a sensation. In accordance with the indicators of the subject, the physical strength of the stimulus is recorded. The measurement is made several times. Then the conditions of the experiment change: the strength of the stimulus causing the sensation decreases until the subject says that the sensation has disappeared. Having made several such measurements, the experimenter calculates the arithmetic average of all values, which is considered the threshold strength of the stimulus.

As we said above, in addition to strength, the stimulus is characterized by the duration of the action, that is, by the length of time during which it acts on the analyzer. It is known that there is a relationship between the strength of the stimulus and the duration of its exposure, which is necessary to reach the threshold value. The weaker the stimulus, the longer it takes for it to elicit a sensation. With prolonged exposure (more than a second), the occurrence of sensations begins to depend only on the strength of the stimulus.

There is an inverse relationship between the sensitivity (threshold) and the strength of the stimulus: the more strength is needed for sensation to arise, the lower the sensitivity of a person. Sensitivity thresholds are individual for each person. This psychological pattern of sensations should be provided for by the teacher, especially in primary grades. Because sometimes there are children with reduced auditory and visual sensitivity. For them to clearly see and hear, it is necessary to create conditions for the best differentiation between the teacher's speech and the notes on the blackboard.

The thresholds of absolute sensitivity do not remain unchanged throughout a person's life: sensitivity in children develops, reaching the highest level by adolescence. In addition to the thresholds of absolute sensitivity, sensations are also characterized by thresholds of sensitivity to discrimination. The smallest increase in the strength of the acting stimulus, at which a barely noticeable distinction in the strength or quality of sensations occurs, is called the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.

In life, we constantly notice a change in lighting, an increase or decrease in the strength of sound. This is a manifestation of the threshold of discrimination. Let me give you an example. If you ask two or three people to halve a line about a meter long. It turns out that each of the subjects will plot their midpoint. We measure with a millimeter ruler, who divided more accurately - this subject will have the best sensitivity to discrimination.

An experimental study of sensitivity to discrimination made it possible to formulate the following law, which is valid for stimuli of medium strength, i.e., not approaching the lower or upper thresholds of absolute sensitivity: the ratio of the additional strength of the stimulus to the main one is a constant value for a given type of sensitivity. So, in the sensation of pressure (tactile sensitivity), this increase is equal to 1/30 of the weight of the original stimulus. This means that 3.4 g needs to be added to 100 g to feel a change in pressure, and to 1 kg - 34 g. For auditory sensations, this constant is 1/10, for visual sensations - 1/100. Sensitivity to discrimination, as noted by B.G. Ananiev, is the source of such a complex thought process as comparison. In the development of discriminatory sensitivity, the word plays an exceptional role. The word highlights and consolidates subtle differences in sensations, draws a person's attention to the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the properties of the reflected object and leads to the development of observation. Therefore, the improvement of discriminatory sensitivity in children is inextricably linked with the development of speech in the learning process.

The next regularity on which we will focus our attention will be adaptation. Adaptation is an adaptation of sensitivity to a constantly acting stimulus, manifested in a decrease or increase in thresholds. In life, the phenomenon of adaptation is well known to everyone. So in the first minute, when a person enters the river, the water seems cold to him. Then the cold sensation disappears and the water appears warm enough. This is observed in all types of sensitivity, except for pain. The degree of adaptation of various analytical systems is not the same: high adaptability is noted in olfactory sensations, tactile (we do not notice the pressure of clothing on the body), light, much less - in auditory, cold. We meet with minor adaptation in pain sensations. Pain signals the destruction of an organ, and it is clear that adaptation to pain can lead to the death of the body.

In the visual analyzer, a distinction is made between dark and light adaptation.

The course of dark adaptation has been studied in detail. Getting into a darkened room, at first, a person does not see anything, after 3-5 minutes he begins to distinguish well the light entering there. Being in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity to light by about 200 thousand times in 40 minutes. The increase in sensitivity is influenced by various reasons: changes occur in the receptor, the opening of the pupil increases, the work of the rod apparatus is enhanced, but generally the sensitivity increases due to the conditioned reflex work of the central mechanisms of the analyzer. If dark adaptation is associated with an increase in sensitivity, then light adaptation is associated with a decrease in light sensitivity.

Let's pay special attention to the interaction of sensations.

The interaction of sensations is a change in the sensitivity of one analytical system under the influence of the activity of another analytical system. The change in sensitivity is explained by cortical connections between the analyzers, largely by the law of simultaneous induction. The general regularity of the interaction of sensations is as follows: weak stimuli in one analytic system increase the sensitivity, and in the other they decrease it. For example, weak taste sensations (sour) increase visual sensitivity, mutual influence is noted between sound and visual sensations. The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers, as well as systematic exercise, is called sensitization.

For example, weak taste sensations increase visual sensitivity. This is due to the interconnection of these analyzers, their systemic work. Sensitization, exacerbation of sensitivity, can be caused not only by the interaction of sensations, but also by physiological factors, the introduction of certain substances into the body. For example, vitamin A is essential for increasing visual sensitivity. Sensitivity increases if a person expects one or another weak stimulus, when a special task of distinguishing stimuli is presented to him. The individual's sensitivity is improved by exercise. So, tasters, specially exercising taste and olfactory sensitivity, distinguish between various varieties of wines, teas and can even determine when and where a product is made.

In people deprived of any kind of sensitivity, compensation (compensation) for this deficiency is carried out by increasing the sensitivity of other analyzers (for example, increasing the auditory and olfactory sensitivity in the blind).

The interaction of sensations in some cases leads to sensitization, to an increase in sensitivity, and in other cases - to its decrease, i.e. to desensitization. Strong excitation of some analyzers will always desensitize other analyzers. Thus, the increased noise level in "loud workshops" lowers visual sensitivity. One of the manifestations of the interaction of sensations is the contrast of sensations. The contrast of sensations is an increase in sensitivity to some properties under the influence of other, opposite properties of reality. We are all very familiar with the contrast of sensations. For example, the same gray figure appears dark on a white background and light on a black one.

Next, let's move on to considering such a phenomenon as synesthesia. Synesthesia is the excitation of sensations of another modality by the sensations of one modality. Note that a feature of sensations is the monomodality of the image. However, the interaction of sensations occurring in the central nuclei of the analyzer leads to the fact that a person under pressure, for example, sounds, can experience color sensations, color can cause a feeling of cold. This mutual influence is called synesthesia. Synesthesia can be viewed as a special case of the interaction of sensations, which is expressed not in a change in the level of sensitivity, but in the fact that the effect of sensations of a given modality is enhanced through the excitation of sensations of other modalities. Synesthesia enhances the sensory tone of the senses. The phenomenon of synesthesia extends to all modalities. This is expressed in stable phrases: velvet voice, dark sound, cold color, etc. The manifestations of synesthesia are individual. There are people with a very vivid ability to synesthesia and people in whom it is almost not observed.

The considered patterns reveal the high dynamism of sensations, their dependence on the strength of the stimulus, on the functional state of the analytic system, caused by the onset or termination of the stimulus, as well as the result of the simultaneous action of several stimuli on one analyzer or adjacent analyzers.

Thus, it can be noted that the patterns of sensations determine the conditions under which the stimulus (irritation) reaches consciousness. Thus, biologically important stimuli act on the brain at reduced thresholds and increased sensitivity, and stimuli that have lost their biological significance - at higher thresholds.

Feel

The concept of "sensation"

Types of sensations: exteroceptive, proprioceptive, interoceptive

Regularities of sensations: thresholds, adaptation, interaction, synesthesia.

Requirement: be able to classify the types of sensations.

1. The concept of "sensation"

Sensation is a reflection in the consciousness of a person of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that directly affect his sense organs.

The senses are the mechanisms by which information about our environment enters the cerebral cortex.

* The ability to feel is present in all living beings with a nervous system, but only those of them who have a brain with a highly developed cortex can be aware of their sensations. If the latter is temporarily turned off (with the help of anesthesia or drugs), then the individual loses the ability to consciously react even to strong painful stimuli

2. Types of sensations: exteroceptive, proprioceptive, interoceptive

English physiologist I. Sherrington identified three main classes of sensations:

1) exteroceptive arising from the action of external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body.

2) interoceptive (organic) signaling what is happening in the body (feelings of hunger, thirst, pain, etc.);

3) proprioceptive located in the muscles and tendons, with the help of muscular-motor sensations, a person receives information: about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, etc.

3. Regularities of sensations: thresholds, adaptation, interaction, synesthesia

Sensation thresholds

The lower threshold of sensation is the minimum value or strength of the stimulus that is capable of causing nervous excitement in the analyzer, sufficient for sensation to arise. (The lower the value of this threshold, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer).

The upper threshold of sensation- that maximum value of the stimulus, above which this irritation ceases to be felt. (A person hears, for example, 20,000 vibrations per second. The absolute threshold of sensation is not the same for different people. The magnitude of the threshold of sensations changes with age. The magnitude of the absolute threshold can be influenced by the nature of a person's activity, his functional state, the strength and duration of irritation, etc.)

Difference threshold of sensation (threshold of discrimination)- that is the minimum difference in the intensity of two homogeneous stimuli that a person is able to feel. (In order to catch this difference, it is necessary for it to reach a certain value. For example, sounds of 400 - 402 vibrations in 1 sec. Are perceived as sounds of the same pitch; 2 weights weighing 500 and 510 g seem to be equally heavy. threshold, the higher the differentiating ability of a given analyzer to distinguish between stimuli).

Adaptation

Adaptation- increase or decrease in the sensitivity of analyzers as a result of continuous or prolonged exposure to stimuli. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems are not the same: high adaptability is noted in the sense of smell, in tactile sensations (a person quickly ceases to notice the pressure of clothing on the body) and visual and auditory adaptation occurs much more slowly. Pain sensations differ in the least degree of adaptation: pain is a signal of dangerous disturbances in the body's work, and it is clear that a quick adaptation of pain sensations could threaten him with death.

Interaction of sensations, synesthesia

Increased sensitivity as a result interaction of sensations or the appearance of other stimuli is called sensitization... The sensitivity of the analyzer can be increased by pharmacological means, as well as by the activity of other analyzers.

Synesthesia- sometimes, under the influence of one stimulus, sensations characteristic of another can arise. (For example, in some people, music evokes color sensations, and some color combinations, in turn, affect temperature sensitivity).

LECTURE 3. COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND ATTENTION

1. Attention as a special property of the psyche.

a. The concept of attention, physiological foundations

b. Kinds of attention

c. Properties of attention

2. The concept of sensations

a. Meaning, physiological foundations

b. their classification

c. properties of sensations

d. patterns of sensations.

3. Perception, its main types and properties.

4. Memory, its types and processes. Conditions for effective memorization.

5. Thinking as the highest cognitive process.

6. The concept of intelligence.

7. Imagination, its main functions.

a. Types of imagination.

b. Techniques for creativity and imagination.

8. The concept of speech.

a. Speech and language.

b. Speech functions.

c. Types of speech activity.

1. Mental activity cannot proceed purposefully or productively if a person does not focus on what he is doing. Among all the stimuli, a person chooses the most significant, significant for him, and responds to them. This separation, the ordering of mental activity, is the function of a special property of the psyche - attention.

Attention - this is a selective focus and concentration of consciousness on certain objects and certain activities while being distracted from everything else.

Attention is not a special mental process, but it is included in all other mental processes and is inseparable from them, ensures their successful and accurate work.

V depending on the activity of the individual allocate involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention.

Involuntary Attention. Passive, not related to the goals and intentions of the person. Animals also have this kind of attention.

Unlike involuntary, arbitrary attention is guided by a conscious purpose, is closely related to the will and is developed as a result of labor efforts. Its main function is active regulation of mental processes.

The reasons for voluntary attention are not biological, but social: it is formed in a child in communication with an adult. Voluntary attention is closely related to speech. First, the child subordinates his behavior to the verbal instruction of adults, then to his own verbal instruction.

Post-voluntary (post-voluntary) attention, like voluntary, is purposeful, requires initial volitional efforts, but then the person seems to "enter the work", the content and process of activity, and not only the result, become interesting and significant. Post-voluntary attention is characterized by prolonged concentrated intensity of mental activity, high labor productivity.

Properties of attention

1. Sustainability manifests itself in the ability for a long time to maintain a state of attention on any object, object, without being distracted or weakening attention. Resilience is the opposite distraction attention - an involuntary movement of attention from one object to another.

2. Concentration (concentration) attention is manifested in keeping attention on one object or on some actions while distracting from everything else (focus on reading an interesting book and not notice anything around). The opposite property of focusing attention is distraction- the inability of a person to focus on something specific for a long time. .

3. Distribution of attention- the ability of a person to disperse attention over a significant space, in parallel to perform several types of activities or several different actions. For example, Julius Caesar could simultaneously perform seven unrelated tasks. The student writes a dictation, listens to the teacher and copies from a friend.

4. Attention volume is determined by the amount of information that is simultaneously able to remain in the area of ​​increased attention (average - 5-9 units of information).

Miller's magic number - 7 + -2

5.Switchability attention - a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object, one type of activity to another. (the bus driver switches his attention from instruments to traffic lights, then to road signs). The more interesting the activity, the easier it is to switch to it.

2. Reflection by a person of the influences of the surrounding world occurs through cognitive mental processes. These include sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, speech. The simplest of these is sensation.

Sensation- sensory reflection of objective reality under the direct influence of stimuli on the sense organs.

Thanks to sensations, a separate sensory quality of an object is reflected or undifferentiated, unobjective impressions from the environment are created.

They are of great importance, since they connect a person with the outside world and are the main source of information about him, a condition for mental development.

Classification of sensations.

1) By modality: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste.

2) Systematic classification (according to Sherrington):

• Interoceptive sensations signal the state of the internal processes of the body, bring irritations from internal organs to the brain (sensations of pain, temperature, chemical composition of liquids, etc.)
• Proprioceptive sensations signal the position of the body in space, the position of the musculoskeletal system, and regulate movements. This also includes a sense of balance (receptors in the canals of the inner ear).
• Exteroceptive sensations bring information from the outside world, connect a person with the external environment. They are divided into:

- contact, are caused by the impact directly applied to the surface of the body and the corresponding perceived organ (taste, touch);

- distant caused by stimuli acting on the senses at a certain distance (smell, hearing, sight).

B.G. Ananyev identified 11 types of sensations.

Regularities of sensations.

1) Thresholds of sensations

For a sensation to arise, the stimulus must reach a certain value. The minimum value of the stimulus at which a sensation first occurs is called lower absolute threshold Feel. Upper absolute threshold sensations - the maximum strength of the stimulus, at which there is still a sensation that is adequate to the acting stimulus. The lower and upper absolute thresholds of sensations characterize absolute sensitivity.

The beginning of the study of the thresholds of sensations was laid by the German physicist, psychologist and philosopher G.T. Fechner.

Differential sensitivity- sensitivity to changes in the stimulus. The minimum difference between two stimuli, causing a barely noticeable difference in sensations, is called difference threshold, or threshold of discrimination.

The absolute and relative sensitivity of our senses does not remain unchanged, it can vary within fairly large limits. Sensitivity thresholds are different for different people.

2) Adaptation - changes in the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of its adaptation to the strength and duration of the acting stimulus. Different analyzers have different speed and adaptation range. The olfactory and tactile analyzer adapt quickly enough to changing environmental conditions. A number of stimuli do not fully adapt.

Distinguish between complete and incomplete adaptation. The latter can manifest itself as an increase or decrease in sensitivity.

3) Interaction (mutual influence) of sensations.

Changes in sensitivity under the influence of irritation of other sensory organs is called interaction of sensations... There are three types of interaction of sensations: sensitization, synesthesia and contrast.

The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercise is called sensitization.

Synesthesia- this is the appearance under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer.

Contrast- a change in the intensity or quality of sensations under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus. The essence of the contrast is that weak stimuli increase sensitivity to other simultaneously acting stimuli, while strong stimuli reduce this sensitivity.

The sensations are characterized by compensation... Disturbances in the activity of one analyzer contribute to the development of other senses.

3. Perception (perception)- this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct influence of stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. The result of this process is the so-called perceptual image.

The concepts of "sensation" and "perception" are closely related, but there are also fundamental differences between them. The main difference between perception and sensation is objectivity of awareness everything that affects us, i.e. displaying an object of the real world in the totality of its properties.

Perception includes sensations and is based on them. However, it would be a mistake to consider reducing perception to a simple sum of separate sensations. In addition to sensations, previous experience is involved in the process of perception, the processes of comprehending what is perceived, i.e. mental processes of a higher level, such as memory and thinking, are included in the perception process. Perception is a very complex process that requires analytical and synthetic activity.

Perception always requires the active participation of consciousness.

The main views perception:

· By modality(visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, kinesthetic).

· V depending on the perceived object:

- perception of space- time perception, motion perception

By the nature of arbitrariness:

Arbitrary and involuntary

Consider the properties of perception.

1) Objectivity manifests itself in the fact that the object is perceived by us as a physical body isolated in space and time. This is most evident when you select a shape from the background. This property means adequacy, i.e. correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality.

2) Integrity- the property of perception, which consists in the fact that any object or spatial objective situation is perceived as a stable systemic whole.

3) Structurality- the property of human perception to combine influencing stimuli into integral and relatively simple structures.

4) Constancy- the relative constancy of some properties of objects when conditions change.

5) Meaningfulness (categoricality) means that perceptual images (images of perception) always have a certain semantic meaning for a person. Human perception is closely related to thinking. Consciously perceiving an object means mentally assigning it to a certain group, class, and generalizing it into a word.

6) Activity (selectivity) is that at any moment we perceive only one object or a group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the real world are the background for our perception, i.e. are not reflected in consciousness.

7) Apperception- the dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, on the characteristics of his personality (on the subject's past experience, on the motives and tasks of the activity, on attitudes, worldview, interests and beliefs). Perceptual images of the same phenomena that arise in different people can differ significantly from each other. The richer a person's past experience, the more he sees in the subject.

Memory

4. Under memory means memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting by an individual of his experience. Images of past experiences are called views.

The following main processes are distinguished in memory: memorization, preservation, reproduction, forgetting. Thus, memory is a complex mental process consisting of several private processes interconnected with each other.

Types of memory

Memory Processes

Memorization can be arbitrary and involuntary, mechanical or logical. Let's define the conditions conducive to strong and meaningful memorization.

1) Purpose, setting for memorization. In the process of assimilating educational material, one must not only understand it, but also remember it. It is necessary to form an attitude towards the special memorization of educational material (and memorization for a long time, and not "before the exam").

2) Highlighting the main goals, and drawing up a plan (after 9 days, 43% of new information is forgotten, with a plan - 25%).

3) Comparison of the studied subject, phenomena with those already studied, systematization of the material. The basic rule of effective memorization: in order to memorize any material correctly and reliably, it is necessary to organize it in some way: group, classify, schematize, find associations, etc.

4) Interest in the subject being studied, emotional mood (fear harms memorization).

5) Independence of the work performed.

6) Repetition. After reading it, you must repeat it without looking at the textbook. Basic rules and concepts should be repeated regularly.

7) Change of activities.

It is necessary to take into account such laws of memory as edge factor and Zeigarnik effect. Edge factor: the beginning and the end are better remembered. The middle is inhibited by the previous material (proactive) and subsequent (retroactive), it is remembered worse. Zeigarnik effect: unsolved problems are remembered better than solved ones.

Preservation depends on personality attitudes (professional orientation of memory in cognitive activity), on the conditions and organization of memorization, the influence of subsequent information, mental processing of the material, transitions from preservation in consciousness to repression into the unconscious.

Playback includes three forms: recognition, actual reproduction and recall. Recognition any object occurs at the moment of its perception and means that there is a perception of the object, which was formed in a person on the basis of personal impressions (representation of memory) or verbal descriptions (representation of the imagination). When we recognize an object, we always assign it to a certain category of objects. Recognition can be different in the degree of accuracy and completeness (the least is a feeling of familiarity, complete recognition - a person unmistakably assigns an object to a certain category, can accurately name the time, place of acquaintance).

An example of imaginary recognition ("Deja vu"- “I have already seen” (French) can be an arrival in an unfamiliar city or a new situation when it seems that it has already happened. The associations are summed up here - it seems only something, but it seems that everything is repeated.

Playback itself is carried out outside of perception, in the absence of the original. It is harder to reproduce than to learn.

Playback can be random or involuntary. Involuntary reproduction occurs as if by itself, voluntary requires volitional efforts .

Forgetting has positive characteristics. A huge number of impressions fall on our brain and, thanks to forgetting, it does not overload it, first of all, with unpleasant impressions, since they are forgotten faster.

There are two forms of forgetting: reversible and irreversible. The greatest loss of material occurs immediately after perception, later forgetting is slower. Forgetting is influenced by the following factors.

1) age (for example, short-term memory improves from 5 to 11 years old, then remains at a stable level until 30 years old, from 30 to 70 it can improve or slowly deteriorate);

2) non-use of information (this practically does not apply to motor skills) and its nature (material that is incomprehensible, uninteresting, difficult or large in volume is forgotten more quickly);

3) interference- mixing one information with another, some schemes of remembering with others;

4) repression (associated with feelings; unpleasant information is repressed);

5) reminescence- delayed involuntary reproduction. The essence of reminescence is that what is forgotten immediately after perception can be restored after a while. Young people are especially susceptible to it.

Memory processes are interconnected and support each other.

Thinking as the highest form of cognitive activity.

Thinking- the highest cognitive process, generalized and mediated by a person's reflection of reality in its essential connections and relationships.

Thinking is always associated with action. A person cognizes reality, influences it and changes it. Any thought process in its internal structure is an act of activity aimed at solving a specific problem, and includes a number of operations. The basis and criterion for the truth of thinking is practice.

Types of thinking. There are several approaches to classifying the types of thinking.

· By the degree of deployment allocate discursive and intuitive thinking. Discursive thinking is a step-by-step unfolded process; and intuitive thinking proceeds quickly, there are no clearly defined stages; it seems that the decision comes suddenly, as an inspiration.

· By the nature of the tasks to be solved R.S. Nemov singles out theoretical thinking and practical thinking. Theoretical thinking, in turn, is subdivided into:

- conceptual thinking (associated with the use of concepts; the problem is solved in the mind, no practical action is taken; used in scientific research of a theoretical nature);

- figurative thinking (the material is images that are transformed in the course of solving the problem; prevails in the work of writers, artists, artists).

Practical thinking includes:

- visual-figurative(the process of thinking is associated with the perception of the surrounding reality and cannot take place without it; it is typical for preschoolers and primary schoolchildren; prevails in the work of people of "operator" professions);

- visual and effective(represents a practical transformative activity carried out by a person with real objects; typical for people of mass working professions).

All types of thinking are represented in the same activity, but one is dominant. According to the degree of complexity, according to intellectual requirements, all types of thinking are not inferior to each other.

In the process of mental activity, a person learns the world with the help of special mental operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, concretization, generalization, classification and systematization.

Analysis- mental decomposition of the whole into parts, the allocation of individual signs and properties in it. Can be practical or theoretical.

Synthesis- the mental combination of individual elements, parts and features into a single whole. It is not reduced to a simple sum of parts, it is not their mechanical connection.

Analysis and synthesis always proceed in unity. In mental activity, analysis and synthesis alternately come to the fore.

Comparison- the establishment of similarities or differences between objects, phenomena, their individual features. It can be multilateral and one-sided, superficial and deep, direct and mediated. Basic requirement: must be carried out in one respect.

Comparison is the basis for understanding. For a deep and accurate knowledge of reality, it is important to be able to find differences in similar objects and similarities in different ones.

Abstraction- mental distraction from insignificant signs and highlighting only essential features of groups of objects and phenomena. Its essence lies in simplifying reality by distracting from details, creating symbols of reality. Examples are abstract concepts of length, quantity, value. Reducing the amount of information through abstraction contributes to a faster comprehension of the situation that has arisen.

Concretization- the return of thought from the general and the abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content. It is used in the event that the expressed thought is incomprehensible to others or it is necessary to show the manifestation of the common in the singular (please clarify, give an example).

Generalization- mental unification of objects and phenomena according to general and essential characteristics. However, not every common property can be essential for a group of objects (for example, despite the presence of a tail and fins, a whale is not a fish!).

Classification- This is the division and subsequent unification of objects for some reason (for example, the classification of types of memory).

Systematization- separation and subsequent unification of groups, classes, objects (and not separate objects, as in the classification). An example of systematization are the sections "personality", "cognitive processes" in general psychology.

6. Thinking and intelligence are concepts that are similar in content, but not identical. Thinking is a process, "deliberation," and intelligence is an ability.

Intelligence- the global ability to act rationally, think rationally and cope well with life circumstances (D. Veksler). Thus, intelligence is related to the ability to adapt to the environment.

Types of intelligence:

1) "Liquid" and "crystal" intelligence (R. Cattell). "Liquid" intelligence - innate, potential, underlies the ability to think, abstract and reason. "Crystalline" intelligence consists of various knowledge and skills that a person acquires in the process of life experience (= intelligence, wisdom).

2) Specific (practical) intelligence helps to solve everyday problems and navigate in relationships with various objects (it also includes associative abilities that allow you to use the information stored in memory). Abstract intelligence (academic, cognitive ability) allows you to operate with words and concepts. The ratio of these two levels of intelligence is determined by hereditary factors.

Imagination- the mental process of creating an image of an object, a situation in a situation that is characterized by uncertainty and is a necessary condition for creative activity.

Imagination has the following functions.

1) Represent reality in images and be able to use them, solving problems.

2) Regulation of psychophysiological processes and emotional states. Under the influence of the imagination, corresponding organic changes occur in a person. Often there are facts of suggestion of various diseases. Conscious use of images of the imagination allows you to control organic processes, makes them available for training and development. The power of the imagination is the basis for the treatment of many diseases (the placebo effect).

In addition to imagining the state of his internal organs, a person can use his imagination to imagine the movement of any part of his own body (arms, legs, etc.). At the same time, in the muscles that must carry out this movement, it is possible to fix the impulses that are recorded during the actual execution of the movement. This is the so-called. ideomotor acts... Correct movement representation is often used by athletes. Trainers recommend doing the mental exercise first. This "playing" improves the performance of the exercise itself.

Imagination is associated with emotions, the activity of the subcortical formations of the brain.

3) Arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes... For example, a person, causing a certain image, pays attention to the necessary events - this contributes to the arbitrary control of cognitive processes. Thanks to imagination, abstraction becomes possible, such properties of perception as integrity and constancy are formed.

4) Formation of an internal action plan(the ability to perform actions in the mind, manipulate images).

5) Planning and programming of activities, anticipation(i.e. anticipatory reflection, presentation of the result of the activity).

It is aimed at cognition and transformation of reality fantasy- construction of fictional images, often far from reality (myths, fairy tales, fantasy, etc.). The essence of fantasy images is to find a figurative explanation of phenomena.

According to the severity of activity, two types of imagination are distinguished: passive and active.

For passive imagination is characterized by the creation of images without external stimuli, without a definite intention.

Passive imagination can be intentional and unintentional. Intentional passive imagination creates images that are not associated with will - dreams. Unintentional passive imagination is observed when the activity of consciousness is weakened, for example, in a half-asleep state, in a dream. Its most revealing manifestation is a hallucination, in which a person perceives a non-existent artificial object (devils, monsters).

Active imagination can be recreational (based on what you hear and see) and creative. Re-creating imagination creates certain images according to the description (when reading literature, studying geographical maps, from the words of other people). Creative imagination creates new, original images, ideas. The differences between creative and recreational imagination are relative.

A special kind of imagination is dream as an image of the desired future. A dream can be real and unreal. In the first case, it is identical to the goal of the activity, the person clearly imagines its content and ways of achieving it. An unreal dream is characterized only by its content in the absence or impossibility of ways of its realization.

Creative transformation of reality in the imagination obeys its own laws and is carried out in accordance with certain methods or techniques. New ideas arise on the basis of what was already in consciousness, thanks to the operations of analysis and synthesis. Let's consider them in more detail.

1) Agglutination(gluing) - a combination, merging of individual elements or parts of several objects into one image. Agglutination “helps” in technical creativity (trolleybus, snowmobile, seaplane, accordion).

2) Accentuation- the analytical process of creating images. In the created image, any part, detail, stands out and is especially emphasized, changing in size and making the object disproportionate. Allows you to highlight the most essential in the image.

3) Reception of emphasis can be applied to the whole object. There are two ways: to enlarge the object in comparison with reality (hyperbole) or to reduce it (lithola). Hyperbolization can be achieved by changing the number of parts of an object: multi-armed Buddha, one-eyed cyclops.

3) Schematization(synthetic path). The representations from which the image is created merge, differences are smoothed out, and features of similarity come to the fore (national ornament, images of “Italian”, “Chinese” are generalized schemes).

4) Typing- the embodiment in a specific image of the essential aspects of a given group of objects, the process of decomposition and combination, as a result of which a certain image crystallizes (of a person, his business, relationships). Type is an individual image in which the most characteristic features of people of a whole group, class, nation are combined into a single whole.

Speech concept. Speech and language. Speech functions. Speech activity is a special form of communicative activity (communication activity). The word is associated with all manifestations of the human psyche. The structure of language leaves an imprint on the structure of perception (the task of perception can be posed verbally. Representations of memory are caused by a word and are closely related to it. The connection of speech with feelings: a word can encourage or hurt, elevate or humiliate a person. A particularly close connection exists between thinking and speech. Thinking. exists and is expressed in the word.

Language should be distinguished from speech. Language- a strictly standardized system of means of communication, and speech- the practical use of language in the process of communication to convey thoughts and feelings. Speech is language in action.

The language includes words with their meanings and syntax. The means from which a linguistic message is built are phonemes (oral speech) and graphemes (written speech). The grammatical categories of the language are combined with logical ones. Logical categories are universal. THEM. Sechenov noted that for all peoples, speech has a three-member structure: subject, predicate and ligament. The expression of logical categories through grammatical constructions is specific to each language. When translated from one language into another, the thought remains unchanged, and the linguistic means of its expression change. There are no thoughts in language - it is a set of various means for expressing thoughts. When a certain system of linguistic means is selected from this set in speech, a thought will be expressed in it.

Language is an objective phenomenon of the life of society, it is one for the whole people, speech is individual, it expresses the psychology of a single person or a community of people for whom these features of speech are characteristic. The meanings of the same words are different for different people, although the linguistic meanings may be the same. The language reflects the psychology of the entire people, and not only people living today, but also those who lived before and spoke this language.

In communication, a person uses an insignificant part of the linguistic wealth (for example, a language includes several hundred thousand words, for great writers - from 10 thousand to 20 thousand words). The speech of an individual person has features of pronunciation, vocabulary, sentence structure. By these signs of speech, you can identify a person (in forensic science), diagnose some diseases.

Speech without mastering the language is impossible, while language can exist and develop relatively independently of a person, according to laws that are not related either to his psychology or his behavior. The connecting link between language and speech is the meaning of the word. It is expressed in both language and speech units.

Psychology does not study language, but the process of its application, i.e. speech.

The speech performs the following functions.

1. Significative... Each word of the human language designates an object, points to it, evokes in us an image of this or that object; speaking some words, we each time designate this or that object or phenomenon. In this, the language of man differs from the "language" of animals, which expresses only an emotional state in sounds, but never denotes certain objects with sounds. The word allows you to "double" the world, i.e. thanks to the word, a person can voluntarily evoke an image of the corresponding objects, deal with objects even in their absence. Speech acts as a form of thought existence.

2. Generalization. The word designates not only a single given object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is the bearer of their essential features. the word allows you to assign objects to a certain category, reflects the deep connections and relationships that stand behind the objects of the external world. The ability to analyze an object, to highlight essential properties in it and to classify it into certain categories is called the meaning of a word. By the function of generalization, the word is closely associated with thinking. Both words (concepts) and sentences (judgments) have different degrees of generalization. For example, bus is a less general concept than transportation.

The generalization of the teacher's speech should be built taking into account the possibility of its decoding by students. Decoding- translation of perceived speech signs into a system of images or less generalized concepts. To understand “From the metro you can reach us by any means of transport”, you need to decode the word “transport” into the concepts of “bus”, “trolleybus”, “tram”.

3. Communicative function (speech as a means of communication) includes three sides: informational, expressive and expression of will (means of influence).

Information side manifests itself in the transfer of knowledge and is closely related to the functions of designation and generalization. The informational side presupposes the ability to find a word that accurately expresses a thought, and it must evoke the same thought or idea from the perceiver.

Expressive side is associated with the transfer of feelings and attitudes of the speaker to the subject of the message. The voice of a person determines whether he is calm or agitated, angry or complacent. Emotionally expressive components appear in rhythm, pauses, intonations. voice modulations (oral speech), rhythm and word placement (written speech). We can say that the more expressive the speech, the more it is speech, and not just the language, because the more expressive the speech, the more the speaker himself, his face, is manifested in it. The teacher must convey through speech his attitude to the knowledge and actions of students (for students, it is more important not what the teacher says, but how he says it).

Expression of will aimed at direct subordination of the listener's actions to the speaker's intention. A person speaks in order to influence, if not directly on behavior, then on thought and feelings, on the consciousness of other people. Makarenko wrote that he did not consider himself a master teacher until he learned to pronounce the same expression "Come here" with 20 different shades. Speech is a means of communication primarily because it serves as a means of influence.

The functions of speech are included in a unity, within which they define and mediate each other. The two main functions of speech - communicative and significative - are formed one through the other and function one in the other.

9. Types of speech activity. So, speech is verbal communication, i.e. the process of communication through language. Speech is an action directed at those to whom it is addressed. In order for speech to become a conscious action, the speaker must clearly realize the purpose and tasks that his speech must solve. It is also necessary to take into account the conditions in which speech is carried out; those. the nature of the subject in question and the characteristics of the audience. Depending on the purpose and conditions, a person builds his speech, choosing one or another type of speech activity.

Interaction of sensations.

Development of sensations.

The simplest, but very important mental cognitive processes are Feel. They signal to us what is happening at the moment around us and in our own body. They make it possible for us to orient ourselves in the surrounding conditions and to co-ordinate our actions and deeds with them.

/. /. What such a feeling

Sensations are the initial source of all our knowledge about the world. With the help of sensations, we cognize the size, shape, color, density, temperature, smell, taste of objects and phenomena around us, we catch various sounds, comprehend movement and space, etc. It is sensations that provide material for complex mental processes - perception, thinking, imagination ...

If a person were deprived of all sensations, he would not be able to cognize the world around him in any way and understand what is happening around him. So, people who are blind from birth cannot imagine what red, green or any other color is, deaf from birth - what is the sound of a human voice, birdsong, musical melodies, the sounds of passing cars and flying planes, etc.

A prerequisite for sensation is direct impact of an object or phenomenon on our senses. Objects and phenomena of reality that affect the senses are called irritants. The process of their impact on the senses is called irritation.

Already the ancient Greeks distinguished five senses and the corresponding sensations: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. Modern science has significantly expanded the understanding of the types of human sensations.

Sense organ- anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in internal organs; specialized for receiving exposure to certain stimuli from the external and internal environment. Each such apparatus connects the brain with the outside world, ensures the flow of various information into the brain. I.P. Pavlov suggested calling them analyzers.

Any analyzer consists of three sections: a sense organ - a receptor (from the Latin word "receptor" - receiving), which perceives the stimulus acting on it; the conductive part and the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex, where the processing of nerve impulses takes place. All parts of the analyzer work as a whole. The sensation will not arise if any part of the analyzer is damaged. Thus, visual sensations cease both when the eyes are damaged, and when the optic nerves are damaged, and when the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex are destroyed.

The surrounding reality, acting on our senses (eye, ear, endings of sensory nerves in the skin, etc.), causes sensations. Sensations appear when the excitation caused by any stimulus in the sense organ spreads along centripetal paths to the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex and is subjected to the finest analysis there.

The brain receives information both from the outside world and from the organism itself. Therefore, analyzers are external and internal. External analyzers have receptors located on the surface of the body - the eye, ear, etc. Internal analyzers have receptors located in internal organs and tissues. It occupies a peculiar position motor analyzer.

An analyzer is a complex nervous mechanism that performs a subtle analysis of the surrounding world, that is, it highlights its individual elements and properties. Each analyzer is adapted to highlight certain properties of objects and phenomena: the eye reacts to light stimuli, the ear to auditory stimuli, etc.

The main part of every sense organ is receptors, the endings of the sensory nerve. These are the senses that respond to certain stimuli: the eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin, and special receptor nerve endings embedded in the muscles, tissues and internal organs of the body. Sensory organs such as the eye and the ear unite tens of thousands of receptor endings. The effect of an irritant on the receptor leads to the emergence of a nerve impulse, which is transmitted through the sensory nerve to certain areas of the cerebral cortex.

Sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena when they directly affect the sense organs.

Currently, there are about two dozen different analyzing systems that reflect the effects of the external and internal environment on the body. Different types of sensations arise as a result of the action of different stimuli on different analyzers. We receive sensations with the help of the senses. Each of them gives us its own special sensations - visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, etc.

1.2. Types of sensations

Visual sensations is the sensation of light and color. Everything we see has some color. Only a completely transparent object that we cannot see can be colorless. Colors come in achromatic(white and black and shades of gray in between) and chromatic(various shades of red, yellow, green, blue).

Visual sensations arise as a result of the action of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the sensitive part of our eyes. The light-sensitive organ of the eye is the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones, so named for their external shape. There are a lot of such cells in the retina - about 130 rods and 7 million cones.

In daylight, only the cones are active (for rods, this light is too bright). As a result, we see colors, i.e. there is a feeling of chromatic colors - all colors of the spectrum. In low light (at dusk), the cones stop working (there is not enough light for them), and vision is carried out only by the apparatus of rods - a person sees mainly gray colors (all transitions from white to black, i.e. achromatic colors).

There is a disease in which the work of sticks is disrupted and a person sees very badly or does not see anything at dusk and at night, and during the day his vision remains relatively normal. This disease is called "night blindness", as chickens and pigeons do not have rods and see almost nothing at dusk. Owls, bats, on the contrary, have only rods in the retina - during the day these animals are almost blind.

Color has a different effect on the well-being and performance of a person, on the success of educational activities. Psychologists note that the most acceptable color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red excites, dark blue oppresses, and both tire the eyes. In some cases, people have disturbances in the normal perception of color. This can be attributed to heredity, disease, and eye injury. The most common red-green blindness, called color blindness (named after the English scientist D. Dalton, who first described this phenomenon). Color blind people do not distinguish between red and green, do not understand why people designate color in two words. Such a feature of vision as color blindness should be taken into account when choosing a profession. Color blind people cannot be chauffeurs, pilots, they cannot be painters and fashion designers, etc. A complete lack of sensitivity to chromatic colors is very rare.

The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, one should not read in poor light, at dusk, so as not to cause excessive stress in the eyes, which can be harmful to vision, and contribute to the development of myopia, especially in children and schoolchildren.

Auditory sensations arise with the help of the organ of hearing. There are three types of auditory sensations: speech, musical and noises. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer distinguishes four qualities: sound power(loud-weak) the height(high Low), timbre(the originality of a voice or musical instrument), sound duration(playing time) and tempo-rhythmic features consistently perceived sounds.

Hearing to the sounds of speech called phonemic. It is formed depending on the speech environment in which the child is brought up. Mastering a foreign language presupposes the development of a new system of phonemic hearing. The developed phonemic hearing of a child significantly affects the accuracy of written speech, especially in elementary school. Ear for music the child is brought up and formed, like speech hearing. The early introduction of the child to the musical culture of mankind is of great importance here.

Noises can cause a certain emotional mood in a person (noise of rain, rustle of leaves, howling of the wind), sometimes they serve as a signal of approaching danger (hissing of a snake, formidable barking of a dog, roar of a walking train) or joy (stamping of a child's feet, steps of an approaching loved one, thunder of fireworks) ... In school practice, one often has to deal with the negative influence of noise: it tires the human nervous system. Vibration sensation reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. A person receives such sensations, for example, when he touches the lid of a sounding piano with his hand. Vibration sensations usually do not play an important role for a person and are very poorly developed. However, they reach a very high level of development in many deaf people, for whom they partially replace the deaf.

Olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. The organs of smell are special sensitive cells that are located deep in the nasal cavity. Individual particles of various substances enter the nose along with the air that we inhale. This is how we get the olfactory sensation. In modern man, olfactory sensations play a relatively insignificant role. But people who are blind and deaf use their sense of smell, as the sighted use their sight with hearing: they determine familiar places by smells, recognize familiar people, receive signals of danger, etc.

Human olfactory sensitivity is closely related to taste, helps to recognize the quality of food. Olfactory sensations warn a person about a dangerous air environment (smell of gas, burning). The aroma of objects has a great influence on the emotional state of a person. The existence of the perfume industry is entirely due to the aesthetic need of people for pleasant smells.

Olfactory sensations are very significant for humans when they are associated with knowledge. Only by knowing the peculiarities of the smells of certain substances, a person can navigate in them.

July, carrying dandelion fluff in his clothes, burdock,

July, home through the windows

Everyone speaking out loud.

Steppe unkempt rash, Smelling of linden and grass, Tops and the smell of dill, July meadow air.

Pasternak B."July"

Taste sensations arise with the help of the organs of taste - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four types of basic taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sour-sweet, etc. A small number of qualities of gustatory sensations, however, does not mean that gustatory sensations are limited. Within the limits of salty, sour, sweet, bitter, a whole series of shades arise, each of which gives a new originality to the taste sensations.

Taste sensations of a person are highly dependent on the feeling of hunger; bad food tastes better in a state of hunger. The sense of taste is highly dependent on olfactory sensations. With a severe cold, any dish, even the most beloved one, seems tasteless.

The tip of the tongue feels sweet best. The edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, and the base is sensitive to bitter.

Skin-sensations- tactile (touch sensation) and temperature(sensation of warmth or cold). There are different types of nerve endings on the surface of the skin, each of which gives a sensation of either touch, or walk, or warmth. The sensitivity of different areas of the skin to each type of irritation is different. The touch is felt most at the tip of the tongue and at the fingertips; the back is less sensitive to touch. The skin of those parts of the body, which are usually covered by clothing, the lower back, abdomen, and chest, is most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold. Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. So, average temperatures are accompanied by a positive feeling, the nature of the emotional coloring for warmth and cold is different: cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth - as relaxing. The temperature of high indicators, both in the direction of cold and heat, causes negative emotional experiences.

Visual, auditory, vibrational, gustatory, olfactory and skin sensations reflect the influence of the external world, therefore the organs of all these sensations are located on the surface of the body or near it. Without these sensations, we could not know anything about the world around us.

Another group of sensations informs us about changes, state and movement in our own body. These feelings include motor, organic, balance, tactile, painful. Without these sensations, we would not know anything about ourselves. Motor (or kinesthetic) sensations- these are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Thanks to the activity of the motor analyzer, a person gets the opportunity to coordinate and control his movements. Receptors of motor sensations are located in the muscles and tendons, as well as in the fingers, tongue and lips, since it is these organs that carry out precise and delicate working and speech movements.

The development of kinesthetic sensations is one of the important tasks of learning. Lessons in labor, physical education, drawing, drawing, reading should be planned taking into account the possibilities and prospects for the development of the motor analyzer. For mastering movements, their aesthetic expressive side is of great importance. Children master movements, and therefore their bodies, in dancing, rhythmic gymnastics and other sports that develop beauty and ease of movement.

Without the development of movements and mastery of them, educational and labor activity is impossible. The formation of speech movement, the correct motor image of the word increases the culture of students, improves the literacy of written speech. Teaching a foreign language requires the development of such speech-motor movements that are not characteristic of the Russian language.

Without motor sensations, we could not normally perform movements, since the adaptation of actions to the external world and to each other requires signaling about every smallest detail of the act of movement.

Organic sensations tell us about the work of our body, our internal organs - the esophagus, stomach, intestines and many others, in the walls of which the corresponding receptors are located. As long as we are full and healthy, we do not notice any organic sensations at all. They appear only when something is disturbed in the body's work. For example, if a person has eaten something that is not very fresh, the work of his stomach will be disrupted, and he will immediately feel it: there will be pain in the abdomen.

Hunger, thirst, nausea, pain, sexual sensations, sensations associated with the activity of the heart, breathing, etc. - all these are organic sensations. If they were not there, we would not be able to recognize any disease in time and help our body cope with it.

“There is no doubt,” said I.P. Pavlov, - that for the organism it is not only the analysis of the external world that is important;

Organic sensations are closely related to organic needs person.

Tactile sensations are combinations of skin and motor sensations when feeling objects, that is, when you touch them with a moving hand.

A small child begins to learn about the world from touching, feeling objects. This is one of the important sources of information about the objects around it.

For people without sight, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of exercise, it reaches great perfection. Such people can thread a needle, do modeling, simple construction, even sewing, cooking.

A combination of skin and motor sensations arising from touching objects, i.e. when you touch them with a moving hand, it is called touch. The organ of touch is the hand. For example, deaf-blind Olga Sko-rokhodova writes in this way in her poem “Kbyustu AM. Gorky ":

I have never seen him, Sight replaces my sense of touch, I look at him with my fingers, And Gorky comes to life before me ...

The sense of touch is of great importance in human labor activity, especially when performing various operations that require precision.

Feelings of balance reflect the position occupied by our body in space. When we first sit down on a two-wheeled bicycle, stand on skates, rollers, water skis, the most difficult thing is to keep our balance and not fall. The organ located in the inner ear gives us a sense of balance. It looks like a snail shell and is called labyrinth.

When the position of the body changes, a special fluid (lymph) oscillates in the labyrinth of the inner ear, called vestibular apparatus. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. With strong overexcitation of the organs of balance, nausea, vomiting (the so-called motion sickness or air sickness) are observed. With regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly.

The vestibular apparatus gives signals about the movement and position of the head. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand, nor sit, nor walk, he will fall all the time.

Painful sensations have a protective value: they signal a person about the trouble that has arisen in his body. If the sensation of pain was absent, the person would not even feel serious injuries. Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings a person into serious trouble.

Painful sensations are of a different nature. First, there are "pain points" (special receptors) located on the surface of the skin and in internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a sensation of pain. Secondly, the sensations of pain arise when a superstrong stimulus acts on any analyzer. Blinding light, deafening sound, intense cold or heat radiation, a very pungent odor also cause a painful sensation.

1.3. Basic patterns of sensations

Not everything that acts on our senses creates a sensation. We do not feel the touch of dust particles falling on the skin, we do not see the light of distant stars, we do not hear the ticking of a clock in the next room, we do not feel those faint smells that a dog walking on the trail can catch well. Why? For a sensation to arise, the irritation must reach a certain level. Too weak stimuli do not produce sensations.

The minimum amount of a stimulus that gives a noticeable sensation is called absolute. threshold of sensation.

Each type of sensation has its own threshold. This very small force of influence on the senses, which they are able to grasp.

The absolute threshold value characterizes absolute sensitivity of the senses, or their ability to respond to minimal impacts. The lower the value of the threshold of sensation, the greater the absolute sensitivity to these stimuli.

The absolute sensitivity of certain analyzers differs from person to person. There are no completely identical people in the world, therefore, the thresholds of sensation are different for everyone. So, one person hears very weak sounds (for example, the ticking of a clock located at a great distance from his ear), while the other does not. In order for the latter to have an auditory sensation, it is necessary to increase the strength of this stimulus (for example, to bring the ticking clock closer to a closer distance). Thus, you can find that the absolute hearing sensitivity of the former is higher than that of the latter, and accurately measure the difference observed here. Or one person may notice a very weak, dim light, while for another this light must be a little brighter in order to be felt.

The thresholds of absolute sensitivity do not remain unchanged throughout a person's life: sensitivity in children develops, reaching a higher level by adolescence: the thresholds become lower, and the sensitivity reaches an optimal level. By old age, the thresholds of sensitivity increase. Activity, in the course of which a person relies on these types of sensitivity, has a significant impact on the change in thresholds.

Children with reduced auditory and visual sensitivity study not only in special schools, but also in ordinary ones. In order for them to see and hear clearly, care must be taken to create the conditions for them to best distinguish between the teacher's speech and the notes on the board.

In addition to absolute sensitivity, the analyzer has another important characteristic - the ability to distinguish changes in the strength of the stimulus.

Another important characteristic of the analyzer is its ability to distinguish changes in the strength of the stimulus.

The smallest increase in the strength of the acting stimulus, at which there is a barely noticeable difference in the strength or quality of sensations, is called the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.

In life, we constantly notice a change in illumination, an increase or decrease in the strength of sound, but will we feel, for example, a difference in the strength of a light source of 1000 and 1005 W? The discrimination threshold has a constant relative value for a certain type of sensation and is expressed as a ratio (fraction) ... For vision, the discrimination threshold is 1/100. If the initial illumination of the hall is 1000 W, then the increase should be at least 10 W so that a person can feel a barely noticeable change in illumination. For auditory sensations, the discrimination threshold is 1/10. This means that if 7-8 of the same singers are added to a choir of 100 people, then the person will not notice the amplification of the sound, only 10 singers will hardly noticeably strengthen the choir.

The development of discriminatory sensitivity is vital. It helps to orientate correctly in the environment, makes it possible to act in accordance with the slightest changes in the environment.

Adaptation. In life, adaptation (from the Latin word "adaptare" - to adjust, get used to) is well known to everyone. We enter the river for a swim, at first the water seems terribly cold, then the feeling of cold disappears, the water seems quite bearable, warm enough. Or: leaving a dark room into a bright light, in the first moments we see very badly, the strong light is blinding and we involuntarily close our eyes. But after a few minutes, the eyes will adjust, get used to the bright light and see normally. Or: when we come home from the street, in the first seconds we feel all the smells of the house. After a few minutes, we stop noticing them.

This means that the sensitivity of the analyzers can change under the influence of acting stimuli. This adaptation of the sense organs to external influences is called adaptation. The general pattern of changes in sensitivity: when moving from strong to weak stimuli, sensitivity increases, when moving from weak to strong, it decreases. This is a manifestation of biological expediency: when stimuli are strong, fine sensitivity is not needed, when they are weak, the ability to catch weak stimuli is important.

Strong adaptation is observed in visual, olfactory, temperature, skin (tactile) sensations, weak - in auditory and pain. You can get used to the noise and pain, i.e. distract from them, stop paying attention to them, but you can't stop feeling them. But the skin ceases to feel the pressure of clothing. Our senses do not adjust to pain because pain is an alarm signal. Our body gives it when something is wrong with it. Pain warns of danger. If “we stopped feeling pain, we would not have time to help ourselves.

1.4. Interaction of sensations

Sensations, as a rule, do not exist independently and in isolation from each other. The work of one analyzer can affect the work of another, strengthening or weakening it. For example, weak musical sounds can increase the sensitivity of the visual analyzer, while sharp or strong sounds, on the contrary, impair vision. Rubbing the face with cool water (temperature sensations), weak sweet and sour taste sensations can also sharpen our vision.

A defect in the work of one analyzer is usually compensated for by the increased work and improvement of other analyzers when one of them is lost. The analyzers that remained intact, with their clearer work, compensate for the activity of the "dropped" analyzers. So, in the absence of sight and hearing in the blind-deaf, the activity of the remaining analyzers develops and intensifies so much that people learn to navigate quite well in the environment. For example, the blind-deaf O.I. Skorokhodova, due to her well-developed sense of touch, smell and vibrational sensitivity, managed to achieve great success in understanding the world around her, in mental and aesthetic development.

1.5. Development of sensations

Sensitivity, i.e. the ability to have sensations, in its elementary manifestation, is innate and is certainly a reflex. A child who has just been born already reacts to visual, sound and some other stimuli. Human hearing is influenced by music and speech. All the wealth of human sensations is the result of development and upbringing.

Often, insufficient attention is paid to the development of sensations, especially in comparison with more complex cognitive processes - memory, thinking, imagination. But after all, it is sensations that underlie all cognitive abilities, constitute a powerful potential for a child's development, which is often not fully realized.

The arrangement of our senses allows us to experience much more than what we actually feel. As if a complex device is not working at full capacity. Is it possible to somehow change or enhance our sensations? Sure.

The development of sensations occurs in connection with the practical, primarily labor activity of a person and depends on the requirements that life and labor impose on the work of the sense organs. A high degree of perfection is achieved, for example, by the olfactory and taste sensations of tasters who determine the quality of tea, wine, perfume, etc.

Painting makes special demands on the sense of proportions and color shades when depicting objects. This feeling is more developed among artists than among people who do not paint. It's the same with the musicians. The accuracy of determining sounds in pitch is influenced, for example, by the instrument on which a person is playing. The performance of musical works on the violin places special demands on the violinist's hearing. Therefore, the distinction of pitch in violinists is usually more developed than, for example, in pianists (Kaufman's data).

It is known that some people distinguish melodies well and repeat them easily, others think that all melodies have the same motive. There is an opinion that an ear for music is given to a person by nature, and if someone does not have it, then it never will. This view is wrong. During music lessons, any person develops an ear for music. Blind people are especially keen on hearing. They recognize people well not only by their voice, but also by the sound of footsteps. Some blind people can distinguish trees by the noise of leaves, for example, distinguish birch from maple. And if they saw, then they would not have much need to pay attention to such small differences in sounds.

Our visual senses are also very poorly developed. The capabilities of the visual analyzer are much wider. It is known that artists can distinguish many more shades of the same color than most people, and there are people with a well-developed sense of touch and smell. These types of sensations are especially important for the blind and deaf. By touch and smell, they recognize people and objects, walking along a familiar street, by smell they recognize which house they are passing by.

For example, Olga Skorokhodova writes: “Regardless of what time of year it is: spring, summer, autumn or winter, I always smell a big difference between a city and a park. In the spring, I can smell the damp earth, the resinous smell of pine, the smell of birch, violets, young grass, and when lilacs bloom, I hear this smell. Even approaching the park, in the summer I smell different flowers, grass and pine. In early autumn, in the park, I hear a strong, unlike other smells, the smell of wilting and already dry leaves; at the end of autumn, especially after rain, I can smell the smell of wet earth and wet dry leaves. In winter, I distinguish the park from the city, because the air here is cleaner, there are no those pungent smells of people, cars, different food, smells that come from almost every house in the city ... "

In order to develop your senses, you need to train them. We do not use all the opportunities given to us by nature. One can exercise and train one's senses, and then the world around him will open to man in all its diversity and beauty.

A feature of the sensory organization of a person is that it develops during his lifetime. Psychological research shows that sensory development is the result of a person's long life path. Sensitivity is a potential human property. Its implementation depends on the circumstances of life and the efforts that a person will make to their development.

Questions and tasks

1. Why is sensation called the source of knowledge?

2. What are “sense organs”?

3 What sensations are we talking about in the verse lines of the deaf-blind O. Skorokhodova:

I will hear the smell and dew coolness, I catch the light rustle of leaves with my fingers ...

4. Observe yourself: what are your most developed sensations? Topic 2 PERCEPTION

What is perception.

Types of perception.