Linguistics Linguistics

(Language studies, linguistics) - Science of natural human language in general and about all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world as individual representatives.

Place linguistics among other sciences.

Linguistics and Social Sciences. Since the language is the most important means in society (see) and closely associated with thinking and consciousness (see,), linguistics enters (as one of the central sciences) into a circle of humanitarian (social) scientific disciplines, exploring humans and human society. From these sciences with the linguistics of the most connected ethnography and its various areas developing, in particular, the general principles of the functioning of the language in the societies of different types, including and in archaic, or "primitive", groups (for example, problems, in theory - names associated with the characteristics of the archaic consciousness, etc.). Linguistics as a science of language communication is increasingly associated with modern sociology (see,). Different types of communication in society are investigated by linguistics, communication theory, cultural anthropology (Learning communication through any messages, not only not so much language and) and. Natural language is the most important (and the best studied) sign system, so the linguistics are often considered as the most important of semiotic disciplines. Among them, linguistics turns out to be a central science, since the language serves as a means to build a number of texts (in particular, in fiction) and "outlawic" systems (semiotic worlds) studied by semiotic disciplines. For the study of language texts that serve as the signs of "outlawic" systems (mythology, ritual, religion, philosophy, etc.), the relevant scientific disciplines are treated for help to linguistics and to a number of scientific disciplines, border with linguistics, - to learning texts . hermeneuticsBy understanding texts, etc. But at the same time, the solution of each of these tasks should be specifically investigated and in linguistics, since any new social language function significantly affects some of its levels. It is necessary to occur with intermediate disciplines in contact with linguistics, such as linguistic poetics, in many ways to bring together with exploring the language laws of building texts, including artistic (see).

The relationship between linguistics and other sciences can be explored depending on the nature of the iconic (or stonel) nature of the subject of each of these sciences. Close all with a linguization of semiotic disciplines gets closer grammatology - Science of writing (since there are types of letters, only indirectly related to the language, grammatology is generally not included in the linguistics). (See also) Contacts with linguistics, especially at the level of semantics (like the section of grammatology exploring).

Key role of linguistics for many adjacent humanitarian Sciences Makes the conclusions of the linguistic knowledge important for the whole humanitarian knowledge as a whole. Historical linguistics according to its convergence with history and other sciences exploring time change social structuresThe development of which in some cases determines the path of language evolution, and the development of culture, literature, art, etc. One of the most important problems is to find out to which the development of one of these rows of evolving phenomena affects the evolution of another number. Historical linguistics relates to a large number of historical disciplines, the findings of which it relies.

The manifold of the functions of the language in society and the close nature of his connection with thinking and with the mental activity of a person makes a very flexible interaction of linguistics with relevant social and psychological sciences. Especially tested linguistics with psychologyalready in 19 century. Imaging the invasion of psychological methods and ideas in linguistics (see). In the 50s. 20 V. There was a new border with a linguistic science -. The development of the ideas of generating grammar led to its organic merger with cognitive psychology and to the gradual inclusion of linguistics into a circle of fundamental cognitive sciences and their applications united by a general term "artificial intelligence". Considered common to language and psychology issues of language and thinking intensively studied modern logic, language philosophy and at the same time constitute the content of linguistic semantics.

Linguistics and Natural Sciences. Linguistics and mathematics. The links of linguistics not only with social sciences and sciences about a person, but also with natural sciences, there were still 19 V. Some of the analogies of the analogy of the analogy of the analogy of the analogy of the analogies between and Darwin theory of Evolution found support in modern science. The genetic code was largely based on the assimilation of the biologists of the Linguistics of Linguistics and on typological analogies with the structure of the natural language, which continue to be studied and geneticists, and linguists. The methods of comparative historical praforms and determining the discrepancy time between the descendants of one in the linguistics were similar to similar procedures in the molecular theory of evolution (definition of protein - the source source for comparable proteins in different organisms, the establishment of the separation of organisms during evolution). Contact Linguistic Biology is also carried out in the study of the possible hereditary nature of the main linguistic abilities of a person, which is related to both issues and the development of the idea of \u200b\u200blanguage. A more clearly determined the status studies on the basis of linguistic data functions and zones of the central nervous system associated normally and pathology with the language. On the border of linguistics and psychiatry is a study of speech features under different types of mental disorders. In psychoanalysis, attention focuses on unconscious speech errors and on an unconscious content of the patient pronounced in the presence of a doctor. I. A. Boduen de Kurgee, E. Sepir, M. M. Bakhtin, R. O. Jacobson, E. Benovenist, exploring the connection of science of the unconsciousness with linguistics, noted that different levels of the language in different extent "automated" and not Remote speaking. As neurolynguistics develops, there is a question about the correlation of different parts of the theory of the language with the characteristics of the respective zones of the central nervous system of the person. To understand the characteristics of the human physiology, it is the language that plays a particularly important role that gradually begins to be taken into account in theoretical work on psychophysiology, and in medical (psychotherapeutic) applications that have analogues in folk medicine (conspiracy texts, etc.).

Modern instrumental methods are associated with the use of various devices, mainly electro-acoustic (spectrographs, intonographic, etc.), as well as registering movements (). Phonetics is therefore especially closely connected from physics and physiology . Technical tasks associated with an increase in the efficient use of voice information transmission channels and with oral communication with computer and robots are the almost most important scope of application linguistics (see), where the speech study and the calculation of its statistical characteristics of the methods of the mathematical theory of information developed by the academician is carried out. A. N. Kolmogorov and American mathematician K. Shannon. Communication Linguistics S. theory of InformationThe stimulus for the study of which was given technical applications of linguistics, however, leads to a clear formulation of significant problems associated with the nature of the communication act and with social language functions.

For its characteristic linguistics of the 1st half of the 20th century. focus only on learning a language as "subject in yourself" from the middle of 20 century. It is necessary to rapprocherate linguistics with physico-mathematical sciences, in particular with mathematics; There is a special area of \u200b\u200bmathematics - comprising a mathematical formal (algebraic) theory of grammar and statistical language theory (using methods of mathematical statistics, probabilities theory and information theory). Methods of mathematical logic apply to the formal description of the categories of natural languages. The linguistics turned out to be the humanitarian science, which, without giving the links with other sciences about the person and his culture, the first resolutely began to use not only the instrumental methods of observation (in phonetics) and experimental techniques (in psycholinguistics), but also systematically apply mathematical methods (in T . h. and computer) to receive and record their findings. Right develops computational linguisticswhose goal is to create complex computer service systems through a language that make a direct conversation of a person with a computer, processing, memorization, search and output of information in speech form, etc. (sometimes some of these tasks are combined with the term "engineering linguistics"). The role of the language and linguistics for the computer revolution is essential (especially in connection with the emergence of the mid-80s. Personal and other computers capable of conducting a dialogue with the "consumer" in a natural language), which leads to further stimulating the growth of those regions of linguistics, which are especially important for these newest practical applications. Many traditional areas of linguistics significantly change the methodology of the study due to the ability to use computers in them: it becomes possible to build programs that reconstruct different alternative options and grammatical levels of praaskins, the machine determination of the division of related languages \u200b\u200bby lexicostatistics by the preparation of machine dictionaries for extensive buildings of ancient written texts and carrying out EUM of auxiliary work for decryption of ancient writing, recording in the memory of a complete grammatical dictionary of a specific language, etc. The nature of the application of these computing methods brings the computational linguistics with such sciences as experimental physics, where the test of certain mathematical models is carried out by processing the corresponding experimental material. Description of the world and its fragments in physics and other natural Sciencesah uses a natural language; To some extent, they continue to use and after developing on its basis of a special mathematical language; The properties of the natural language retain their value for these sciences and up to the present. Therefore, the need to take into account the peculiarities of the natural language and the achievements of linguistics are recognized by the largest representatives of physics and other natural sciences.

Principles of linguistics of linguistics on sections and composition of linguistics.

The empirically established partitions of linguistics, partially intersecting and therefore, not forming a logically unified system, can be represented as correlated with each other by some different parameters.

General Linguistics and Private Language Sciences. The most common and private partitions of linguistics are distinguished. One of the major partitions of linguistics is the so-called general linguistics - engaged in properties inherent in any language, and differs from the private language disciplines used by it, which are allocated in the linguistics of their subject - either in a separate language (for example, Russian language -, Japanese -, etc.), or by group related languages \u200b\u200b(for example, studying Romance languages \u200b\u200bstudying Turkic languages, etc.), or in the geographical area, inside which are grouped and / or typologically close languages \u200b\u200b(for example, etc.). The general linguistics sets the general (or statistically prevailing) features of all languages \u200b\u200bas empirically inductively, with the help of typology and deductive, exploring the general (significant groups of people) patterns of functioning of the language (see,), features of any and text, etc. P.

From the 50s. 20 V. the area of \u200b\u200bgeneral linguistics, which is developing the structure and language of the linguistic theory itself, is developing in wide sense the words metateorey Linguistics (In a narrower sense, under the metatorelia, a part of the total linguistics occupied by the comparative assessment of various types of linguistic theories is understood).

The general linguistics also distinguishes the partitions of linguistics, depending on the membership of the language itself at the levels (see) and on the orientation of this section on the other side of the language sign () and text (). Those linguistics sections that are preferably engaged in the structure and to a lesser extent by the non-language phenomena with which the signs of the language are called, sometimes called the term " internal linguistics", Or" internal linguistics ", in contrast to the so-called" external linguistics", Or" external linguistics ". But since the language is like social phenomenon Describes some non-language events, division into "internal linguistics" and "external linguistics" is always conditionally and wears quantitative nature (some sections are more internal character, others are more external).

The areas of linguistics associated primarily with the meaning part of the Linguistics Units necessary for the text transmitted to it transmitted to it during the speech communication. The sound level is oriented - the sound side directly accessible to human perception. Its object is in all their diversity. They are investigated using instruments that fix articulation (physiological) and sound characteristics. Phonetovists are based on the possibilities of a human hearing aid, intended, in particular, for, - human ear. Phonetics recorded and developed a general inventory of sounds used in different languages \u200b\u200bof the world, and created a universal system to record them - international phonetic. The sounds of the language also studies, but with functional and systemic points of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between signs and texts of the language. As an initial unit and object of the study of phonology, and / or phonological distinctive (differential) feature is allocated. In such languages, as a classic, not a foundation can be selected as a basic unit of description, but or fierce due to the presence of a clear structure of the latter. The question of the main phonological unit (as well as the units of other levels of language) is determined only by the structure and operation of this particular language and should not be equally solved for all languages \u200b\u200bof the world. Therefore, the border between the general linguistics and "private" linguistics is quite mobile.

When choosing as the main unit of the phonological level of the segment phoneme (see) a description of this level (over which suprarate, or, comprising, and so on), is more reduced to the detection of different positional (allophones) of each phonam. Many phonological schools and directions in solving issues on the release of the background and their variants are treated with the grammatical (morphological) role of the corresponding sound units. A special morphonological level is introduced and the linguistic discipline is introduced - which is the subject of which is the study of the phonological composition of the morphological units of the language - (parts) - and of various kinds of grammatically due to the phone.

Sections of linguistics that study speech sounds - phonetics, phonology, morphology - do not investigate meantable side Signs as such. This side of the signs are investigated by others (in the broad sense of the word - semantically oriented) sections of linguistics for which values \u200b\u200b(i.e. meant) are of the main interest. At the same time, attention is drawn simultaneously both on the signable sides of the signs (values) and the coding of these latter with the help of meaning.

Possible classification of sections of linguistics in general. One way to represent a linguistic linguistics as a whole as a single science is to interpret its different sections as a study of various kinds of relationships between language systems. Any study contains a comparison of this language with a certain outdoorist reference (playing sometimes the role of the description); In describing two languages, one of them is described in comparison with the second; Investigation on phonetics of any particular language contains a reference to the general audio inventory (and the corresponding recording system); The same and in relation to any other language levels, which always includes a reference to some language universals of this level. In this broad sense, the study of any level of a particular language is included in typological linguistics (see), to which, first of all, actually typological studies of both individual levels of languages \u200b\u200band entire language systems are. The theory of translation is adjacent to typological linguistics linguistics, including. The typological linguistics may be distracted from the space-time features of the matched languages \u200b\u200b(although in stadial typology it is assumed to correlate each type with a certain stage of thinking and / or cultural and social development). In all other sections of linguistics, it is spatial and temporary factors that are in the spotlight.

For a long period, the main factor recognized in the linguistics was time . In the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the linguistics prevailed historical - studies of individual atomistic isolated phenomena of each level of language; Therefore, many sections of linguistics, isolated then from each other, are designed almost exclusively in terms of language history. It was limited by the description and classification of various kinds of changes in the meaning of words (while phonetics was mainly engaged in the classification of types of changes of sounds). Traditional was an isolated study of the history of individual words from the point of view of their origin and word formation (from the main inherited dictionary of the language historically preceding this, or from other languages \u200b\u200bin the case). Only by the end of the 20th century. Etymology creates holistic descriptions of groups of words in their history, describing the word formation system as the basis for the diachronic study of a holistic set of wordform - initial objects of comparative historical research. The development of methods for studying "words and things" (it. Wörter und Sachen) and groups of words included in the semantic fields led to a study through the history of the words of various parties to the material and spiritual culture and the medium in which carriers lived at a certain historical stage Language (or, in comparative historical linguistics, one or another defense, which is sometimes indicated by the term). The study of specific languages \u200b\u200bin a diachronic plan, the creation of the general theory of language evolution, both in general and in relation to certain levels of the language, is engaged in historical and comparative historical linguistics. The special area is the works on languages \u200b\u200b(also at different levels), which is sometimes associated with the theory of evolution. The linguistics is strengthened by the tendency to combine the description with historical: we are going to introduce a dynamic temporary factor and in the description of the language. But the synchronous functioning of the language at each level is designed much weaker than single diachronic changes. Changing any level as the system is just beginning to be explored. Sociolinguistic field observations undertaken only in the 70s -80s are especially important in this plan. 20 V. and giving valuable results (for example, the obligation of sound laws for the microevolution of the language is confirmed). It is the study of real living in the spatial (including social) and temporary plans. Each of the levels of the language and its variation in the spatial plan (in the territorial limitation) is investigated in (in relation to one language) and in (with respect to many languages, for example, in one, as well as in studies of various kinds, the subject of which are two or more languages \u200b\u200bwith each other, education and general processes of linguistic mixing). Some of the conclusions and methods of these "spatial" sections of the linguistics allow them to bring them closer to other spatially oriented sciences: for example, the conclusion about the preservation of archaic phenomena on the periphery combines the arral linguistics with the geography of biological species. It is essential that the similarity of these sciences concerns the methods of transition from spatial conclusions to temporary.

The study of "strong semantics" is an intermediate link between the "internal linguistics" and "external linguistics" studying the social and spatial-temporal conditions for the existence of the language that determine its variation. The latter are engaged in such sections of linguistics, as, dialectology, social dialectology and sociolinguistics ,. But these sections of the "external linguistics", however, have not yet formed a single whole, which explains the absence of a complete description of any language of the world as a holistic system at all levels in its correlation with different aspects of social functioning. The essential problem of spatio-temporary linguistics is the establishment of boundaries between the language and the dialect. In modern linguistics, methods of detecting general traits, which combine all speakers in this language or dialect and allow you to distinguish the features characteristic of individual speech genres and styles (the latter are studied by linguistic; its particular section is areas, border with poetics and the poetic styles of individual authors and directions of verbal art). The limit case of a dialect crushing is a language of a separate person, which in young language linguistics was often the main object of the study. As a special area of \u200b\u200blinguistics, recently develops.

Brief information about the history of linguistics.

Linguistics began to develop in the ancient East - in Mesopotamia, where grammatical structures were studied, in Syria, Malaya Asia (as they distributed in 3-2 md. BC) and Egypt, as well as in India and China. Conscious language learning has become necessary in connection with the invention of writing and with the emergence of the social structure of special languages \u200b\u200bother than (literary and cult written languages \u200b\u200bin the anterior Asia and specially designed - in India). For learning a letter and written language in Mesopotamia and Northern Syria (Ebla, the middle of the 3rd thousand to N. E.), and later in other countries of the anterior Asia, lists of syllable signs and grammatical forms were drawn up, as well as dictionaries, methods were created On the letter of words of different languages \u200b\u200b("Gloss Wedge" in the clinopy of Malaya Asia, Syria and Palestine, the forms of the native language of scribe were noted), but there was no theoretical consideration of the language facts. Unrecognizable high level Descriptive and theoretical linguistics reached in ancient India (see). The practical incentive for its development was the desire for the strict definition of Sanskrit and to accurate description Language of sacred texts (Vedas). Grammar Sanskrit, compiled by Panini (about 5 V. BC), is at the same time the most complete and extremely compressed description of the language system (mainly on the phonological and grammatical levels). Achievements of Indian scientists in the field of phonetic (articulation) description of speech sounds have had a significant impact on the development of linguistics in the middle of the century in Tibet, China, Korea and Japan, but grammatical studies in the countries of the Far East are characterized by independence of the results, of which the division established by Chinese scientists is the most significant words on complete (significant) and empty (); cm. .

Ancient Greek language studies, like the Old Indian, their origins go to Indo-European mythological ideas about the language (the general Greek-Aryan myth on the occurrence of language is restored). Unlike India, where the descriptive linguistics received its formal apparatus and special research methods, in Greece, linguistics has remained part of philosophy for a long time. If in India, a formal study of the language often acquired a purely aesthetic character, then in Greece to the fore, the study of the language as a means of knowledge was put on. Greek philosophy of linguistics (see) was atomistic, as it was built on the study of a separate word (and not a whole language system and a whole statement that made the subject of analysis in Indian linguistics). In the Greek concept of the language, individual words add up to suggestions, whereas for the Hindu, a complete proposal decomposes on the elements only in the grammatical description. Especially clearly, the atomistic concept of the tongue was formulated by Aristotle, who noted the discrete nature of speech. Despite the mainly logical approach to grammar at Aristotle (who has found a continuation in the further European language tradition; see in the linguistics), he has the merit of establishing some of the actual language facts, in particular, the allocation of significant and incognizable members of the proposal (corresponding to the full and empty words of Chinese grammar) . Descriptive linguistics as an independent discipline is gradually decorated in the works and, and in Rome - in the writings of Women, but in the ancient world it is located on a much lower level than in India. The Linguistics of the European Middle Ages continued the tradition of ancient philosophy of linguistics, especially Aristotle (see). The development of grammatical teachings of the Greeks and Indian phonetic theories was carried out in medieval Arabic linguistics (see).

By the beginning of the 2nd thousand n. e. The linguistics are beginning to accumulate observations about the relationship of languages, alien to both Indian and antique linguistics. In 1073-74, the Central Asian philologist Mahmoud Kashgari approaches the establishment of the Rodance of Turkic languages \u200b\u200band outlines the main phonetic correspondences between them. In the Jewish linguistics of the Middle Ages (see) the Regulation on the relationship of the language with is expressed. Related relations between individual languages \u200b\u200binside language families Europe is installed in Dante, scaliger and other scientists late Middle Ages and Renaissance. However, these observations on related links between languages \u200b\u200bdo not yet create a special scientific discipline - a comparative historical linguistics that arose only at 19 V. Based on the openings of the end of the 18th century. The philosophical study of the language with a new force is reborn at 17 and 18 centuries. and reaches the tops in the works of G. V. Leibnitsa, who studied the language in comparison with other iconic systems (including science languages) and thus anticipating the semiotic study of the language, as well as many of the provisions of linguistic semantics. Leibniz was one of the initiators of wide surveys of various languages \u200b\u200bconducted in 18 V. (in particular, in Russia). At the turn of the foreronant philosophy of the language of 18 V. And the new comparative historical linguistics is the concept of V. von Humboldt (see), who launched the thesis that the language is creative, and not the dead product of the creation. The ideas of Humboldt on the connection of the language with the worldview of the people received a wide response to in the linguistics (19 centuries) and in ethnolinguistics of the 20th century; Humboldt ideas about communication languages \u200b\u200band art were developed in 20 V. K. Fossser and his school (see Linguistics).

Comparative linguistics occurs at the beginning of the 19th century. (works of F. Boppa and R. K. Rask, as well as Ya. Grimma, A. Kh. Eastokova and others), and the development of the formal apparatus of the comparative-historical grammar of Indo-European languages \u200b\u200band the techniques for establishing correspondences are much ahead of the meaningful interpretation of these correspondences. The first experience of such an interpretation gave Schleiher, who considered the development of the language in the spirit of biological ideas of C. Darwin and thus approached comparison of biological evolution with the transfer of language information over time. The model of the sequential membership of the Indo-European Praäthane proposed by the Slachecher was in the well-known relationship with a convenient approach to reality, although, as a slightly later showed I. Schmidt, it did not take into account complex spatial ties between individual languages. The one-sided passion for the placement of the language of the language in time, characteristic of the historical linguistics of the 19th century, was supplemented with the analysis of spatial relations in the theory of Schmidt's waves, in a similar concept of Shujhardt, linguistic geography (J. Zhillon) and later in Italian neolingestics (M. J . Bartoli, J. Bonfanta). The formal apparatus of comparative historical linguistics was improved due to the introduction of the concepts of reconstruction (Schleiher), and grammatical (see).

The most abstract direction of structural linguistics was (L. Yelmslev), in many ways close to mathematical theories of the language. For the development of new directions of linguistics focused on solving practical problems (computing linguistics), N. Khomsky, which laid the foundations were essential. In the 2nd half of the 20th century. Especially intensively developing text linguistics. For the modern stage of linguistics, the growing interest in semantics and, especially the theory of speech acts, the contacts of linguistics linguistics (see).

Soviet linguistics, in special methods of learning the language, the developing ideas and traditions of domestic researchers [see Linguistics in Russia, The Leningrad Phonological School] is characterized from the beginning of the 20s. 20 V. attention to the study of language as a social phenomenon (L. P. Yakubinsky, Polivanov, R. O. Shor, M. N. Peterson, V. I. Abaev, V. M. Zhirmunsky and others), in particular in connection with the development of theory speech genres (Bakhtin), much ahead of sociolinguistic studies, and in connection with the study of mixing or "" languages \u200b\u200b(N. Ya. Marr and his school); Consideration of ties of language and thinking in close contact with psychology (L. S. Vygotsky and his school) and neuropsychology (A. R. Luria), as well as the development of different variants of stadial typology of languages \u200b\u200b(I. I. Meschaninov, S. D. Katsnelson , M. M. Gukhman, A.V. Desnitskaya and others), related and with the nomination of a number of original ideas in general grammar, studying the categories typology (A. A. Kholodovich, N. F. Yakovlev and others). In the Soviet linguistics, the concepts of stadial typology, the phonological theories of the Moscow and Leningrad schools were created; The basics of the theory of the poetic language and the history of literary languages, linguistic stylistics and linguistic poetics are laid. The constant feature of the linguistics of the USSR is attention to the applied linguistics, which was said, in particular, in cooperation between phonetovists (L. V. Shcherba, L. R. Sinder and others) and communication engineers, as well as in the development of the principles of lexicographic description of languages, methods of studying educational Dictionaries and grammar (Scherba), in the use of phonological principles for the creation of alphabets of the peoples of the Peoples of the USSR (Yakovlev, L. I. Zhirkov, polivans and others; see,). In recent decades, the work of Soviet scientists in the field of a semiotic approach to the language are determined by attention to the principles and methods of those branches of linguistics that serve as theoretical basis for automatic translation and solving other problems of computing ("engineering") linguistics, which becomes the most rapidly growing area of \u200b\u200blinguistics. . However, the linguistic 2nd half of the 20th century. It is characterized by a refund to historical issues, taking into account the possibilities of synchronous typology, identified in the Soviet linguistics in the 1930s, and diachronic patterns (see also). New possibilities of penetration into the more distant epochs of the background of language families in the establishment of related relationships between the families of the Old World, which, after V. M. Ilich-Switich, are united in a native macro. In the development of similar methods, it turns out the likelihood of entering another macro of North Caucasian, the encyclopedic dictionary of the Dictionary of the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian speech Encyclopedia of cultural studies, Alpatov V. . What is linguistics, or linguistics? What does this science do, what problems are there before it? This book tells about the history of linguistics from the oldest times of modernity and ...More details

Linguistics as science.

Linguistics - Science of language, its origin, properties and functions.

Linguistics is one of the oldest industries of knowledge.

It originated with the advent of schools. 3 thousand BC.

The emergence of the first dictionaries, grammar.

Genuine science becomes 19 V.

The first language learning method.

Proof of kinship of languages, systemism of language, laws of development, etc.

Linguistics are currently highly developed science.

Language is one of the essential signs of a person.

The main object of study is a language.

Language - 1. Language knowledge generally, as a universal characteristic of a person, the ability to communicate.

2. Knowledge of a specific language. Various communicative systems.

Linguistics (Linguistics) - Science of natural human language in general, and about all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world, as individual representatives.

Linguistics is divided into 2 main sections:

General linguistics - considers the properties inherent in any language. Learn the problems of the origin of the language, language and thinking, language and society, the structure of the language, classification of the languages \u200b\u200bof the world.

Private linguistics - refers to the study of individual languages \u200b\u200band groups of related languages. May be descriptive (the facts of the language at a particular historical moment) and historical (Language development over time).

Phonetics, morphology, syntax, lexicology, word formation, punctuation - also sections of linguistics.

There are linguistics 2 aspects - Fundamental and applied.

Fundamental Studies are aimed at obtaining a new knowledge of language. Linguistics theory. Methods and research techniques are being developed.

Applied Linguistics solves specific practical tasks - translation, learning writing and reading, speech culture, creating artificial languages, development of terminology, deciphering ancient texts, linguistic examination of texts, identification of personality by handwriting, etc.

Both aspects are in constant interaction.

Directions born at the junction of sciences:

Psycholinguistics,

Sociolinguistics,

Linguculturology,

Cognitive linguistics (language and process of knowledge of the world),

Political linguistics

Ethnolinguistics.

The task:

Get acquainted with the textbooks on the introduction into linguistics.

Languard language.

Essence, nature of the language.

Object - study area.

Human language is an object of study in linguistics.

The subject of the study is one of the parties to the object being studied.

The question of what language is a question about his essence. To the end, this question is not resolved.

Language - Natural PhenomenonSince a person does not affect the language.

This point of view was popular in the middle of the 19th century, as the natural sciences of Nature are actively developed. (Augustus Schleiher - "Darwin Theory and Linguistics").

According to Schleiher, among the languages \u200b\u200bthere is also evolution and natural selection. Scientist linguist is a naturalist. Linguistics should be based on accurate observation.

Terminology originated in this period.

Language - phenomenon psychologicalSince it is a human heritage.

Then this is one of the abilities, psyche of a person, the function of the brain. Arises with the development of human consciousness. Language laws are the laws of psyche.

Wilhelm von Gumbaldt - first noted the connection of the psyche of man and language. "The language of the people is his spirit."

A.A. Pottnya: "Language - means of identifying the psychology of the speaker."

I. A. Boduen de Courtae. "Language exists only in individual brains, only in souls, only in the psyche of individuals."

Language - social phenomenonSince exists in society, the team.

This point of view occurred in the 17th century, but was justified from the scientific point of view only at the end of the 19th - early 20th century due to the development of sociology.

Ferdinand de Sosurur - "language is socially due to its development due to the development of public life."

Antoine Meye - "Language - means of communication in the team. Each group of people uses a special way of language properties. "

Language is a necessary condition for the existence of society itself.

The language relates to communication systems.

All communications have a sign character (gestures, light, beep, color).

A sign is a carrier of information.

Words - Language Signs.

Language is one of the iconic systems serving society.

Output:

The language contains both biological, psychological and social aspects.

Language - naturally arising and naturally developing sign system. Its basic property is social intended.

Possible report topics:

Augustus Schleicher: Naturalism in Linguistics.

Wilhelm von Gumbaldt - the language of the people is his spirit.

Psychological direction.

Jean Vandrises - language there is a social phenomenon.

Language as a sign system.

The topic of the seminar number 2: for which the language arose.

Speech gestures.

Sign languages.

Human language and animal language.

The origin of the language.

The question of the occurrence of the language remains to the end not solved.

How did the language appear? When and where does it come?

This question cannot be answered 100% exactly.

There are several hypotheses on this issue:

At the early stage of development of humanity existed Logosic(from Lat. Logos) theory. The basis of the origin of the world was lying the spiritual principle. The word is a creative force that created the world and man in this world. Gerder, Lessing, Plato supported this idea. Then God presented the gift to the word man.

Theory of Natural Origin Language. She is close to the idea of \u200b\u200ba logine theory. This hypothesis expressed Herclite. He said that the tongue appeared in nature. So-called Fusel's theory. Words express the essence of the designated items, their essence, the idea. The name and item are inextricably linked. Outing the taboo on certain words so as not to bring the wrath of the gods, fate.

The language begins to be considered as a product of human activity. Arises the theory of public (social) contract. This hypothesis developed democritus and his supporters. Test theory. Communication between names and subjects conditional. For each thing, symbolic notation is created for each thing, and use them. This theory was popular until the 18th century.

Interdudice theory. The first words occurred from involuntary cries of ancient people. Gradually, they formed full-fledged words. For the first time this thought was expressed by Epicur. Darwin considered this theory quite reliable. Humboldt also supported it. Pottnya - there. Sensual perception of the world.

Sound-resistant theory. The first names arose as a result of the imitation of the sounds of nature. The arrest of expressed such a point of view. In all languages \u200b\u200bthere are such words.

Soundmolism - The word reflects the sound of the phenomenon. Socrates expressed such a thought. Certain associations associated with some sounds of the language.
Zhuravlev AP: "Sound and meaning."

Tire theory. The language of the ancient people was a silent language of gestures. The theory developed oatmeal-Kulikovsky. He believed that for many thousands of years, people communicated exclusively to gestures. There is an opinion that the sounds were also part of the tongue, but were not primary. Later, gestures went to the background. Modern psycholinguists adhere to this theory.

Lovet theory. In the 19th century, they believed that the language arose from the children's bowel (mother-dad).

Evolutionary language development theory. Binds the birth of a language with the development of thinking. Johann Gottfried Gerder: "Study on the origin of the language" 1770g. Initially, the language occurred not for communication .. Inner speech is the language of mind, speech for yourself. The emerging person began to allocate separate items, remember them for certain signs, and create internal words for these values. Their aggregate formed the language of the mind - speech for themselves. The emergence of the "language for others" is the next stage of the evolution of the language. Humboldt wrote about the internal need of a person in the language. Pottnya: "Language is a transition from unconsciousness to consciousness." Thinking - language - mind.

Labor concept of language development. In the 19th century, attention was drawn to the connection between the occurrence of speech and the beginning of his work. The theory of labor teams and shouts. Spontaneous sounds turned into symbols to designate activities. Initially, these cries were instinctive. The first words were verbs. By the name of labor tools, you can restore the history of mankind. The labor theory of Engels intended the same connection between labor in the evolution of a person and the emergence of the language. Language is a product of the work of people. Language immediately occurs as a means of communication. In Soviet linguistics, this theory has long been the main.

The origin of the language is the phenomenon of multifactorAnd it is impossible to solve this problem only with linguistics.

Language like a changing phenomenon.

Since the emergence, the language does not cease to develop, it is a historically developing phenomenon. The development of it is unlimited, like a living being.

The methodology for reconstruction of primitive speech is not.

According to his sound, the speech of primitive man was non-harmonic - high pisks, squeaks, wheezing. This is due to the fact that the form of the oral cavity was different. There were little sounds. It is believed that ancient speech was a syllable - explosive consonant + vowel sound. Parts of speech, as such, was not. Units of communication were undecided complexes - words-offers. They are compared with children's speech. They were little (presumably, from 500 to 1000). Speech was accompanied by speech, facial expressions, television.

There is one language, or several.

Polygenesis theory - There were many tribal languages, dialects. Primary language continuity.

The theory of monogenesis - At this stage, this theory is more popular. The tongue originated from one source. Further, due to the resettlement of people, he changed.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.

In 1703, wrote that the language was created under the influence of desire to be understood, storing memory. Words fasten thoughts and message it.

Words - labels and signs.

Condiiler.

Experience on the origin of human knowledge.

"The language is a target of the designation or message by people to each other his thoughts, for this reason, people supply names to the combinations of ideas that are often used in life, leaving others scattered and leaving no names." The concept of frequency vocabulary.

Johann von Gerder (18 century).

Also in doubt the divine phenomenon. It assumes that the nature of the human language is similar to the nature of the language of animals. The first words were verbs - the words of the action that later gave rise to nouns. Initially, the language is an expression of feelings, emotions. Man is impossible without language.

Offered an evolutionary language theory.

Animal language is purely functional, instinctive. It is not an indicator of intelligence. Signal closing animal systems and do not develop.

Glotttogenesis is the theory of the origin of the language.

Sign languages \u200b\u200band speech gestures.

Sign languages \u200b\u200bhave two aspects - manual and nemanual.

First of all, the gesturing language is a language for communication with deaf-and-and-and-the-way. There is no accurate information, it is created by the deaf-and-and-man or a person hearing and knowing the sound language.

The gesture should be concrete to convey its meaning. It should also be shaped - depicting the designated object.

Amorfen gesture language - does not have bowls, leasing and endings.

Kineyka - science about speech gestures.

Gestures subconsciously show our emotions.

Gestures greeting and farewell.

Desire gestures, states.

Exclamation and questioning.

evaluation gestures.

Regardless, it was originally one or more languages, in any case, they were not preserved. All languages \u200b\u200bthat exist today are at a fairly equal stage of development, and it is impossible to say exactly which one is ancient.

The main trends in the development of languages:

Differentiation - The language is crushed to dialects. Contacts between dialects weaken, and new languages \u200b\u200bare formed.

Integration - Merge, mixing languages.

These processes occur constantly. In some periods, one process prevails, another periods - the other.

Up to the 15th century, differentiation processes prevailed. It is believed that it was then that was the greatest number of languages \u200b\u200bon Earth.

After and so far, the number of languages \u200b\u200bis continuously reduced. Integration processes prevailing.

About 10 languages \u200b\u200bdisappears annually, and this process is accelerated.

Not only the quantity, but also the internal structure of languages \u200b\u200bchanges. Sometimes this variability is noticeable to regular speakers of the language.

Understanding language changes as its damage is unscientific. Changes are inevitable. Variability - the way of evolution, the life of the language.

Language changes occur gradually, since changes should not interfere with mutual understanding between generations.

Qualitative changes in the language occupy 2-3 centuries.

For changes, a minimum of 3 generations are required.

Changing language occurs by a few reasons:

External factors:

1. development of civilization, knowledge, science and technology,

   distribution of education, development of culture, both spiritual and material,

   availability or absence of writing - nonsense is changing faster,

   number of media,

   resettlement, migration of native speakers,

   political changes.

Internal speakers:

1. "System pressure" - system-structural transformations occur inside the language, internal speakers are valid, contradictions occur.

   The complication of the structure of the language is an increase in lexical units.

   The appearance of stylistic standards.

Language varies across all levels, but the speed of their changes will differ. The most mobile vocabularyAlthough the basic lexical fund varies evenly, the speed is approximately the same for all languages. Based on the analysis of the coefficient of persistence, it can be said when the languages \u200b\u200bwent on different ways of development. Grammar varies slower. The trend is such that the speed of speech has increased in all languages \u200b\u200b- allegization of phonetics. The reason is the change in the speed of thinking, accelerating the pace of life. The speed of articulation increased - the need to transmit more information per unit time. Increased abstraction of thinking.

Also acts tENDENCE TO SAVING THE LANGUAGE In communicative fitness. Brake processes occur.

Thus, the language and moving and stable at the same time. This is due to the fact that this is a functioning system.

The emergence of the language cannot be called a random - this is the necessary stage in the development of human history.

Language and thinking.

Language and thinking are closely interrelated. Recognizing activities. In historical terms language Product Thinking. The beginning of thinking arose in the militant period, but with the emergence of the language, the stream of thought was dismembered into language units. The word is a form for thought.

Lack of direct conformity. Thinking - the process of intracerebral. Units of the language and units of thinking are not the same. Thought can be framed by different suggestions. Through words, we do not convey our thoughts to other people, but only awaken in it his own. Thinking of peoples speaking different languages \u200b\u200bis one of its essence, does not have a national character, but the content of thinking is specific.

A person may think without the help of the language. Neurophysiological studies have shown the relative independence of human language and mental activity. It is argued that children understand speech, although they do not speak language. Thinking can be carried out on the basis of other iconic systems.

The boundaries of thinking and language do not coincide. The coverage of thought is unreasonable. Repeful area is only a bright point of consciousness, a small scene, on which all actors cannot fit, but for it - condensed mental masses. Many thoughts are generally not expressed verbally. Often, understanding arises without a verbal shell. The process of thinking is non-worn. Thought, in contrast to language, speech, nonlinear.

Language features.

Language function is the manifestation of its essence and its destination.

Language Bidirectional - Communication with the work of consciousness ( cognitive function), focus on communication ( Communicative function).

Podfunctions of cognitive fuchscination:

Nominative - replacement of items by their names in the process of thinking.

Constructive - in the process of thinking there are structures, of which inner speech consists.

Accumulative - accumulation of knowledge with the help of knowledge.

Communicative function is a language as a means of transmitting information to other people.

Optional Language Functions:

Fatic function is a language as a means of establishing a contact.

Regulatory function - the function of influence on another person.

Psychotherapeutic, magical.

Metown function - user use as a description of yourself. Explanation language phenomena. Translation from one language to another.

Aesthetic and poetic function. Fine functions of languages, means of creating poetic images.

Conspirational, etc.

Languages \u200b\u200bof the world.

Some languages \u200b\u200bdisappear, others appear. Do you read dead languages?

It is not always easy to distinguish a dialect from an independent, related language.

There are territories, weakly studied in language relations.

It is believed that now there are about 7,000 live languages \u200b\u200bon Earth, however, opinions on this issue are diverted.

The most common languages:

Chinese.

Spanish and English.

Arab.

Hindi and Bengali.

Portuguese.

Languages \u200b\u200bdiffer not only in shape, but also by function. There are languages \u200b\u200bof international communication, tribal, official and unofficial, etc.

Classification of languages.

The first attempts to classify languages \u200b\u200bbelong to 16B.

Genealogical classification of world languages.

This classification combines related languages \u200b\u200binto linguistic families.

Each a family - Association of languages \u200b\u200bthat were dialects of a single practice.

Prixes are not recorded in writing, they are reconstructed using a comparative historical method.

Inside each family there are more or less close to each other, and therefore the family is divided into groups, branches, subgroups.

Schematically, the languages \u200b\u200band their relationship in the language family are depicted in the form of a tree.

Genealogical classification - grouping of the languages \u200b\u200bof the world on the basis of related links between them.

There are about 28 linguistic families.

Major families:

Indo-European language family. The languages \u200b\u200bof this family are derived from nearby dialects, the carriers of which lived in 3 millennia BC. All languages \u200b\u200bgo back to Indo-European primas. Monuments of writing is not fixed, reconstructed. The most old monuments of writing have been preserved from 2 millennia BC. - Vedas (Sanskrit), Hetto-Luvian Flip, letter of Crete Island. The Indo-European linguistic family includes 7 groups:

1. Indoary group. Completed in the northern and central part of India. Languages \u200b\u200binclude Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Gypsy.

   Iranian group. Distributed in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey. Languages: Iranian (Old Parsida), Persian, Tajik, Farsi, Ancient Scythian Languages, Ossetian, Tatsky, Talysh, Kurdish, Pushta.

   Slavic group.

   The Baltic Group is close to Slavic languages. Lithuanian, Latvian.

   German group. It is divided into the North and Western subgroups. North - Scandinavian languages: Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic. Western subgroup - German, English, Dutch, Luxembourg, Afrikaans, Yiddish. Previously, there was an eastern group - Gothic, Burgundy and others.

   Romanesque group - Latin, Romanian, Moldavian, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese.

   Celtic group. Irish, Scotton, Britton, etc.

   Hetto-Luvian group - completely extinct ..

   Ancient Greek and Greek, Albanian, Armenian.

Sino-Tibetan family. Includes several hundred both national and tribal, weakly studied languages.

1. Chinese branch. Presented chinese language And his dialects, Donggan language - the Norcletian dialect, allocated as a separate language. There is a process of differentiation of Chinese dialects. Thai languages \u200b\u200bare now related to a separate language family, however, they used to relate to the Chinese branch.

   Tibeto-Burmese branch. Tibetan language - church language, Burmese, etc.

Austronesian language family. Indonesia region to Madagascar. There are about 800 languages.

1. Indonesian branch - Malaysian languages, Malaysian, Indonesian, group Philippine languages.

   Polynesian branch - Hawaiian, Tahiti, Samoa, Rongo Rongo.

   Melanezian branch - Fiji, in the territory there are distributed Papuas languages \u200b\u200bnot related to this branch.

   Micronesian branch - Marshall, Kivibati.

Austro Asian family. Population of Southeast Asia, South Asia.

1. Vietmyon group - Vietnamese and close to him languages, Myonsky.

   A group of languages \u200b\u200bof Pygmeyev - Semang-Sakai.

   Mongkhmer Group - Khmer, Monster.

   Palaun-va - the southern borders of China.

   Nikobar group - on the Nikobar Islands.

2. Munda - Western India. Santali tongue.

   Nagali - the language was distributed in India. The language of the exterminated tribe.

African languages \u200b\u200b(approx. 800). Languages \u200b\u200bof peoples living south of Sahara. Complex for study - there are no old texts, few information. Tropical north. Highlight 3 macros:

1. Nilo-Sugar Macros. Languages \u200b\u200bof the territory of Central and East Africa. Media - cattle breeders, smokers. Languages \u200b\u200bMaa, Canoruri.

   Congo-Cordofan macros. Languages \u200b\u200bBow - a major association of languages. Swahili - initially, trade language. Zulu.

   Bushmen (Koisanskaya) Macros. Probably the indigenous language of the South Africa. Includes Bushmen language - has a complex, unusual phonetics. Gottentotic languages.

Australian languages \u200b\u200bare the languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous population of Australia.

Semitian Hamitskaya, Afrazian family. North Africa, Arabian Peninsula.

1. Semitic branch - Assyrian, Hebrew, etc. Ancient languages, Arabic.

   Egyptian branch - ancient Egyptian, Coptic.

   Berber branch - North African languages. Libyan,.

   Chadskaya branch - Haus.

   Kushitskaya branch - Somalia, Orma.

Caucasian language family. The languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous population of the Caucasus. About 40 languages.

1. Western Group - Abkhaz, Adygei, Kabardinsky.

   South Group - Iberian languages. Georgian and close to it.

   Eastern - Nakhskaya Podrovguppa (Chechen, Ingush, Bazbi), Dagestan languages \u200b\u200b(Avar, Cesky, Andyian, Darginsky, Lezgin).

Ural macro family. Finno-Ugorskaya, Samiya (Languages \u200b\u200bof the Far North of Russia - Nenets, Enetsky,) Families.

1. Perm Group - Komi, Udmurt.

   Volzhskaya - Mordovsky, Mariy.

   Baltic-Finnish - Estonian, Finnish, Karelian.

   Ugric group - Hungarian, Khanty, Mansi.

   SAMA.

Linguistics (linguistics, lingopology) - human language science as a means of communication, general laws of structure and functioning of the language and all languages \u200b\u200bof the world. Linguistics began to develop in the ancient East - in Mesopotamia, Syria, M. Asia and Egypt, as well as in Ancient India (Panini, 5-4 centuries. BC), etc. Greece and Rome (Aristotle). Scientific relations originated in the beginning. 19th century In the form of general (V. Humboldt, etc.) and comparative historical (F. Bopp, Ya. Grimm, A. H. Eastyok, etc.) Linguistics.

Principles of Membership Linguistics on Sections and Composition of Linguistics.

The empirically established partitions of linguistics, partially intersecting and therefore, not forming a logically unified system, can be represented as correlated with each other by some different parameters.

General Linguistics and Private Language Sciences. The most common and private partitions of linguistics are distinguished. One of the major partitions of linguistics is the so-called general linguistics - engaged in properties inherent in any language, and differs from the private language disciplines used by it, which are allocated in the linguistics of their subject - either in a separate language (for example, Russian language - Russism, Japanese - Japanese, etc.), or According to the group of related languages \u200b\u200b(for example, the novelism studying Romanesque languages, Turkology, which studies the Turkic languages, etc.), or by the geographical area, inside which are grouped and / or typologically close languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Balkanistics, Caucasics, etc. P.). The general linguistics sets common (or statistically prevailing) features of all languages \u200b\u200bas empirically inductively, with the help of typology and deductive, exploring the general (significant groups of people) patterns of functioning of the language, features of any speech act and text, etc.

The general linguistics also distinguishes the sections of the linguistics, depending on the membership of the language itself at the levels and on the orientation of this section on one side of the language sign (words) and the text (statements). Those linguistics partitions that are preferably engaged in the structure of meaning and meaning and to a lesser extent by the non-language phenomena with which the signs of the language are correlated sometimes the term " internal linguistics", Or" internal linguistics ", in contrast to the so-called" external linguistics ", or" external linguistics ". But since the language as a social phenomenon describes some unsatual events, dividing to "internal linguistics" and "external linguistics" is always conditionally and wears quantitative nature (some sections are more internal character, others are more external).

The areas of linguistics associated primarily with the meaning part of the Linguistics Units necessary for the text transmitted to it transmitted to it during the speech communication. Phonetics The sound level is oriented - the sound side directly accessible to human perception. Its subject are speech sounds in all their diversity. They are investigated using instruments that fix the articulation (physiological) and acoustic characteristics of sounds. Language sounds also studies phonology, but with functional and systemic points of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between signs and texts of the language. As an initial unit and object of study of phonology, a phonemon and / or phonological distinctive (differential) feature is distinguished.

Sections of linguistics that study sound sounds - phonetics, phonology, morphology - do not investigate the signable side of the signs as such. This side of the signs are investigated by others (in the broad sense of the word - semantically oriented) sections of linguistics for which values \u200b\u200b(i.e. meant) are of the main interest. At the same time, attention is drawn simultaneously both on the signable sides of the signs (values) and the coding of these latter with the help of meaning.

Grammar - section of linguistics, exploring words, morphemes, morphs, morphological parts of words and their combinations, the values \u200b\u200bof which are mandatory for the signs of this type (class) in this language system. Different languages \u200b\u200bdiffer from which values \u200b\u200bin them are grammatical. In grammar stand out morphology and syntax. The separation of these two levels is only necessary in those languages, where the word is shaped into morphological components (morphs). In the languages \u200b\u200bof consistently insulating (purely analytical) type (as in classical Chinese), the grammar can be completely reduced to the syntax. In morphology from the point of view of values, usually allocated as special sections of linguistics word formationdealing with derivation values \u200b\u200band sevement word, exploring the expression of all other (significantly more abstract) grammatical values \u200b\u200bwithin one word, opposed in the paradigm of morphologically different flowforms. In the languages \u200b\u200bof agglutinative type (for example, Turkic), where each grammatical value corresponds to a specific affix, a grammar of orders (or ranks) is required to describe the chains of affixes.

Language dictionary (in contrast to his grammar) deals with several partitions of linguistics: semantics and adjacent sections of linguistics ( phraseology, semantic syntax, intensively developing in accordance with the installation on the structure as such, characterizing and adjacent disciplines in knowledge of 20 c.) Combine with each other in the study of the original meanings and their possible incarnations both in vocabulary and grammar. Most of these initial meanings refers to the so-called "weak semantics", i.e. it is determined mainly within the language itself, unlike the "strong semantics", requiring correlation with an off-language world.

Lexic semantics (Sometimes also called linguistic semantics, in contrast to the logical) represents a section of a linguistic studying of such values \u200b\u200bof words that (in any case, in this language) are not grammatical. Linguistic semantics operates and the values \u200b\u200bof entire suggestions (or their significant fragments) and their transformations through which the words are determined. It also studies and combinatorially determined words of words. Phraseology explores the semantic and syntagmatic aspects of non-free lexical combinations of words.

For a long period, the main factor recognized in the linguistics was time. Study of specific languages \u200b\u200bin a diachronic plan, the creation of the general theory of language evolution as in general, and in relation to certain levels of the language, historical and comparative historical linguistics. The special area is the work on the diachronic typology of languages \u200b\u200b(also at different levels), which is sometimes associated with the theory of evolution. The linguistics is strengthened by a tendency to combine a synchronous description with historical: we are talking about entering a dynamic temporary factor and a description of the language. Sociolinguistic field observations undertaken only in the 70s -80s are especially important in this plan. 20 V. and giving valuable results (for example, the obligation of sound laws for the microevolution of the language is confirmed). Sociolinguistics It is the study of real living dialects in the spatial (including social) and temporary plans. Each of the levels of the language and its variation in the spatial plan (in the territorial limitation) is investigated dialectology (in relation to one language) and in aral linguistics (in relation to many languages, for example, a part in one language union, as well as in studies of various kinds, the subject of which is the contacts of two or more languages \u200b\u200bwith each other, the formation of Creole languages \u200b\u200band in general the processes of language mixing).

From the above, it can be determined that linguistics object It is a language in the entire amount of its properties and functions, its structure, functioning and historical development.

Modern linguistics is divided into general and private. General Linguistics studies the most common properties of the language and methods of its research, as well as links of linguistics with other areas of knowledge. Private linguistics exploring any side of the language or a separate language (groups of languages). For example, rusotics, Japanese, etc. Linguistics may be synchronous or diachronic. Synchronic linguistics describes the facts of the studied language at any particular moment of its history. Drachronic linguistics describes the development of the language throughout any period of time.

Tasks Linguistics:

Ø Establishment of Nature and Essence of the Language

Ø Learning Language Structure

Ø Learning language as a holistic system

Ø Learning language development

Ø Studying the issue of the emergence and development of the letter

Ø Classification of languages

Ø Choice of research methods: Comparative historical, descriptive, comparative, quantity

Ø Studying communication linguistics with other sciences

Language learning close associated with many other sciences.

1. Linguistics and social sciences. Since the language is the most important means of communication in society and is closely related to thinking and consciousness, linguistics are included (as one of the central sciences) into a circle of humanitarian (social) scientific disciplines, exploring humans and human society. From these sciences with the linguistics of the most connected ethnography and its various areas developing, in particular, the general principles of language functioning in various types of societies, including and in archaic, or "primitive" groups (for example, problems of taboos, euphemisms, in the theory of nomination - names related to characteristics of archaic consciousness, etc.). Linguistics as a science of language communication is still connected with modern sociology. Different types of communication in society are investigated by linguistics, theory of Communication, Cultural Anthropology (learning communication through any messages, not only and not so much language and iconic) and semiotic. Natural language is the most important (and the best studied) sign system, so the linguistics are often considered as the most important of semiotic disciplines. Among them, linguistics turns out to be a central science, since the language serves as a means to build a number of texts (in particular, in fiction) and "outlawic" systems (semiotic models of the world) studied by semiotic disciplines. For the study of language texts that serve as the iconic tasks of "outlawic" systems (mythology, ritual, religion, philosophy, etc.), the corresponding scientific disciplines appear for help to linguistics and to a number of scientific disciplines, border with linguistics - to hermeneuticsBy understanding texts, etc. But at the same time, the solution of each of these tasks should be specifically investigated and in linguistics, since any new social language function significantly affects some of its levels. It is necessary to occur with intermediate disciplines in contact with linguistics, such as linguistic poetics, in many ways to bring text in many ways, exploring the language laws of building texts, including artistic.

The relationship between linguistics and other sciences can be explored depending on the nature of the iconic (or stonel) nature of the subject of each of these sciences. The grammatology is concerned closely with a linguization of semiotic disciplines - grammatology - science of writing (since there are types of letters, only indirectly related to the language, grammatology is generally not included in linguistics). Kineica(See also Language gestures) Contacts with linguistics, especially at the level of semantics (as well as the section of grammatology exploring the hieroglyphic).

The key role of linguistics for many adjacent humanities makes the conclusions of the linguistic knowledge important for the whole humanitarian knowledge as a whole. Historical linguistics on their methods come closer to historyand other sciences exploring the change in the time of social structures, the development of which in some cases determines the paths of language evolution, and the development of culture, literature, art, etc. One of the most important problems is to find out the extent to which the development of one of these rows of evolving phenomena Causal affects the evolution of another number. Historical linguistics relates to a large number of historical disciplines, the findings of which it relies.

The manifold of the functions of the language in society and the close nature of his connection with thinking and with the mental activity of a person makes a very flexible interaction of linguistics with relevant social and psychological sciences. Especially tested linguistics with psychologyalready in 19 century. Corrected invasion psychological methods And ideas in linguistics. In the 50s. 20 V. A new border with a linguistic science is psycholinguistics. The development of the ideas of generating grammar led to its organic merger with cognitive psychology and to the gradual inclusion of linguistics into a circle of fundamental cognitive sciences and their applications united by a general term "artificial intelligence". The issues of correlation of language and thinking considered for linguistics and psychology are intensively studied by modern logic, language philosophy and at the same time constitute the content of linguistic semantics.

2. Linguistics and natural sciences. Linguistics I. mathematics. The links of linguistics not only with social sciences and sciences about a person, but also with natural sciences, there were still 19 V. Some of the applications proposed by A. Shleyukher are analogy between comparative historical linguistics and Darwinian theory of evolution found support in modern science. The decryption of the genetic code was largely based on the assimilation of the biologists of the Linguistics of Linguistics and on typological analogies with the structure of the natural language, which continue to be studied and geneticists and linguists. The methods of comparative historical reconstruction of praforms and determining the divergence time between the descendants of one defense in the linguistics were similar to similar procedures in the molecular theory of evolution (definition of protein - the source source for comparable proteins in different organisms, the establishment of the separation of organisms during evolution). Contact Linguistics with biology is also carried out in the study of the possible hereditary nature of the main language abilities of a person, which is related to the problems of Glotthegenesis, and with the development of the idea of \u200b\u200bmonogenesis of the language. The status of neurolinguistics studies on the basis of linguistic data and zones of the central nervous system on the basis of the linguistic data of the central nervous system associated with the language and pathology with the language was determined. On the border of linguistics and psychiatry is a study of speech features under different types of mental disorders. In psychoanalysis, attention is focused on unconscious speech errors and on an unconscious content of the patient's monologue pronounced in the presence of a doctor. I. A. Boduen de Kurgee, E. Sepir, M. M. Bakhtin, R. O. Jacobson, E. Benovenist, exploring the connection of science of the unconsciousness with linguistics, noted that different levels of the language in different extent "automated" and not Remote speaking. As neurolynguistics develops, there is a question about the correlation of different parts of the theory of the language with the characteristics of the respective zones of the central nervous system of the person. To understand the characteristics of the human physiology, it is the language that plays a particularly important role that gradually begins to be taken into account in theoretical work on psychophysiology, and in medical (psychotherapeutic) applications that have analogues in folk medicine (conspiracy texts, etc.).

Modern instrumental methods of experimental phonetics are associated with the use of various devices, mainly electro-acoustic (spectrographs, intonographic, etc.), as well as registering movements of speech bodies (articulation). Phonetics is therefore especially closely related to physics and physiology. Technical tasks associated with an increase in the efficient use of voice information transmission channels and with oral communication with computer and robots are the almost most important scope of application linguistics (see Applied Linguistics), where speech research and calculation of its statistical characteristics of the methods of mathematical information theory is carried out, Developed by Academician A. N. Kolmogorov and American mathematician K. Shannon. The link of linguistics with the theory of information, the stimulus for studying the technical attachments of linguistics, at the same time leading to a clear formulation of significant problems associated with the nature of the act of communication and with social language functions.

The role of language and linguistics is essential for computer Revolutions (especially due to the appearance by the mid-80s. Personal and other computers capable of conducting a dialogue with the "consumer" in the natural language), which leads to further stimulating the growth of these areas of lies, which are especially important for these new practical Applications.

Language function

When we talk about the functions of the language, it is usually meaning not to language, but speech or speech (language) activity. Therefore, many lingules speak carefully about language functions. The Great American Linguist, the original and versatile scientist E. Sipir in 1933 wrote in this connection the following: "It is difficult to establish the function of the language, as it is so deeply rooted in all human behavior, which remains very little in the functional side of our conscious Activities, where the language would not take part. "

These functions cannot manifest themselves "in pure form", they always interact and crosses each other, coexisting in different hypostasses - ontological, gnoseological (or cognitive), pragmatic. You can talk about language features in society, how and where the language "lives", and thereby - about public, social featureslanguage. You can talk about language functions in relation to thinkingand therefore - about mental functionslanguage. You can talk about language functions within speech, as well as speech(more precisely, language) activities(In terms of F. de Sosurira). You can talk about the function of the language in terms of its systems and structures. Thus, the question of the functions of the language affects both its ontological and natural sides. In this regard, not only the establishment of the boundaries of the functional distribution of the language, but also, actually, a clear understanding of the term "function" is required.

In the Linguistic terms of O.S. Akhmanova, the following values \u200b\u200bare allocated: 1) Purpose, the role executed by a unit of the language during its playback in speech (the function of the subject, the function of the case, morphological function, etc.); 2) the purpose and characteristics of playback in the speech of this language unit (the function of the adventure, predicative function, etc.); 3) generalized meaning of different side Language and its elements in terms of their purpose, use (communicative function, sign function, etc.). As we see, the dominant component of all these values \u200b\u200bis a sign of appointment, role, correlated with different volumes of linguistic concepts. From the point of view of destination, the role is characterized usually when they talk about him as a means of communication, i.e. In a speech aspect. And in this respect there is a large number of functions, but first of all - communicative. However, outside the concept of "language function" still remains a certain number of language properties, which characterize the ontological aspects of the language and which cannot be represented as its purpose or role. Therefore, the term "function" we are spending wider, in accordance with its original Latin meaning - performance, making, display.Then we can talk about all the "manifestations" of the language both in terms of its essence, ontology and in terms of its nature, existence.

Research attention to language functions is truly manifested only in the last century. Interesting and productive for linguistics interpretation of language functions in the process of speech on a semiotic basis, a German scientist Karl Bühler proposed. Because it assumes the presence of a speaker, listening and subject to statements, the postolon "every language expression has three aspects: it is simultaneously you are already expression (expression), or the characteristic of the speaker, appeal (or appeal) to the listener (or listeners) and the message (or explication) ) About the subject of speech. " In one of the main works, the Bücher argued the following: "The function of the human language is tripled: the expression, motivation and representation. Today I prefer terms: expression, appeal and represented. " Thus, "against the background" of the already known communicative function within the framework of the speech, three more functions were allocated: expressive, appeals and representative.

The work of R.O. Saksson is widely known, in which the doctrine of language functions is developing. He builds its theory on the basis of the following already known functional components of the Communicative Act: Address, message, addressee. But further it allocates new components that are already in the sphere of linguistic activity. Thus, the message successfully performs its functions in the presence of a specific context. The message is also carried out with the appropriate contact and code (system of signs that are important)

Context

Message

Address ---------- Address

Each of these components corresponds to its function. So, communicative function associated with the context. With addressee is connected emotive (expressive) function, the purpose of which is the expression of the relationship of the speaker to the content expressed. The addressee determines the presence appeal(conducive, affecting) functions ( Hello! Stand!). Fatic (Contact) The function is due to the entry into contact or termination of it using the language. Based on the code is built methawic functionwhich is the main one, for example, when interpreting the facts of the language. As part of the message stands out poetic (aesthetic)function. This feature believes R. Sakeson, - the central, although not the only one, the function of verbal art: closely interacting with other functions, it determines the essence of the "poetic language". Unlike the "practical language" as a means of conventional, everyday communication, the "poetic language" is important and "by itself" as a phenomenon of aesthetic: it is characterized by a sound organization (rhythm, rhyme ...), imagery ... Thus, when considering functions, The following hierarchy is determined by the nature of speech and linguistic activities:

Communicative function;

Functions that make up communicative act;

Other functions.

The question of language functions in modern studies

The essential, ontological function of the language, component and the subject side of the linguistics, is its sign(semiological or a semiotic) function that represents a linguistic sign based on the three sides of the semantic (sign value), syntactic (sign relationship and connection of the sign) and pragmatic (the use of the sign and, thus, "removes" it in the sphere of speech and linguistic).

Its varieties include functions characterizing units of individual levels of language: distinctive and constitutive function phonemes, nominative function of the word, predicative offer function etc.

The most important varieties of the character function of the language belongs methawic function. With its help, a person uses a language as an instrument, an object of his own mental activity. In other words, we can "move" into any world by using our language, - into the world of linguistics, mathematics, physics of fairy tale, fiction, political or diplomatic discussion, into the world of fiction and lies, etc. etc. We constantly create millions and billions of new worlds based on our language.

And another function of the ontological plan represents cognitive functionForming in the framework of the pragmatics of the linguistic sign. Language sign would lose the meaning of its existence if he did not reflect cognitive man's practiceconstituting the basis for its activities. Actually, the language sign itself functions due to the reasonable work of man.

Communicative language function Usually associated with dialogical speech activities, implies the presence of two participants in the speech act - the speaker (addressee) and the listening (addressee).

In fact, always one of the addresses - the speaker himself. The process of speech is under the supervision of the addressee, which during communication is liefrency in itself, controls and corrects his speech and speech behavior, depending on the recipient's response and from the situation. However, this part of the communicative language function cannot be called communicative, since here one participant himself says. Therefore, we give it a characteristic as a function. self-determination and autocorrection.

The following speech function represents emotive(Emotional, expressive, affective) function expressing feelings and emotions. Using it, the subject spontaneously or deliberately transmits its mental attitude to what is happening.

Appeal function - The appeal function, appeal to the addressee and prompting to the perception of the speech of the addressee. Zhbankov suddenly slightly stuck. "Kyyk," he shouted in Estonian, "everything!(Emotive function. - VI) - Forward, comrades! To new boundaries! To new achievements!(appeal function. - V.I.) (s.Odladov. Compromise).

Voluntative function Expresses the will of the speaker. About her as one of the main functions of speech wrote more Lucretia in his well-known poem "On the Nature of the Week": "If others do not know how to use each other with each other with each other, then where b was the cognition about it? / And why would one person be able to express his ability to express his ability to express him? " Example: - Wolf Volley, - said comrade. - DOWNLY DOWNLOAD, not up.(V.Shalamamov. Kolyma stories).

DeTort function (Orientations in the communicative space with the help of successful signs: index and personal pronouns 1 and 2 persons, categories of verb time, etc., indicative gestures) is carried out in on-line mode and has the widest range of language expression, for example: - Run here. Per me Run, "the woman whispered, turned and ran through a narrow brick path. Turbine very slowly ran after her. (M. Bulgakov. White Guard).

Erosectic, questionnaire function: - Long one then go? - Long. Do you have no drink? - Find. (V.Shukshin. Hunting to live).

The function actively manifested in linguistic activities - fatic (Contactor and contact-containing). She accompanies us all the time, from morning to evening, starting with "Good morning!" And ending the "good night!". When we talk about the weather, about fashion, about transport, about the problems of life, not delight in their essence, but simply for "maintaining a conversation", just for "Trep", then we use the fatic function of the language: - Hey! - Hello! How are you? - Thank you, all is well!It happens that the fatic function fully displaces the communicative. Imagine Eliz Dulittl, speaking about the weather with secular ladies: Mrs. Higgins (interrupts the silence of a relaxed tone): - Curiously, will it rain today? Eliza: - Minor clouds observed in the western part of the British Islands, it is possible to spread to the eastern region. The barometer does not give reason to assume any significant change in the state of the atmosphere.(B. Show. Pygmalion).

Axiological function of language Performs, on the one hand, as measured assessing natural, social and psychological facts, and on the other, - as the subject of evaluating your own qualities.

Hermeneutic function - The function of interpretation and explanation. With its help, a person can not only be explained, to express any problem, any texts, but also to interpret one different facts, as well as decrypt secret letters and signs.

Euristic language function, the function of the dispute and controversy, allows a person to achieve its own with the help of a language, and not at the medium of fists.

The most important thing for humanity is cumulative function of language, the function of accumulation and fixation of knowledge. This is reflected in a variety of manuscripts, chronicles, calendars, glossaries and dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.

And the last function in the row of speech seems representative function, The orienting communications participants for the statement, and not on them themselves. For example: - Otherwise, old, Paralica piled me, Yazvi him! Something, I notice, I was not that, what was recently, - said Schukar, I am surprised to consider the hand that does not obey him. (M.Sholokhov. Raised virgin).

All specified functions are intertwined in the process of communication. - There are progressive young authors. Want, I will show the stories of Igo-Ryu Efimov? - Who is Igor Efimov? - Progressive young author ...(S.Odladov. Craft) - The question of the question, representative and voluntative function of the language are updated here. Or: - But where to go?! Where to go?! - overlapping the wind of the wind, shouted the supplier. - Are you, little, or what?!(V.Shukshin. Kapronchka) is a questionnaire, emotive and deactive (in the sense of her demand) function.

Linguistics (linguistics) is a science of language, a scientific study of language [Lyonz 1978]. The object of language science is a natural human language. As J. Lyonz notes, the main difficulty before who begins to engage in linguistics is that it is necessary to form an unbiased look into the language. The language is habitually, natural, we do not think about it. Each person owns the maternal language, has an intuitive understanding of the language, studies grammar at school. The difficulty lies also in the fact that these words like offer, letter, wordet al. Used by both linguists and not linguists. Linguists use these words as linguistic terms. In addition, linguistics has a special terminology, like any other science ( sema, Semem, Concept, Isomorphism, Polandand etc.).
The French linguist Emil Benvienist emphasized that there is no society, the people who did not have a language. No man itself without language. Society is possible only due to the language, and only due to the language is an individual [Benvienist 1974]. The essence of a person is resting in the language. A person would not be a man if he was denied to speak - incessantly, increasingly, about everything, in diverse varieties. We exist primarily in language and in the language. These languages \u200b\u200babout the language belong to the German philosopher M. Heidegeru.
The great German scientist V. K. Humboldt emphasized that a person is man only thanks to the language [Humboldt 1984].
No force compared with the power of the language, which is so small reaches a lot. There is no strength higher, and, in fact, all human power stems from it [Benvienist 1974]. What is the source of this mysterious force that is in the language? Why is the existence of society and individual based on language? This question is trying to answer the science of language - Linguistics (linguistics).
The American scientist Edward Sepir noted that we do not know any people who would not have a completely developed language. The most culturally backward South African Bushman speaks with the help of a rich forms of a symbolic system, which, essentially, is quite comparable to the speech of the educated Frenchman. In the Savior language, according to the sepira, there is no rich terminology, there is no subtle distinction for shades reflecting the highest cultural level, more abstract meanings are not fully represented, but the genuine foundation of the language is a complete phonetic system, association of speech elements with values, a complex apparatus of a formal expression of relationships - All this we find in all languages \u200b\u200bin a well-developed and systematized form. Many primitive languages, according to Sepir, have wealth of forms and abundance of expressive funds, much superior to the formal and expressive possibilities of languages \u200b\u200bof modern civilization [Sepir 1993].
The language is an immensely ancient heritage of the human race. The emergence of the language is likely to precede even primary development Material culture. The cultural development itself could not have a place until the language was formed, the expression tool of the value [Sepir 1993]. The SPIR determined the language as "purely human, not an instinctive way of transmitting thoughts, emotions and desires by means of specially produced characters" [Sepir 1993].
The French linguist Joseph Vandrises emphasized that the language as a social phenomenon could arise only when the human brain was quite developed to use the language [Vandrises 1937].
The language is defined as a sign system for the formation and verbal expression of thought that serves to communicate in human society. This spontaneously arising in human society and a developing system of self-compliant signs, intended for cognitive human activity and communication objectives and capable of expressing the entire set of knowledge and representations of a person about the world. The language serves the transfer of messages, information, knowledge about the external and inner world. With the help of the language, people organize their joint activities. Language is involved in streamlining the information from the outside, in mental activity on the awareness of the world.

Language is an extremely complex socio-psychological phenomenon. The language is always a language of some kind of people, and at the same time it is the language of each individual individual. The language is associated with all manifestations of human life - with the labor, cognitive activity of people.
The greatest property of people (language) causes constantly unrepreneurous interest. Language is the subject of attention of many sciences - philosophy, logic, psychology, sociology and many others. For linguistics, the language is the only object of the study. Linguistics studies language in all its manifestations.
Linguist is interested in all languages. Any language, no matter how "backward" nor the people speaking on it, turns out to be a complex and highly organized system. There is absolutely no connection between the various stages of the cultural development of society and types of the language used at the respective stages. The study of all languages \u200b\u200bshould be approached with some of the same positions [Lyonz 1978]. The number of oppositions, possible in the membership of the surrounding reality, in principle, infinitely. Therefore, in the language of the language, the expression is obtained only those opposition that play an important role in the life of this society. J. Lyonz believes that it is impossible to say about one language that he is internally "richer" than any other. Each language is adapted to meet the communicative needs of its carriers.
The interest of the linguist to all languages \u200b\u200bis due to the general task of linguistics - the creation of a scientific theory explaining the structure of a natural language. Any language should find a place and explanation within the framework of the general language theory.

Cited Literature:

Benvienist E. General linguistics. Per. With Fr. M., 1974.

Vandrises J.Yang. Linguistic introduction to history. Per. With Fr. M., 1937.

Humboldt V. Background. Selected Works on Linguistics. Per. with it. M., 1984.

Lyonz J. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Per. from English M., 1978.

Sepir E. Selected works on linguistics and cultural studies. Per. from English M., 1993.

3. Linguistics Linguistics with other sciences

Language serves almost all areas of human life, so the study of the language, the establishment of its place and role in human life and society with necessity leads to broad links of linguistics with other sciences. Linguistics examines the language, taking into account his relationship and relationships with such manifestations of human life as society, consciousness, thinking, culture, so linguistics are associated with all the main sections modern science - with social (humanitarian) and natural sciences, with medical, technical sciences.
The closest and most ancient relationships exist in language studies with philology. In fact, lingopology as science has come out of the depths of philology, which in antiquity was a single abused science, including literary criticism, textual, poetics, theory of culture and linguistics (grammar). Philology is currently understood as a comprehensive science that combines literary criticism and linguistics. Linguistics is associated with literary criticism (theory of literature, literary history, literary criticism). Philology is a science that studies the culture of the people expressed in language and literary work. At the junction of linguistics and literary studies there is poetics - section of the theory of literature, dealing with the construction of artistic texts, studying the sound, syntactic, stylistic organization of poetic speech, aesthetic system. It should be noted that there are significant differences between the literary and linguistic approach to the study of the artistic text. Literary critic examines the language as a component of the artistic form and due to ideological content. Language studies artistic text as a manifestation of speech activities of the author as the fact of a language norm and functional style.
Linguistics are also associated with hermeneutics. The hermeneutics and linguistics are engaged in issues of building and interpreting texts, decoding and reading ancient texts. Hermeneutics - science studying text understanding processes. Man everywhere deals with texts. IN human activity An important place is occupied by the production of texts and understanding of texts. Understanding texts plays a big role in public life, individual destiny, organization of training. Understanding regulates the development of reality through the text. And this is embodied in decision-making, formation of views, assessments, self-esteem, in communications of all types. The goal of philological hermeneutics is to help communication communications in a variety of situations, overcoming the person's misunderstanding by a person.
The same ancient ties in linguistics with philosophy. In ancient Greece, linguifications originated in the depths of philosophy, which flowed out of the world of antique thinkers who viewed space, nature and man as a whole. Both of these science are interested in such problems as "language and consciousness", "language and thinking", "language and society", "language and culture", "the ratio of concept and meaning in the Word", etc. Philosophy as a science of the most common laws of development of nature, society, a person, consciousness gives a linguistic basis methodological principles approach to language as a phenomenon. The dominant philosophical ideas and directions of one epoch have always affected the theoretical concepts of the language.

From the early stages of the lingule of linguistics arises his connection with logic. Already Aristotle (384-322 BC) formulated the peculiarities of a logical approach to the language. Logic and linguistics consider communication problems of the language and thinking, the ratio of logical forms of thinking and their expressions in the language categories.
Linguistics related S. history. History is the science of the development of human society, processes related to the change in the social structures of society. The history of the language is part of the history of the people. The bilateral linguistics link: History data provide specific historical consideration of language phenomena, and these linguistics are one of the sources in the study of historical problems of ethnogenesis, the development of the culture of the people, contacts with other peoples, etc. Chronicles and other written monuments give us an idea of \u200b\u200bthe historical events, the peculiarities of the lives of different peoples. The study of the language of written monuments allows you to judge the relationship of different languages \u200b\u200band, consequently, about the community of fate of the various peoples, the territories of their settlement, migration in time and space. Accounting for external historical factors clarifies the formation of certain languages, the fate of individual words and expressions. Thus, mass borrowing of words are noted, as a rule, in the period of active contacts of peoples, reflect the influence of the people whose language is the source of borrowing. For example, in the Petrovsk era, which was characterized by broad economic, trade and cultural ties with Western Europe, the Russian language experienced a significant influence of Western European languages.
Linguistics related S. archaeology, ethnography, anthropology. Archeologyhe examines the history of detectable sources detected during the excavations, monuments of material culture - labor tools, weapons, decorations, utensils, etc. Linguistics together with archaeology is engaged in the study of extinct languages \u200b\u200band the determination of the migration of their carriers. Ethnography Learn the life and culture of the people. Ethnographers classify and interpret the data of archaeological excavations according to the types of material culture, which is important to linguists to identify areas of distribution of certain languages. Close of all linguistics is associated with ethnography when studying a dialect dictionary - the names of peasant buildings, utensils, clothes, objects and agricultural instruments, crafts. The bond linguistics with ethnography is manifested not only in the study of material culture, but also in the study of reflection in the language of popular self-consciousness. Among common problems Linguistics and ethnography should be noted the problem of language functioning in various types of societies.
At the junction of linguistics and anthropology arose ethnolinguistics, which explores the language in its attitude to the culture of the people.
Thanks to the archaeological excavations, many writing monuments were found: Plates with Assyrian texts, stone plates with hieroglyphic and clinical signs, the bark grades of ancient Novgorod, a trading, etc. In Torzok, a large number of birchy diplomas were found, which belong to the 12th century., Including one Of the biggest birch documents, the length of which is 55.5 cm., Width is 9 cm. It was not a document and not a business entry, but a literary text, extracting from a literary work. Novotorzhskaya grades - a rare case of recorded literary text reached us from the depths of the centuries. This is a preaching with which the priest addressed her flock [see Vhib. Praying. 2002. №2].
At the junction of linguistics with disciplines of the historical cycle arose paleography, Which studies the creation of writing signs and their development.
Linguistics (together with anthropology) is trying to answer the question of the origin of man and language and the early stages of their development. Anthropology is the science of the origin of man and his races, about the variability of a person in time. The interests of the lingules and anthropologists agree on the classification of races and languages.
FROM sociology Linguistics combine problems such as the social nature of the language, its social functions, the mechanisms of exposure to social factors into the language, the role of language in society and others. At the junction of linguistics and sociology arose sociolinguisticsdevoted to the development of the ratio of language and society, social structures. Sociolingwist addresses the issues of the linguistic situation, language policy.
Linguistics are associated with psychology. Psychology and linguistics are engaged in the problems of rebuilding and perception of speech (coding and decoding speech signals of the brain system), a human speech organization. What psychological work of consciousness stands behind each step of the deployment of speech and what these steps are one of the main issues psycholinguistics. The internal spiritual and mental world of a person is most brightly manifest using the language. The reflection of spiritual, mental, emotional and mental activity is studied by psycholingestics.
At the beginning of the twentieth century originated lingvoSemiotic The appearance of which is associated with the name of the Swiss linguist F. de Sosurira (1857-1913). Semiotics - Science of signs, any iconic systems - telegraph codes, flag alarm, road signs, gesture signs, and so on. Language is the main, most complex sign system, so semiotics studies language in a number of other iconic systems.
Linguistics are associated not only with social, but also with natural sciences: physics, biology, physiology, mathematics, cybernetics, computer science, medicineand etc.
From the natural sciences, linguistics in contact is mainly with human physiology. Physiology and neurophysiology are studying the device of the speech apparatus, the formation of speech sounds, the perception of speech flow by the hearing organs, the reflex physiological basis of the language. Especially important for linguistics is the reflex theory of speech activities of Russian scientists-physiologists I.M. Suchenova and I.P. Pavlova. Words that hear and sees people are a second signaling system - specifically human form of reflection of reality. The second signal system is signals signals.
Close connection exists in linguistics with neurology- Science about the highest nervous activity of man. The joint of these two sciences formed a new discipline - neyrolynguisticswhich studies the linguistic behavior of a person not only in normal, but also in pathology. The study of speech disorders (aphasia) gives a lot of linguists not only to understand speech, but also to study the structure of the language and its functioning.
Communication Linguistics S. biology Non-doubt, since both of these sciences give an answer to the question of the evolution of a person and language, allow you to reconstruct ancient state. The methods of reconstruction of the Pyranceo European language and determining the time of its decay were similar to similar procedures in the molecular theory of evolution. Scientists have discovered the structural similarity of the genetic code and the code of the natural language.
Linguistics are associated with medicinewhich is interested in the zones and functions of the central nervous system. They can be studied on the basis of linguistic data.
FROM psychiatry Linguistics are related to the study of unconscious speech errors, pathopsychological speech violations associated with mental retardation, or speech deviations related to violation sensory systems (in deaf and deaf and dumb).
Quite strong bonds exist in linguistics with geography. Often geographical factors serve as a prerequisite for linguistic facts: the peculiarities of the mountain landscape in the Caucasus or on the Pamir predetermine the existence of small number of native speakers; Wide open areas assist, as a rule, the separation of dialects, and limited - their rapprochement; The sea and oceans served in ancient times an obstacle to wide linguistic contacts. At the junction of linguistics and geography originated lingvogeography, Learning the territorial distribution of languages \u200b\u200band dialects, as well as individual language phenomena.
Lingvogeographic character and toponymy - section of lexicology studies various geographical names (mountains, seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, settlements, etc.). The study of such names often provides reliable historical information about the resettlement of tribes, the migration of peoples, the peculiarities of the life of people in various era.
Linguistics are associated with physico-mathematical and technical sciences. Communication Linguistics S. physics First of all, with acoustics, led to the creation of experimental phonetics. At the end of the twentieth century A close union of linguistics with theoretical physics was formed, with the sections that are engaged in the creation of unified theories of the universe.
At the junction of mathematics and linguistics arose mathematical linguistics,which is developing a formal apparatus for describing natural languages. Mathematical linguistics uses statistics, the theory of probabilities, theory of sets, algebra, mathematical logic in learning a language. Mathematics allows you to develop a statistical language theory, conduct quantitative studies of various language phenomenons, their classification, create frequency dictionaries, study the formal combination of language units, calculate the statistical characteristics of speech by methods of mathematical information theory, model the processes of generating and perception of speech, etc.
Among mathematical disciplines, in contact with linguistics, is and information theory, or computer sciencestudying the language as one of the storage, processing and transmission of information. Informatics in alliance with linguistics ensures the creation and operation of information and search engines and automated systems Control.
Modern linguistics and with cybernetic- Science on the management and place of information in the management processes. Cybernetics is trying to understand the language as a natural and powerful information self-regulating system, which is involved in the management processes in almost all areas of human life. Contacts Linguistics with cybernetics led to the formation engineering linguistics,which is engaged in learning a language in its attitude to computers, to the possibilities of machine processing of texts, to the possibilities of creating analyzers and synthesizers of the human voice.
Modern linguistics is a branched, multidimensional science, having extensive connections with almost all areas of modern knowledge. The link of linguistics with other sciences does not deny the independence of it as special science.
The main trend of scientific progress in modern world - interpenetration of sciences, the rapid development of new scientific disciplines arising at the joints of traditional research areas. There was a trend synthesissciences that had consequences of butt sciences, such as: physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry, etc.
As a result of the interaction of linguistics with other sciences, complex (butt) sciences occur, such as sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics, ethnolinguistics, etc. Complex scientific disciplines arising at the junction of two and more sciences indicate the process of synthesis of scientific knowledge.
On the other hand proceeds differentiationscientific areas. From the object of linguistics as a holistic discipline, such areas are distinguished, which depart to the sphere of psycholinguistics or sociolinguistics as independent sciences. Many modern discoveries are made by linguists working at the junction of science.
The success of cybernetics, informatics, mathematical linguistics, engineering linguistics caused new linguistic problems to life, gave the hands of the lingules the opportunity to explore the language of new methods that complement and improve the old ones. Machine translation, computer use, machine search for information, automatic processing of texts, etc. We demanded revised or in a new one to look at some linguistic concepts.
A.A.reformatsky noted that linguistics should be faithful to its subject and its ontology, although it can enter into any relations with the sciences related to it.
Linguistics belongs to a leading place in the system of sciences about a person - a person.

4. General and private linguistics

Linguistics has two objects - language and languages. Linguistics - language science and languages. The human language is a unique phenomenon of reality. It really exists in a variety of separate, specific languages. Nowadays, science knows about 5 thousand languages \u200b\u200b(according to some data, the number of languages \u200b\u200band dialects on Earth is about 30 thousand. The number of peoples on Earth are about 1 thousand). 180 languages \u200b\u200bare native for 3.5 billion residents of the Earth. Little part of the earth's population enjoys the rest of the world. Among these languages \u200b\u200bthere are languages \u200b\u200bon which several hundred or even dozen people speak. But for linguistics, all languages \u200b\u200bare equal and all are important, as each of them is a unique creation of people.
Language as human ability, as a universal and unchanged characteristic of a person, is not the same as separate, constantly changing languages \u200b\u200bin which this ability is implemented. The human language is actually given to us in the experiment in many separate specific languages.
Each of the individual languages \u200b\u200bis different from others, being unique, individual phenomenon. But, at the same time, he has a lot of common features with other languages, and in the most significant - with all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world, in which people speak at present and who have already ceased to exist, leaving about themselves memory in writing texts.
The general and significant in various languages, as well as private and separate in specific languages, serves as the basis for the allocation of general and private linguistics within a linguistics. General linguistics considers the properties of the human language in general, the language as an invariant , which really exists in the form of concrete ethnic languages.
General Linguistics (general linguistics)- This is a science studying a natural human language, its origin, properties, functioning and development. The subject of general linguistics is such complex issues as the essence of the language, the ratio of language and thinking, language and objective reality, language and culture, languages, classification of languages, historical development of languages, etc. The total linguistics should be explained by relying on existing knowledge and checking The newly advanced hypotheses, nature and the essence of the human language are generally, i.e. Answer questions about the place of the language in a number of phenomena of the world, about its attitude to the person and his life, to thinking, knowledge, consciousness, to the environment of reality, to his biological and psychological nature. General linguistics also includes a methodology for linguistic studies, i.e. System of research principles, methods, procedures and receptions.
Private linguistics It has a specific language or group of languages. It explores each individual language as a special, unique phenomenon. Those partitions of linguistics that are dedicated to individual languages \u200b\u200breceive a name from their language, such as Russistics, British, Polonistics, Lituanist, etc. When studying a group of related languages, the name of the linguistics section is given by the name of the group, for example, Germanism, novelist, etc. Private linguistics It can learn families of languages, and then it gets the name of the studied family of languages, for example, Indo-europeism.
Private linguistics is intended to fix, inventory and thoroughly describe all the many existing or existing languages \u200b\u200bon Earth. Private linguistics is inherently descriptive, empirical, it is interested in how this language is arranged, as it functions, as evolving.
Solving the problems of private linguistics may be effective if it relies on the overall linguistics that offers its conceptual apparatus. In relation to the private linguistics, general linguistics acts as a discipline theoretical, explanatory. It is the theory of which are universal, common laws of their structure, functioning, development for all human languages. These laws are mandatory for all languages, but they are implemented in each of the specific languages \u200b\u200bin their own way.
On the other hand, the general laws of the device and the development of the language can be known, only exploring individual living or dead languages.
Two linguistics - general and private linguistics complement each other. The total linguistics contributes to a better understanding of the specifics of specific languages, it plays the role of theoretical foundation for private linguistics, describing specific languages. Private linguistics uses concepts, ideas, the provisions of the general linguistics, applying them to a specific language.

1. Linguistics as science. Its main sections and issues.

Linguistics is a science of natural human language and in general about all the languages \u200b\u200bof the world as individual representatives. The most common and private partitions of linguistics are distinguished. One of the major sections I am Generally, I am engaged in the properties inherent in any language, and differs from the private language disciplines used by it, which are allocated in accordance with its subject - either in a separate language (rusotic) or in the group of related languages \u200b\u200b(novelism).

Private partitions Linguistics.

Phonetics The sound level is oriented - the sound side directly accessible to human perception. Its subject are speech sounds in all their diversity. Language sounds also study phonology but with functional and systemic points of view. The foundation is allocated as a source unit and object of research in phonology. A special morphological level is introduced and its morphological discipline is introduced - morropology - study of the phonological composition of the morphological unit of the language.

Grammar - Section I, examining words, morphemes, morphs. In grammar stand out morphology and syntax . In M. orphology As special sections, I stand out word formation dealing with derivation values \u200b\u200band sevement word .

Syntax - studies the combination of grammatical rules of the language, the combination and order of the words inside the sentence (supply and phrase). Language dictionarys are engaged in several sections I: semantics And the sections that adjacent to it ( phraseology , semantic syntax). Lexic semantics - deals with the study of such values \u200b\u200bof words that are not grammatical. Semantics - Science learning the meaning of words.

Phraseology - Explore non-free lexical combinations.

Lexicology - Explore the dictionary (vocabulary) of the language.

Lexicography - Writing the Word and Description of the Word. Science of compiling dictionaries.

Onomatology - Study of terms in various fields of practical and scientific life.

Semasiology Separations of the lexic semantics that is, that is, the values \u200b\u200bof those language units that are used to name individual items and reality phenomena. He studies the meaning of the word from the word. Onomasiology – He studies the development of the word from the subject.

Onomastics - Science of own names. Anthroponimika The section of onomastics studying their own names of people, origin, change of these names, geographical distribution and social functioning, structure and development of anthroponymic systems. Toponymy An integral part of onomastics studying geographical names (toponyms), their meaning, structure, origin and distribution area.

Sociolinguistics - the state of language and society. Pragmalinguistics - language functioning in various communication situations. Psycholinguistics - Psychological mechanisms of speech generation. Paralinguistics - Old-speakers - gestures and facial expressions. Ethnolinguistics - language due to history, culture of the people.

2. Phonetics as a section of linguistics. Characteristics of sounds, phonetic processes, phonetic speech membership.

Fonetics (Greek. Phone - Sound), section Linguistics learning the sound side of the language. Unlike other linguistic disciplines, F. explores not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the uttertainment, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena.

Sound speech - This is a method for materializing morphemes and the forms of the word, which act as the unity of sound and meanings.

In all languages \u200b\u200bof the world, there are two types of speech sounds - vowels and consonants. The combination of vowels forms vocalism, the aggregate of consonants - consonantism; Vocalism and consonantism form the system in the background of this language.

Classification of vowels. All vowels are sonorn (voice) and slotted. The basis of the classification serves a number and lifting of the language, as well as the work of the lips; Additionally, nasalization, tension and longitude are taken into account.

Three rows differ - three types of vowels - front, middle and rear. Three lifts are different in the rise of the language - the upper, medium and lower; The vowel upper lifts are called narrow, medium lifting - medium, lower lifting - wide. According to the participation of the lips in their formation, vowels are divided into lip and chawy. According longness, vowels are divided into long and short. In addition to long vowels in the worlds of the world, there are difongs - vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in one syllable and protruding as one phoneme. Diftones are divided into descending and ascending. In the downward difton, the first element is strong; In the ascending - the second.

Classification of consonants. If, when characterizing the vocabulary, voice ligaments and the articulation method were not taken into account, then when describing the consonants, these signs are classification. The basis of the classification of consonants is four main articulation features: the method of articulation, the active body, the place of articulation, the work of voice ligaments. According to the method of articulation, the consonants are divided into garbage and slotted (fricative). According to the active authority, the consonants are divided into three types: lip, pagan and aging (gentle); More diverse and distributed in the world's tongue languages, especially advanced. Light consonants are longwag and lifting. Pagonous consonants are divided into advanced, medium-language and posterior-speaking. Front-band (whistling) consonants at the place of articulation are dentals and opposites (hissing); Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, the front-band is divided into dorsal, apical and cacuminal. Lawless consonants are divided into unsuccessful (tongue), pharyngal (sipgoes) and Gundy. On the work of voice ligaments, consonants are divided into noisy (deaf and ringing) and sonornal.

Phonetic processes. Because Sounds of speech are not pronounced isolated, and in the sound circuit of the associated speech, the sounds can influence each other and experience the effect of general pronunciation conditions.

The effect of sounds on each other causes combinatorial changes carried out in the phonetic processes: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diererers, epensenes, haplology. Reduction - It is weakening and changing the sound unstressed syllables and sound sounds of these words. Accommodation (likelihood) arise between consonants and vowels, usually standing nearby, and are that the excursion of subsequent sound is adapted to the recursion of the previous sound - progressive accommodation; On the contrary, the regressive accommodation, and sliding transitional sounds (state) may occur. Assimilation (like) arise between the sounds of the same kind, and therefore may be complete, i.e. 2 different sounds as a result of assimilation may become aimed and becoming the same, therefore, there is a complete and incomplete assimilation. Dissimilation (focus) arise between the sounds of the same type and are based on trends opposite to assimilation, 2 different or less similar sounds are obtained from 2 identical or similar sounds; (contact, patient, regressive and progressive). Dieresions Have an assimilative foundation, such as the elimination of iota between vowels, when they seek to become like each other or merge into one sound. Epenzia. Have a dissimilative basis (for example, insertion of consonants). Prostheses They are a kind of epensez, only prostheses are not inserted into the middle of the words, but are attached in front to the beginning of the word (eight). Gaplology - When one of the two identical or similar syllables (Znamel instead of the bannamer) is subjected to a miscarriage. Metathhese More often occur when a word from 1 language goes into another language, when moving words to a dialect.

Phonetic speech membership.

This is phonetically a sound stream or chain of sound. This chain disintegrates on the coented links, which are special, purely phonetic units of the language, following each other in time. Phonetic speech units are phrases, tacts, syllables and sounds. Phrase - this is the largest phonetic unit; Phrases are divided into speech chain by pauses. One phrase can cover several proposals and the proposal can decay into several phrases.

The phrase by intonation is combined; Each pronounced phrase has a specific intonation scheme. The intonation consists of melody (increase and decrease in voice), rhythm (logical stress), tempo (speech rate, presence or absence of pauses). The phrase decays to the tact.

Tact - This is part of the phrase (1 or several syllables), combined with one stress. Trackers combined with the strongest point - shock syllable. The momentous words are highlighted (individual tacts, the words are slightly negotiable, without having their stress, adjoin the front and behind the word, having an emphasis, forming one beat with him). The adjoining in the front is called a proclism, and the fine-knitted word joined in front of the front - the crignitory (at home). The adjoining from the back is called an enzyme, and the pursuit of the unstressed word itself - enclit (I saw). Trackers disintegrate on sound . The syllable is a part of a tact consisting of 1 or several sounds. But not all sounds can form a syllable. For this, explosive and affriries are not suitable. Sonorny - vowels and consonants are most suitable. According to its audio structure, the syllables can be divided into open (ends of vowels) and closed (ends of the consonant). The syllables ending with the sorneal consonant can be called half-open, unfinished (starting with vowels) and covered (starting with the consonant). The combination of 2 vowels in the syllable - difthong. The syllables are distinguished by the television. Sounds are separated on the sounds.

3. Phonology as a scientific discipline. The concept of a phoneme.

Phone Phone (from Greek. Phone - sound), section of linguistics, science of sound strict language learning the structure and functioning of the smallest insignificant units of the language (syllables, phoneme). F. differs from phonetics by the fact that in the center of its attention is not the sounds themselves as physical data, and the role they are performed in speech as the components of more complex meaning units - morpheme, words. The main unit F. is a foundation, the main object of the study - opposition (opposition) to the background, forming the phonological system of the language.

Fonmem (from Greek. Phonema - sound) is the smallest unit of the sound system of the language, which is an element of the sound shell of words and morpheme and contributing to their distinction. The phoneme has perceptual (bringing to perception) and ingnecific (senseless) functions. All common features that cannot be used to distinguish the language of the language are called integral. Integral signs are opposed by differential. Differential signs of the background indicate their acoustic and articulation properties that are perceived by speaking and distinguish the phonemes from each other, and also contribute to the recognition of words and morpheme.

In the sound circuit, the phonemes are pronounced as options, i.e. Like specific speech sounds - backgrounds. Options to phoneme can be phonetic and non-refined. Nephlatonic are divided into individual, dialect and orthoepic. Among all the options, the phone is allocated main. The main option is called such pronouncement of the phoneme, in which all its signs are preserved. Ideally, this option is presented with an isolated utility of the phoneme. Close to this ideal of the phonam manifests itself in favorable conditions for them of pronunciation conditions, they are called strong positions (they are opposed to weak).

Strong positions reveal to a greater extent acoustic-articulation signs of speech sounds, strong positions of vowels and consonants are different. For vowels, a strong position is a shock syllable, for consonants - softness and hardness. Weak position generates options that have lost one or more acoustic-articulation features, the phoney of this language.

4. Morphology as a section of grammar. Morphological structure of the word. Concept and types of morpheme.

Morphology (from Greek. "Teaching about form"), section of linguistics, the main object of which are words of natural languages \u200b\u200band their significant parts - morphemes. The problem of morphology includes the definition of a word as a special language object and a description of its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and forming them by morpheme (sound composition, the order, etc.), but also those grammatical values \u200b\u200bthat are expressed inside the word. In accordance with these two major problems, morphology is often divided into two areas: "formal" morphology, or morfemic, in the center of which are the concepts of words and morphemes, and grammatical semantics, studying the properties of grammatical morphological values \u200b\u200band categories (i.e. morphologically expressed word formation And the word-byment of the world's languages).

Morpheme - This is the smallest significant unit of language, which is a means of expressing grammatical values. Unlike words and suggestions that are capable of independent use, Morphema acts as an integral part of the word and shape of the word. Morphemes are bilateral units of the language: they have two sides - semantic and phonetic. In order to more accurately describe the structure of the morpheme, the concepts of morph (a specific phonetic version of the morpheme) and sema (the smallest semantic side of the morpheme) are introduced. Morphemes are monogeneous (unambiguous) and polishem (multivalued).

The morphological structure of the word is aware not only due to the free use of the foundations and affixes, but also due to the fact that each word is included in one category or another category, it takes the one or another paradigm, becomes a component of a particular word formation series. The presence of associative relations between the words and forms of words, combining them into paradigms and word-forming series and nests - two main types of connections characteristic of a language as a grammatical whole.

5. Grammatical language categories.

The grammatical category is a set of elements of the language (words, meaningful words of words and combinations of words), combined with a grammatical value with the obligatory presence of its grammatical method. For example, in Russian, the verb has a city to. Pledge, species, inclination, time, face, numbers, genus.

Categories in grammar can be wider, for example, parts of speech, and narrower, for example, the phenomena of the internal group within one or another part of speech: in nouns - categories of numbers; Within the verb - category of collateral, species, inclination.

If we compare the word form walls, write , you will find that they all have the value of the plural; This combines them as a form of numbers. These forms, however, are different syntactic function: wordform walls As a form of a nouns name of the nominal case capable of consulting in the position of the subject, personal form of verb write - in the position of the fad.

Consequently, the wordformes are combined on a conceptual and syntax basis, forming homogeneous functional groups. Groups of the Forms of the Word, combined with the community of grammatical meaning, are called grammatical categories. They are the most common concepts of grammar. Grammatical system of language is not just an inventory of grammatical means and forms, but this is an ordered system. Grouping a word for grammatical categories and parts of speech is the two main ways to organize a grammatical language system.

The semantic nature of grammatical categories associates grammar with logic and psychology. However, there is a significant difference between grammatical and conceptual categories. In contrast to the conceptual categories that can be different with specific words and phrases, grammatical categories are such concepts that are characteristic of the grammatical system of the language, its grammatical forms and find a means of expressing grammatical meanings.

Each grammatical category has its own structure, i.e., a certain inventory of wordforms, their relation to each other, a set of various means of expressing grammatical meaning. The structure of the grammatical category is also called the paradigm of the grammatical category. By the amount of paradigm, the paradigm is two-, three- and multicomponent. Thus, in Russian, a two-component paradigm has a category of numbers and species, three-component - category of kind, face, time, multicomponent - category of case.

In its purpose and communication with units of the language, grammatical categories are divided into two main types - morphological and syntax. Morphological categories are divided into word-substitution and classification. Value-revenge categories combine the forms of the word within the same lexeme. (For example: Category of kind of adjective names is a word-only. The adjective is consistent with the name of the nouns, accepting its grammatic genus: white paper, white spot). Classification categories combine lexemes based on a common grammatical value. (Category of kind of nouns - classification. Noun table male, wall - female window - medium, and this generic attachment is strictly required).

There are also lexico-grammatical categories (for example, the categories of abstractness, materiality, exacerbation of nouns, the method of action of verbs, relativity and qualitativeness of adjectives). The same mixed vocabulary-grammatical nature is of word-forming categories that associate words with a morphological structure characteristic of a particular part of speech, and at the same time are associated with the formation of new lexes and lexical groups of words.

6. Grammatical values \u200b\u200band properties .

The grammatical system of the language studies the grammar - the science of the formation of words, their change, classes, combinations and use in the proposal and context.

Grammatical properties Words are grammatical values, means of expressing grammatical values, grammatical categories.

Grammar meanings This value acting as an additional word to the lexical value and expressing various relationships (the relation to other words in the phrase or proposal, the attitude to the person acting, or other persons, the attitude of the report to reality and the time, the attitude of the talking to the reported, etc. e). Usually the word has several grammatical values. So, the word country has the values \u200b\u200bof the female, the nominative case, the only number; The word wrote contains the grammatical values \u200b\u200bof the past, the only number, male genus, perfect species.

The grammatical meaning of the word is not determined by its lexical value. The lexical meaning of such, for example, words like tol and table Differently, whereas their grammatical significance is equally, as they are the names of the same kind, the number and case. Words like entrance, log in Having the same root one, they are combined only in word-forming communication, and their grammatical meaning is different: the name of the noun login indicates the subject, the verb includes an action, and the adjective entrance is a sign of the subject.

7. Syntax as a section of linguistics. Definition of proposal (predicateness, modality).

Syntax (from Greek. "Stroy, order"), in a traditional understanding, a combination of grammatical rules of a language relating to the construction of units, more extended than the word: phrase and suggestion.

The offer is the main communicative unit of language and speech. The offer as a sample belongs to the language of its implementation belongs to speech. The offer is at the same time the most difficult unit in which words, word form and phrases are functioning. The subject of the suggestion of the proposal is not a specific content of statements, but a generalized semantics of the proposal, its constructive basis, the rules for its distribution and actualization.

Predicativity has two sides - formal logical and modally-semantic. Sometimes these two properties are considered as two aspects of the sentence, calling the first property predicatence, and the second - modality.

Semantic predicativity It is manifested in the presence of a proposal model with such a form of thought as a judgment. As a judgment has two main components - the subject and predicate (or attribute) and the proposal has two main members of the proposal - to and the lean. Both the semantic structure of the proposal, and especially its formal structure may differ from the structure of judgment, correlating with it indirectly, incomplete and redundant.

The verbalization of the subject-predicate form of thought generates two-part offers of nominative system. However, the meaning structure of the proposal and its logical characteristic and in this case are not identical. In a sentence Pilit Man subject to not only the logical subject, but also actor (Agens); in a sentence House is built subject to the logical subject, which is not a valid person: he is a passive person (Patience). Subject-predicate compatibility may not be required. There are single-service sentences in languages, i.e. proposals with one main member, which only formally coincides with the legend or subject to: Light. The interim of the proposal structure and judgment also manifests itself in the fact that the proposal can combine phrases into one unit, although each of the parts has correlation with the form of judgment, however, with a different degree of relevance. So there are common, complicated and complex models of proposals. A common offer contains, besides the main members of the proposal, even secondary - additions, circumstances, definitions.

Modally-sense The side (modality) of predicatence is manifested in the expression of the purpose of the statement and in assessing the content of the statement. For the purpose of the statement of proposals are divided into narrative, questionative and motivating. These main types of proposals for the purpose of statements differ from each other not only in the direction of semantics, but also in its construction, intonation and use of various syntactic particles.

8. Actual membership of the proposal. The concept of this and new, or themes and remisses.

The actual membership of proposals is the semantic underscore of one of the components of the proposal and the establishment between the units of new subject-predicate relations. The dedicated part of the sentence is called the (new) statement, the rest is the subject (given) statements.

Means of current membership are the order of words, syntagmatic membership and formulation of phrase stress. So, the offer I'll go home now By intonational-semantic membership can be turned into four phrases having the same positional model of supply, the same lexical filling, but a different actual (semantic) membership:

1. Now I'll go home.

The formulation of phrasal stress on the first word and the separation of it from the rest of the pause actualizes it in the semantic structure of the sentence, makes a remote, the core of the statement, whereas the rest turns into, the topic of statements, the semantic background of the dedicated component.

2. Now i I'll go home.

The formulation of phrasal stress on the second word and separation by its pauses from the rest actualizes it in the semantic structure of the sentence, makes a rema. Actualized turned out to be subject to.

3. Now I. i'll go home.

The formulation of phrase stress on the third word and the separation of its pauses from the rest of the part actualizes it in the semantic structure of the proposal, makes a remote statement, his psychological predicate. The actualized turned out to be a lean.

4. Now I will go home .

The formulation of phrasal stress on the fourth word and the separation of its pause from the rest actualizes it in the semantic structure of the statement, makes a rema. Updated was the circumstance of the place (direction of action).

Of course, all members of the sentence may turn out to be updated: now I will go home. However, such a uniform distribution of actualization of meaning is exaggerated. Usually in speech there is an uneven distribution of actualization, the semantic allocation of one of the components of the statement. All types and types of proposals are subject to relevant membership, which is more than one word. The more words in the proposal (simple and complex), the more complicated its syntactic structure, the greater the possibilities of its various actualization, the more difficult the rules of the actual membership of the proposal.

9. Lexicology as a section of linguistics. Lexical meaning. (What is the difference in lexical importance from grammatical?)

Lexicology (from Greek. Lexikos - Relevant to the Word), section of linguistics in which the dictionary of the language, its vocabulary is investigated. The subject of studying L is the following aspects of the dictionary composition of the language: the problem of the word as the main unit of the language, the types of lexical units, the structure of the dictionary composition of the language, the functioning of lexical units, ways to replenish and develop vocabulary, vocabulary and extra-language validity. The lexical composition of the language is heterogeneous. It highlighted in it categories of lexical units for different grounds: on the selection of use - vocabulary common and stylically noted, used under certain conditions and spheres (poetic, spoken, spacious, dialectisms), according to the historical perspective (neologisms, archaisms); By origin (borrowing), active and passive vocabulary. An important aspect of L is the study of words in their respectiveness to reality, since it is in words that the life experience of the team in a certain era is fixed in the most directly enshrines. In this regard, such problems as vocabulary and culture are considered.

Lexical meaning words - The semantic content of the word is equally understood by people speaking in this language. It establishes the relationship between the word and called it is the subject, phenomenon, concept, action, and quality. The lexical significance discloses the principle by which it is possible to determine the properties common to a number of objects, and also establishes the differences that allocate this item (a rare-"rare, not solid forest", the common forest, and different - rare). The lexical value consists of many components (components). The lexical meaning of words is explained in intelligent dictionaries. L. Z. is characterized by a substantive direction: words indicate things and call them; Therefore, L. Z. is also called the real meaning of the word. L. Z. can be concrete and abstract, common (nominal) and single (own). Names are their own, as well as pronouns, unlike the names of nominal (concrete and abstract), call items, various in their subject standing. The generalization function is the essential property of L. Z. L. Z. not identically notion, although both of them have a function of reflection and generalization.

Lexeme is a significant word; It indicates objects and denotes the concepts of them; It is able to perform a member of the sentence and to form proposals.

Grammar values \u200b\u200bdiffer from lexical three main properties:

1. Grammar values \u200b\u200bdiffer from the lexical attitude to the word and the language of the language. Unlike the lexical meaning, characteristic of one or another word, the grammatical significance is not focused in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language.

2. The second difference between grammatical values \u200b\u200bfrom lexical consists in the nature of generalization and abstraction. If the lexical significance is associated with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical importance arises as a generalization of the properties of words as abstraction from the lexical meaning of words. For example, the shape of the table, the wall, the stubble words (and not objects, phenomena and the concepts of them). Grammatical values \u200b\u200bare expressed in word formation, word-byfection and building combinations and suggestions.

3. The third difference between grammatical values \u200b\u200bconsists in their attitude to thinking and objective reality, i.e., to the world of things, phenomena, actions, ideas, ideas. If words are nominative to the language of the language and as part of specific phrases express human knowledge, then the forms of words, phrases and suggestions are used to organize thoughts, its design.

10. Polycemia and types of names of names.

Polyesia (from Greek. Polysmos "multi-valued"), the presence of a language mark more than one value. Polyesmia is also called meaningful.

Poland is characteristic of most ordinary words. Words as names can easily move from one thing to another or any sign of this thing or on its part. The question of Polemia is before the question of the nomination, i.e. Change things with the word identity. The portable meaning of any type is explained through the direct, but the direct value of non-derivative words is inexplicable. Portable values \u200b\u200bare not always the facts of the language. Often portable values \u200b\u200boccur as stylistic phenomena, i.e. As trails, figurative expressions. The difference in language metaphors and appropriate poetic trails is that the trail is not a direct name of this thing, but only a shaped nickname.

There are 4 species of Poland: metaphor, metonimia, transferring function and syncdocha. Metaphor (from Greek - Transfer) A trope based on the use of a word in a figurative value, which arose on the basis of associations in similarity: Forms (circles under the eyes), location (head of the column), appearance (Piglet of the yard), with an impersonation (in sleepy air All quietly) or the characteristic of the thoughts, human activity through the world of nature (inert gas is an inert child). Many of their own names are also obliged to their origin metaphor (dog nickname: ball, top), people's names (faith). The metaphor is distinguished: lexical (otherwise erased, dry): a calendar sheet and a figurative - an artistic trail built on the expanded association in similarity. Lexic metaphors are widely used in the language and are different in lexicography. Metonymy (from Greek. Renamation) - such a transfer of the name, which is not performed on the basis of the similarity of external or internal signs of the former thing and new, and on the basis of adjacency i.e. Contacting things in space or time. With the metonimical transfer, not only thing changes, but also the concept as a whole. Typical cases of metonymium are associated with such relationships: one in another (spacious class and attentive class), one on the other (the table is furniture and table - food), one through another (FR. Blinds - window curtains from jealousy), one after another, the result (admission of students is continued - this year a successful reception in the university), the material is product (copper - the name of the metal and coins from it), the gun - the product (language - the organ speech, language - speech), place - product (Bordeaux - Name of wines and geogr. Item), place is a historical event (Borodino), the name is the product (Ford Machine, and the name of its creator). Synecdoche - Such a transfer of value when, calling a part, mean a whole, or calling the whole, mean a part of the whole (from the Greek. Commusing). Significant difference Siekindohi is a quantitative sign of the ratio of what the name is transferred and what is transferred to the name. One member of this ratio will always be greater, wider, more general, the other is less, already, more privately. Relations: part instead of a whole (one hundred heads, regiment in 100 bayonets, spikes of royal guard), units. The number instead of the multiple (buyer, be polite), general instead of a separate (boss - the boss), the genus instead of the species (the car is a car). Function transfer has a lot in common with the metaphor, because It is based on similarity, but still differ from it and has its own special place in Poland. The main difference of metaphor from the transfer by function is that the metaphorical transfer is based on the similarity of the material characteristic: color, form, on the aggregate of the similarities perceived by the senses (especially vision) similarities where the name is transferred, to where this name is transferred. With functional transfer, things can be completely different, but combines their generality of functions. The goose feather (part of the bird's cub) conveyed its name to the steel peru is not because they are both sharpened from below, the sharp and have the same movement, but because they have a general function: the instrument of writing.

11. Synonyms. Their definition and classification (conceptual, stylistic)

Synonyms (from Greek. The same name) - the words of the same part of speech having fully or partially coincident values. As a unit of semantic comparison of lexical synonyms, elementary value the words. Therefore, a multi-valued word can enter into several synonymous series (or paradigs). Members of each row are identified by semantically and stylistically relative to the dominant of a number, i.e. The words are semantically the most simple, stylistically neutral: "High - the tall - long - long-grade"

According to the degree of synonymium (identity, the proximity of the values \u200b\u200band the ability to replace each other) synonyms are divided into full (strike - a strike) and partial (line - feature).

Given the semantic and stylistic differences in synonyms, they are divided into several groups. Synonyms that differ in shades in the values \u200b\u200bare called semantic (youth - youth, red - crimson - scarlet). Synonyms that have the same value but differ stylistic coloringare called stylistic. These include: synonyms belonging to various functional speech styles (newlyweds / official style / and young / conversational /); Synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having various emotional and expressive shades (sensible - Bashkin / with a shade of rough-familiar /). Synonyms that differ in the meaning, and their stylistic color, are called semantic and stylistic (wander - wander - stagger - sang). The most important condition for synonymizing words is their semantic proximity, and in much conditions - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, words synonymich may appear to a greater or lesser extent. The most pronounced character gets synonymy in the meaning identity of words (linguistics - linguistics). Concepts synonyms differ from each other with a lexical value. This difference is manifested in different degrees of the designated feature (frost - s), in the nature of its designation (the crimson - purple - bloody), and in the amount of the concept expressed (banner - flag) and into the degree of linity of lexical meaning (black - raven)

When establishing synonymic relations, it is necessary to consider the synchronicity of the lexical units under consideration. For example, for example, a synonymous series of the word "wanderer" and "tourist": they relate to different historical epochs.

12. Tabo and euphemisms.

Taboo - Ethnogeographic concept concerning the language. Taboo means a ban arising in the sphere of public life at different stages of the development of society. Based on different prerequisites, such a ban can spread to the facts of the language. Among the peoples in early stage public Development, Taba of words arose on the soil of mythological beliefs. In the event of the death of the leader, it is impossible to touch his body, touch his things to enter his house. The name of the diseases of the gods and spirits is to be banned, the name of that animal is often published, which serves as the main object of hunting this tribe. To replace the taboo words, you need other words - eufemism (from Greek. I speak politely).

Eufemism - These are replaced, allowed words that are used instead of prohibited. These eufemism were among many Indo-European peoples, including the Slavs, the name of the serpent, the bear. Russian Bear is an artificially composed complex word with the meaning of the one who eats honey.

At a higher level of development, for example, in the era of the formation of nationalities, superstitions and prejudices serve as a source of tabulation in the peasant medium. Taboo is subject to the names of disease. Fishery Bear Hunters The Bear's word is subjected to secondary tabulation superstition: the owner, Mokhnach, Potapich.

In a civilized society, a censor ban can be the cause of the tabulation, so the own names of countries, cities are replaced by letters or their names. Another source of taboo words in a civilized environment is etiquette, fear of coarse or indecent expressions. So, instead of "you lie" say "You are mistaken", "you are not completely right. Doctors often resort to the Latin names of disease. For example, instead, "they died" say "went to the forefathers," "gave God to God," ordered for a long time. "

13. Omonyms and their varieties.

Omonium (from Greek. Nomos is the same, onima - the name) is a coincidence in the sound and writing words, various meanings, externally resembles multivalucy.

However, the use of the word in different values \u200b\u200bdoes not give reason to talk about the appearance of new words every time, while at homonymy there are completely different words that match the sound and writing, but not having anything in common in semantics (marriage in the meaning of "marriage" and marriage - spoiled products; the first formed from the verb of "brother" with the help of the suffix "K", his homonym the "marriage" was borrowed from the German language).

Together with homonymy, concerning the phenomena relating to sound and graphic sides of speech is usually considered, - Omophony and Omography. Omophons - These are words that sound the same, but written in different ways (onions - meadow). Omographs - These are words that coincide only on the letter, but differ in pronunciation. Omographs usually have accented on different syllables (circles - circles). Omographic - When only certain forms of words (verse - verb and verse noun) are coincided. Actually omonimi Which can fall into different groups: genuine homonyms, words that sound the same, having the same composition of the phone and morphological composition, but a different origin of two previously coincided on the sound of words (onions - a plant and bow - weapons). Such homonyms arise in the language or when borrowing words, or as a result of the action of phonetic laws in their own language. Those cases when from the same roots or foundations, independently of each other, the same words are formed, in the same part of speech, and the same on the word ignition (the Blue paint and the Blueberry - Kushanye). But: Lucky - breed of dogs and husky - a grade of soft skin is a case of explicit polemia. There may be such cases when the same word is borrowed at different times, with different meaning (Banda - gangsters gangsters and gang - the oven orchestra). Special form of homonymy - case conversion When this word goes into another part of speech without changing its morphological and phonetic composition (evil - a brief adjective, evil - adverb and evil - noun). The most difficult case is those cases where polishey is so diverged that it becomes homonym. As a rule, in these cases, the difference in lexical significance is supported by the difference in grammatical connections (insistent - to achieve the execution of something and insisted - to prepare infusion; nevov. The view in both cases is to insist, but one verb requires direct addition, and the other cannot have it, So it is two different words).

14. Etymology and the inner form of the word.

Etymology (from Greek. Truth and Word) is a section of linguistics learning the origin of words.

The subject of etymology as a section of linguistics is the study of the sources and the process of forming the dictionary composition of the language and the reconstruction of the dictionary composition of the oldest language of the oldest period.

The aim of the etymological analysis of the word is to determine when, in what language, for what a word-forming model, the word, and what historical changes of its primary form, and the values \u200b\u200bcaused the form and value known to the researcher. The reconstruction of the primary forms and the meaning of the word is an item of etymological analysis.

The words of any natural language can be - in accordance with their origin - are divided into the following groups: original words, i.e. Words inherited from the ancestor language (large group); Words formed with the help of existing (or existing) in the language of word formation agents; Words borrowed from other languages; artificially created words; Words resulting from various "linguistic errors".

The internal form of the word is the motivation of the lexical meaning of the word of its word-formative and semantic structure. V. F. reveals some kind of sign of the subject, on the basis of which the name occurred. The objective properties of objects and their awareness are determining when names. T. K. V. F. Indicates only one sign of the subject and the concept, the same subject, the same thing may have several names.

V. F. The Word is present at the time of its creation. In the course of historical development, the process of semantic support occurs, as a result of which words with lost VF - unmotivated words arise.

The loss of V. F. is associated with a change in the morpheme structure of the word, its phonetic and semantic changes. An increase in the number of unmotivated words occurs as a result of deethimalization and borrowing words. Deethematology is called the historical change in the word-formative structure and the meaning of words, which leads to the rupture of links between the related words and the formation of unmotivated derivatives, which act in modern language as new (independent) roots.

Forgotten V. F. Words can reborn again in the formation of new words, reviving it, or with a special attention to it. With the facts of revival V. F. Words associated phenomenon. folk etymology. This is false etymology, i.e., the establishment of the inner form in the Word, which he does not have. Frequently false etymologization exposed borrowed words: they are installed on the native native morphemes.

15. Phraseology and classification of phraseological units.

Phraseology Linguistic discipline studying stable idiomatic phrases - phraseological units; The set of phraseological units themselves is also called its phraseology.

Phraseologisms should be distinguished from free phrases.

The most important property of phraseologism is their reproducibility. They are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they gained in the language. Frameologists are always complex in composition, are formed by a compound of several components. The components of the phraseologist are not used independently and do not change their common value in phraseology (blood with milk is healthy, ruddy). Phraseologisms are characterized by constant value. In free phrases, one word can be replaced by another if it is suitable. The phraseologisms of such a replacement are not allowed (the cat has shown - it is impossible to say a cat with a cat "). But there are phraseologisms that have options: to spread with the mind - to strive with brains. However, the existence of options for phraseologism does not mean that they can be replaced with words.

Phraseologisms that do not allow no variation belong to absolutely stable phrases. Most phraseological units are peculiar to an impenetrable structure: no new words are included in them. However, there are both phraseological units that allow the insertion of individual clarifying words (to wash their heads - thickening her head well). In some phraseologizams, there is a pass of one or more components (pass the fire and water / and copper pipes /). Phraseological units differ in the degree of spares: it is impossible to divide (beat the bumps); Less Spaitor (do from an elephant fly); Weak degree of sparesiness. The phraseologists inherent in the stability of the grammatical structure, the grammatical forms of words are usually not changed in them. Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed order of words. 4 types of phraseologism: f original unity - a phraseological turnover with a metaphorical figurative-portable value, which has homonym - a free combination of words (lean his head - scold and laminate the head with soap). Frameological combination - phraseological turnover, characterized by reproducibility and holistic value arising from the values \u200b\u200bof the components of its words (question mark, win). Frameological battle - Idioma - a phraseological turnover, the value of which is figurative, holistically and does not depend on the meanings of words included in it, often outdated (to get to come, to eat a dog). Phraseological expressions or well-established phrases{!LANG-e3976cc068a1f3a60596f2c6054912f6!}

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Language – {!LANG-85a2511a74f532a108519c921e760ae2!}

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{!LANG-1012ed298c139866cde53b2a66a6972b!} .

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