Even in antiquity, during the time of Plato, repeated attempts to understand and understand the processes occurring outside the person and in it itself. Due to insufficient knowledge and understanding, much has been numbered supernatural manifestations. Over time, accumulated knowledge led to a more complete understanding of existing processes and relationships in nature.

The history of the formation of a mechanistic picture of the world

The path of knowledge formation was a thorny. A large role was played by a universal understanding of the laws of being and the readiness of humanity of that time to accept or reject a certain look at the world.

An important role was played in the Middle Ages Religion, stopping any attempts to scientific approach to the knowledge of the surrounding world. All sorts of actions configured by the dogma of the Church were indulging in Anathema and eradicated. Great amount The great minds were burned at the fires of the Roman Inquisition. And only in the 17th-18 century, under pressure from real evidence, a mechanistic picture of the world began to popularly be popularized. During this period, the first serious attempts to systematize and process the accumulated research and works of the past epochs of humanity were carried out. Thanks to the new understanding of the organization of the world, the ubiquitous use and the introduction of knowledge gained in the practical level was possible.

Society and understanding of nature

The formation of a mechanistic picture of the world contributed to the rapid technological development of society. However, it took for its introduction for a long time.

First of all it was associated with the psychological readiness of society to accept new way Understanding the foundations of the universe. The creation of a mechanistic picture of the world and its complete formation lasted about two hundred years, until the middle of the nineteenth century.

Under the influence of philosophers, thinkers and natural resources of previous eras, such as democritus, Aristotle, Lucretia and Epicur, gradually the understanding and adoption of a materialistic approach.

Accumulated knowledge in the field of mathematics, physics, chemistry showed differences and features of the mechanistic picture of the world from an existing understanding of the laws of the Universe for that period.

Aristotle and Ptolemy's works were not accurate at that time. However, these were the first attempts to understand and understand what is a mechanistic picture of the world.

The beginning of the era of the mechanistic picture of the world

Somewhat later, in the 16th century, another surge of scientific thought and resonance in society caused the works "On the rotation of heavenly spheres" Nikolai Copernicus. His followers saw rationality and relevance in the scientific approach to the study of the surrounding world. Subsequently, on the basis of the works of Copernicus and Galilee, a new era of worldview was born.

The process of creating a mechanistic picture of the world and its formation was provided a huge impact French scientist Rene Descartes. The area of \u200b\u200bhis knowledge was quite wide, he worked in the field of physics, mathematics, philosophy and biology. The religious education of the young René did not interfere with the development of knowledge, and he was able to become one of the creators of a new understanding of the device of the world.

About seven years, the philosopher and scientist spent in travels in Europe of the seventeenth century, accumulating the vital impressions and reflecting on the philosophical and mathematical problems of that era.

Significant success Descartes achieved in the field of mathematics. Its achievements are reflected in the famous work "Geometry", published in 1637. This one treatise laid down all the basics of modern geometry. Rene also owns the introduction of symbols in the algebra. His works had a key influence on the development of mathematics in the future. In 1644, the French scientist and the philosopher gave its definition of the emergence and further development of peace and the surrounding nature.

In his opinion, solar system And the planets were formed from material vortices rotating around the sun. He believed that for separating the body on the medium, it is necessary to have different speeds of movement. And the border of the body becomes real if the body moves, and it determines its shape and sizes. All formulas and definitions he reduced to mechanical movement of tel. A strange definition, if you take into account the knowledge available to us now, isn't it? But such was the look of some scientists of that time.

Opinion Newton on processes in nature and universe

A somewhat different opinion was adhered to the creator of the mechanistic picture of the world - Isaac Newton. He was a mathematician, physicist, philosopher and astronomer. All your conclusions this scholar husband did on the basis of the experiments conducted, thoroughly studying them. The main credo of it was the phrase "no hypotheses!" Important scientific achievement Newton was the creation of the theory of movement of planets and celestial spheres.

The discovery of the World Committee-related to this work was based on a full substantiation of the mechanistic picture of Newton's world turned out to be more accurate and effective.

In 1688, a country occurred in England during this period experienced powerful political fermentation from the monarchy to a complete analogue of communism. However, despite the peripetics of life, the Great Scientist and the philosopher continued to work on philosophical works on the device of the world.

Philosophy and science of the past

The mechanistic picture of Newton's world was a thorny and difficult path. In the process of writing the last part of his work, he stated: "I intend to eliminate the third part now, philosophy is the same for the same lady, to deal with which is equivalent to engaging in litigation." In the end, its "mathematical starts of natural philosophy" was released (in 1687). This system has received universal approval and has become a strong generally accepted theory.

Newton's work is given to the rationale of the works of Copernicus on the movement of the planets around the sun. The final labor of the scientist has become three laws, the final works of Descartes, Galilee and Guygens and other great minds of that time, thereby determining the further creation of a mechanistic picture of the world and understanding processes in nature.

In general, the ideas about the world around the seventeenth century were a picture of once created and unchanged peace of the universe.

Newton considered the space of the container of all objects, and the time is the length of the processes in it. The space was considered endless and unchanged in time.

Three in the modern world

A lot of experiments, scientist spent over physical processes between the bodies. During the work, he brought three laws that we use now.
The first states that it is the force that acts as the reason for the acceleration of the body. All processes in the world are prone to accelerating objects and cause the interaction of tel.

The second law determines that the effect of force on the subject at a certain point and at this point changes its speed, which can be calculated.

The third law states that the effect of bodies to each other is equivalent in strength and opposite to direction.

That was the Newtonian mechanistic picture of the world. Space, time did not bind to each other, existed as separate phenomena. However, the definitions of I. Newton served to change the worldview and the full transition to a full-fledged picture of the relationship of space - time.

Is the understanding of the nature of space and time true?

Two hundred years later, at the beginning of the twentieth century, Albert Einstein noted that the Newtonian mechanistic picture of the world about matter and space can be interpreted only within the usual, usual world.

In a space scale, the presented laws do not work and require rethinking. Subsequently, the scientist developed the theory of relativity, which combined the space and time into a single system.

However, this is not the only area where Newton's laws do not have its use. With the onset of the Era of Study elementary particles And the peculiarities of their behavior became clear that in this area there are completely different rules. They are extremely peculiar, sometimes unpredictable and can violate our usual understanding of time and space.

Extent in scientific circles an expression that quantum physics It is impossible to understand, it can only be believed to believe, we can remarkably explain the inconsistency of the ideas about the world with all the procesnomic processes in it.

Cause and investigation

In the process of becoming a materialistic understanding of the surrounding nature, the Newtonian mechanistic picture of the world determined the further course of the history of human development. Technology and development of civilization are closely related to the previous accumulated experience and are obliged to the past by their strong real and formed picture of the perception of the world.

Formation of the mechanical picture of the world

The mechanical picture of the world is the first physical picture of the world. During its occurrence, namely in the 17th century, the most studied, developed by the section of physics was mechanics. And it was she who became the basis of the mechanical picture of the world. It was the principles and ideas of mechanics that were the most significant knowledge of physical laws, and it was them most widely reflected physical processes occurring in nature.

Mechanics, in general, considers the mechanical movement of material objects (tel or particles) in space. Such examples mechanical Movement are oscillations earth crust, the movement of the celestial bodies, air flows, etc. The interactions arising at the time of mechanical movement are actions of bodies each other, resulting in a change in the velocities of these bodies in space, or their deformation.

Mechanics is a fundamental physical theory, the most important concepts of mechanics include:

• Material point. This body, forms and sizes of which are not essential in this particular task;
• Solid. This is the body, the distance between any points of which is unchanged.
• And the material point, and the solid body have the following characteristics:
• Mass - measure of the amount of substance. She is always constant.
• The weight was the effect of body effect on the support, it is not constant, that is, it can change.
• The expression of mass and weight occurs through physical quantities - Coordinates, impulses, energy, strength.

Note 1.

At the basis of the mechanical picture of the world is an atom. According to the theory of atomism, the whole world, including a person, consists of atoms - the smallest indivisible particles, which moved in space and time, obeying the laws of mechanics. The substance that consists of these atoms is called matter, such an idea of \u200b\u200bmatter is called corpuscular.

Laws of mechanics

The laws of mechanics were considered the foundation of the universe, according to the mechanical picture of the world. They regulated the movement of all material bodies and atoms, so the concept of mechanical movement - in other words, the movement is key. Mechanical movement is a change in body position in space over time, and it is the only type of movement. Absolutely any movement can be considered as a sum of spatial movements. Three Newton's Law explained the movement.

All interactions, according to the mechanical picture of the world, are reduced to gravitational interaction - the presence of the force of attraction between the bodies. The law of global gravity determines the magnitude of these forces. That is, body weight can be determined, knowing the mass of another body and the force of gravity, which is constant, is always valid, between any bodies and gives all bodies the same acceleration.

The main positions of the mechanical picture of the world

Newton was proposed for the principle of long-range effect. He meant that the interaction between the bodies is carried out without material intermediaries and instantly. According to this concept, space and time are represented as special environments that accommodate interacting bodies.

In addition, Newton proposed the concept of absolute space and absolute time, which exist regardless of matter. Absolute space, in accordance with this concept, plays the role of container material bodies in nature. However, these bodies are not able to influence the existence of absolute space, that is, if we assume the complete disappearance of material bodies, the space even in this case will remain unchanged. That is, space, time and matter are essentially independent of each other.

Thus, according to the mechanical picture of the world, the universe is a clearly well-established mechanism in which all bodies are interconnected, the existence of the Universe obeys strict laws. Accidentality in it is impossible, it was excluded from the mechanical picture of the world completely. A random could be considered what no knowledge about, but because of the fact that the world is rational, then the acquisition of knowledge about an unknown time is only a matter of time. This principle is expressed in the form of dynamic laws.

In the mechanical picture of the world, a person was only a natural object, along with other bodies, life and mind did not wear any qualitative specificity. According to the mechanical picture of the world, the disappearance of a person could not change anything in the world in any way, he would continue his existence according to the laws. Intangible qualities inherent in a person only in this concept were not considered. On the this stage There was no task to comprehend a person, he was considered only as one of the elements of a well-established system. It was believed that the world is natural, and its objective description in accuracy reflects reality.

The mechanical picture of the world was the basis for the development of earthly, celestial and molecular mechanics. The development of technology led to the fact that the mechanical picture of the world became absolute. Newton's representations were also absolished, that is, all the variety of natural phenomena tried to reduce the form of motion of matter. From here there was mechanistic materialism, which later, with the development of physics, was recognized as insolvent, since using the laws of mechanics to describe thermal, electric, magnetic phenomena It was not possible. It became clear that a significant change in the views on the world became inevitable, physics needed new knowledge.

The mechanical picture of the world was one of the stages of the development of the physical picture of the world, with the development of science, its main provisions remained, the development of science only showed that the mechanical picture of the world is relative. Further development of physics has shown that the entire mechanical picture of the world is insolvent, but only its initial philosophical idea, mechanism. In the 19th century there was a jump in development physical scienceBased on the mechanical picture of the world, elements of a new - electromagnetic picture of the world began to occur.

Mechanistic picture of the world - the painting of the world, which occupied the dominant position in the minds and sentiments in the XVI-XVIII centuries, which was due to the special position of mechanics as science. It was divided by many philosophers and naturalists: Newton, Laplace, Hobbes, Descartes, and others. At the heart of the mechanistic worldview - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world as a giant mechanism, the laws of functioning of which are adequately described by the laws of mechanics.

The formation of a mechanistic picture of the world occurred under the influence of metaphysical materialistic ideas about matter and the forms of its existence. Its foundation was the ideas and laws of mechanics, which in the XVII century. was the most developed section of physics. In fact, it was the mechanics that came the first fundamental physical theory.Ideas, principles and theory of mechanics were a combination of the most significant knowledge of physical laws, the most fully reflected physical processes in nature.

In the broad sense of the mechanic studies the mechanical movement of material bodies and the interaction between them. Under the mechanical movement understand the change over the time of the mutual position of bodies or particles in space. Examples of mechanical movement in nature are the movement of the celestial bodies, the oscillations of the earth's crust, air and sea currents, etc. The interaction occurring in the process of mechanical movement is those actions of bodies to each other, as a result of which the velocities change to the movement of these bodies in space or their deformation.

The most important concepts of mechanics As a fundamental physical theory, the material point was the body, the forms and dimensions of which are not significant in this task; Absolutely solid body - body, the distance between any points of which remains unchanged, and its deformation can be neglected. Both types of material bodies are characterized using the following concepts: Mass - measure of the amount of substance; Weight - the force with which the body acts on the support. The mass always remains constant, the weight may change. These concepts are expressed through the following physical quantities: coordinates, impulses, energy, strength.

The basis of the mechanical picture of the world was atomism - the theory that the whole world, including a person, considered as a set of a huge number of indivisible material particles - atoms. They moved in space and time in accordance with the few laws of mechanics. Matter is a substance consisting of the smallest, indivisible, absolutely solid moving particles (atoms). This is a corpuscular idea of \u200b\u200bmatter.

The laws of mechanics that were regulated both the movement of atoms and the movement of any material bodies were considered the fundamental laws of the universe. Therefore, the key concept of the mechanical picture of the world was the concept of movement, which was understood as mechanical movement. The bodies have an internal innate property of moving evenly and straightforwardly, and deviations from this movement are associated with the action on the body of the external force (inertia). The only form of movement is a mechanical movement, i.e. Changing the position of the body in space over time. Any movement can be represented as a sum of spatial movements. The movement was explained on the basis of the three laws of Newton. All states of the mechanical movement of bodies in relation to time turn out in principle the same, since the time is considered reversible. The patterns of higher forms of motion of matter should be reduced to the laws of the simplest form - mechanical movement.

All variety of interactions The mechanical picture of the world has only reduced to gravitationalwhich meant the presence of attraction forces between any bodies; The magnitude of these forces was determined by the law of global gravity. Therefore, knowing the mass of one body and the force of gravity, you can determine the mass of another body. Gravitational forces are universal, i.e. They always act between any bodies and inform any bodies of the same acceleration.

Solving the problem of interaction of bodies, Isaac Newton suggested the principle of long-range effect. According to this principle, the interaction between the bodies occurs instantly at any distance, without material intermediaries, i.e. The intermediate environment in the transmission of interaction of participation does not accept.

The concept of long-range effect is closely related to the understanding of space and time as special environments that enjoy the interacting bodies. Newton offered the concept of absolute space and absolute time. The absolute space seemed to be a large "black box", universal console of all material bodies in nature. But even if all these bodies suddenly disappeared, the absolute space would still remain. Similarly, in the image of the current river, an absolute time has also appeared. It became a universal duration of all processes in the universe. Both absolute space and absolute time exist completely independently of matter, from which it follows that space, time and matter are three entities that do not depend on each other.

Thus, in accordance with the mechanical picture of the world, the Universe was a well-established mechanism operating under the laws of a strict necessity, in which all items and phenomena are interconnected by severe causal relations. In such a world there are no accidents - it is completely excluded from the painting of the world.There was only a random, the reasons for which we did not know yet. But since the world is rational, and man is endowed with a mind, then, in the end, he can get full and exhaustive knowledge of being. Such tough determinism found its expression in the form of dynamic laws.

Life and mind in the mechanistic picture of the world did not have any qualitative specificity. A person in this picture of the world was considered as a natural body in a number of other bodies and therefore remained inexplicable in his "lovely" qualities. So the presence of a person in the world did not change anything. If a person once disappeared from the face of the earth, the world would continue to exist as if nothing had happened.

In fact, classical natural science did not seek a person to comprehend. It was understood that the world was natural, in which there is nothing human, you can describe objectively, and such a description will be an accurate copy of reality. Consideration of a person as one of the screws of a well-established car automatically eliminated it from this picture of the world.

Based on the mechanical picture of the world inXVIII - earlyXIX. in. Earth, celestial and molecular mechanics were developed. The development of technology was going rapidly. This led to the absolutization of the mechanistic picture of the world, and it began to be considered as universal.

The development of the mechanistic picture of the world was mainly due to the development of mechanics. The success of Newton's mechanics to a large extent contributed to the absolutization of Newtonian ideas, which was expressed in attempts to reduce all the diversity of nature phenomena to the mechanical form of motion of the matter. This point of view was named after mechanism materialism (mechanism). However, the development of physics showed the inconsistency of such a methodology, since it was impossible to describe thermal, electrical and magnetic phenomena using the laws of mechanics, as well as the movement of atoms and molecules of these physical phenomena. As a result, in the XIX century. The physics came a crisis, which testified that physics needed a significant change in his views on the world.

Assessing the mechanistic picture of the world as one of the stages of the development of the physical picture of the world, it is necessary to keep in mind that with the development of science the main provisions of the mechanistic picture of the world were not simply discarded.

The development of science only revealed the relative nature of the mechanistic picture of the world.

An insolvent was not the mechanistic picture of the world, but its initial philosophical idea - mechanism. In the depths of the mechanistic picture of the world, elements of the new - electromagnetic - paintings of the world began to be folded.

Plan:

1. Naturally scientific views and methodology Leonardo da Vinci.

2.

3. Galleo Galilee and the birth of experienced natural science.

4. Johan Kepler and the opening of the laws of heavenly mechanics.

5. Mechanics and Methodology of Isaac Newton.

6. The successes and difficulties of the mechanical picture of the world.

Mechanical picture of the world.

1. The exceptionally scientific views and methodology of Leonardo da Vinci.

New science, and in particular physics, begins with Galilean and Newton. But she, like a new culture, was not directly continuing the science and culture of the Middle Ages. At the turn of the 15th century. Old, the medieval culture of the countries of Western and Central Europe changed a new culture, characteristic features which were humanism, restoring interest in antiquity, the revival of the ancient values, the denial of scholastics, faith in the possibility of man and its mind.

This is the era of the Renaissance. At this time, painting, sculpture, architecture, literature and new experienced natural science are extremely rapidly developing. And among these titans, the Renaissance era should be called Leonardo Da Vinci, "which is obliged to be the most diverse industries of physics."

For Leonardo, art has always been science. The art meant to produce scientific calculations, observations and experiments. The connection of painting with optics and physics, with anatomy and mathematics forced Leonardo becomes a scientist. Especially high Leonardo appreciated mathematics.

Mathematics Leonardo is a mathematics of a permanent value, it, of course, could not master the complex problems of movement. The simplicity of the mathematical apparatus and the complexity of the tasks for which he was taken in physics and technique, in some cases, forced it to replace mathematical calculations with observation and measurement, led to the invention of many devices.

As for the views of Leonardo da Vinci into space and time, they were the same as Aristotle.

Very characteristic of the mechanics of Leonardo da Vinci, the desire to be in the essence of the oscillatory movement. He approached the modern interpretation of the concept of resonance, speaking of the growth of the amplitude of oscillations when the system's own frequency coincides with the frequency of outside.

Great place in the works of Leonardo occupied hydraulics. He began to engage in hydraulics in the student years and returned to her throughout his life. Leonardo designed and partially carried out the construction of a number of channels. It was almost dense approached the formulation of the Law of Pascal, and in the theory of reporting vessels almost anticipated the ideas of 17 V.

Leonardo in the first and a lot dealt with flight issues. The first studies, drawings and drawings dedicated to aircraft, apply to about 1487 in his flying machine Metal parts were used; The person was located horizontally, leading the mechanism in movement with hands and legs.

He built a glider model and prepared his test. The desire to secure a person in the process of these tests led it to the invention of the parachute.

In times, Leonardo da Vinci was infinitely dominated by the Geocentric System of the Peace of Ptolemy. For the failure of her Leonardo pointed repeatedly. We can assume that Leonardo, regardless of Copernicus, approached an understanding of the heliocentric system of the world.

Leonardo inquisitively observed nature, and for one this reason he could not not be interested in issues of geology, paleontology and agronomy. So his theory of fossils was born. Leonardo is not afraid to abandon biblical ideas about catastrophes and floods on Earth. He argues that the finding of fossils of shells and plants in mysterious places has nothing to do with biblical statements, and caused by the slow movement of sushi and the sea.

It was difficult to listed all the engineering problems over which Leonardo's inquisitive mind worked. He invented many types of machine tools for spinning, textiles and other purposes. Among the preserved records there is a description of the circulation with a mobile center, excavator, a fixture for diver, various types of drilling instruments. Especially many inventions made Leonardo in the field of military and military engineering.

In 1502 - 1503. Leonardo da Vinci writes a letter to Turkish Sultan, where he offers him a few of its inventions and projects, including the draft bridge across the Golden Rog bay, which would connect Galata with Istanbul and under which sailing ship could swim.

In the same period, Leonardo da Vinci constitutes a bridge project through the Bosphorus. It is a huge bridge of about 24 meters wide, a 41 meter water height and 350 meters long, and 233 meters walked over the sea, the remaining 117 meters above the land. These were exclusively bold projects and ideas that gained significantly later.

Many artists of that time, despite the strict ban of the Church, studied the anatomy of man. Leonardo was first interested in anatomy as an artist. He studied the muscles of the body at various positions of hands and legs, but soon significantly expanded the amount of anatomical research: it became interested in the heart, a blood system, light; He first gave the correct description of the spinal column and approached the modern understanding of the role of lungs in the body. The meaning of the anatomical works of Leonardo for the development of medicine is indisputable. It should be noted that the activities of the body, its various organs, a variety of movements of Leonardo da Vinci considered from the point of view of mechanics.

One can only be surprised and admire the multi-faceted interests and the torture of the mind of this thinker.

Summing up scientific activity This giant, I would like to pay attention to its methodological views.

"The interpreter of nature is experience. He never deceives, only our judgments are mistaken, who are waiting for him that he is not able to give. It is necessary to produce experiments, changing the circumstances, until the general rules have learned from them. "

Highly appreciate the role of experience, the role of practice, Leonardo da Vinci was not a narrow practicalist, he was well aware of the need for theory: "Drinking with practices without science is like a feed, part of a ship without a steering or compass: he is never sure where he floats. Always practices should be erected on a good theory. Science is a commander, and practice - soldiers. " Such is the methodology of the knowledge of Leonard da Vinci, who has retained its value to this day.

2. Heliocentric system of the world Nikolai Copernicus.

The Geocentric System of Ptolemy, despite the doubts of the doubts in its correctness and loyal guesses on the movement of the Earth, lasted in science of the 14th centuries. And only with the beginning geographic discoveries, With the transition from the feudal medieval to a new time, there is a need to replace the theory of Ptolemy new.

B1506g. Copernicus, having received education (mathematics, canonical law, medicine, astronomy) returned from Italy to his homeland in Poland and for 10 years issued his ideas born during the years of study and wanderings, in the form of a scientific theory of the Heliocentric system of the world. In this system, Copernicus admisted the land to the role of the ordinary planet, he placed the sun in the center of the system, and all the planets together with the ground moved around the Sun in circular orbits. For 16 years, Copernicus leads astronomical observations of the sun, stars and planets. B1532, on the eve of his sixtieth anniversary, he finished the work of his life "On the rotations of the heavenly spheres." In February 1543, the immortal creation of N. Copernicus "On the rotations of the heavenly spheres" was printed, but Copernicus himself saw his book only a few hours before death (May 24, 1543). The written "On the rotations of the heavenly spheres" consists of 6 books. The first book contains all logical and physical arguments in favor of the movement of the Earth. The second book contains elements of spherical astronomy and ends with a directory containing the coordinates of 1025 stars. The third book contains the theory of the Sun Movement, the fourth book is the theory of Moon's movement. The most important thing is the fifth book, in which the complete development of the heliocentric theory of planetary movements with all mathematical evidence is given. In the sixth book, the visible movement of the planets is outlined.

A great importance created by Copernicus of the heliocentric system of the world was discovered after Kepler discovered the true laws of the elliptical movement of the planets, and the I.Nuton based on them is the law of global gravity; When Leverage and Adams, on the basis of these system data, predicted existence and theoretically determined the location of the unknown planet (Neptune), and Galle, sending a telescope to the sky point specified by them, opened unknown Planet. Currently, Copernicus doctrine has not lost its value. It revealed the true picture of the world and made a revolutionary coup "in the development of the system of scientific worldview."

3. Galileo Galilee and the birth of experienced natural science.

Galileo Galilee is a great Italian scientist, one of the creators of classical mechanics, was born on February 15, 1564, in the family of a poor Pisa nobleman. Galile's first formation received in the monastery. In seventeen, he enters the University of Pisa first at the medical faculty, and then goes to the legal, where it is found to be found in mathematics and philosophy. In 1589 Galilee was appointed professor of mathematics in the University of Pisa. During these years, Galilei is engaged in the refutation of Aristotle's teachings on the proportionality of the rate of falling body weight. To disprove this teachings, he takes two bodies, the same in shape and sizes (cast-iron and wooden balls). By finding the ratio between the rate of falling and the time of falling, between the path traveled and the time, Galilee denied the centuries-old error and proved the constancy of acceleration free fall. But at the University, the mechanics and astronomy had to be exposed in the spirit of Aristotle and Ptolemy. In 1592, he becomes a professor at the University in Padua, where he worked for 18 years (on 1610). By the end of the Paduan period, Galilee begins to openly oppose the Ptolemy - Aristotle system.

By making a visual tube with an increase of 32 times and sending it to heaven, Galilee discovered the irregularities of the moon; The Milky Way was consisting of many stars, the number of which grew with an increase in the increase in the pipe; Jupiter has found four satellites. All this did not correspond to the teachings of Aristotle about the opposites of earthly and heaven, but confirmed the Copernicus system.

In 1612, Galilee issues "reasoning about bodies staying in the water, and those that move in it", this work was directed against Aristotle's mechanics. Following it, a letter of Galilee on the sunny spots appears. It was also a refutation of Aristotle, but it could not pass the unnoticed church, the church accuses Galilee in the fact that he proves the movement of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun; They are trying to prohibit Copernicus's teachings. In 1615, Galilean goes to Rome to protect himself and prevent the prohibition of Copernicus. But on March 5, 1616, the doctrine of Copernicus "As false and entirely, the Nasty Sacred Scripture" was forbidden, Galilee received from the Holy Inquisition to be silent. In 1623 he goes back to Rome to get the abolition of restrictions in his scientific activity, but it was not possible to achieve the official abolition of restrictions. Despite the limitations of Galilee prepares for publication its main work "Dialogue about two major systems World: Ptolemaeva and Copernica. " In February 1632, the book was published, there were all the works of Galilee, all that was created by it from 1590g PO1625. The purpose of the scientist is not only astoronous, but also mechanical arguments in favor of the truth of the Kopernicus teachings.

The rotation of the Earth, according to Ptolemy, should have scattered on her body; The body in the fall should have moved not vertically, but oblique, as they will lag behind the moving land; Birds and clouds would have to be worn to the West. Refuting these arguments of Galilee comes to the opening of the law of inertia. The discovery of this law was eliminated by a centuries-old error, put forward by Aristotle, about the need for constant strength to maintain uniform motion. The modern formulation of this law is such: any body retains the state of rest or uniform and straightforward movement until the impact on the part of other bodies does not bring it from this state. Galiley has determined the mechanical principle of relativity: no mechanical experiments carried out inside a closed inertial system cannot be installed: the system is resting or moves evenly and straight.

Conversations of interlocutors about various astronomical discoveries (the irregularities of the moon, spots in the sun, the phases of Venus, satellites of Jupiter) argues the idea of \u200b\u200bthe justice of Copernicus theory.

The success of "dialogue" was amazing, like-minded people enthusiastically welcome Galilee with the opening of a new era in the study of nature. The opponents, in turn, have entered the rumor that under the mask of the defender of Aristotle and Ptolemy, the dad itself was removed. Galilean's injury began, in September, Galilean was transferred to the commandment of the papal inquisition to appear in Rome, but because of the disease of Galileeus give a little delay. In February 1633 Galilee arrives in Rome, at the interrogation he denied that he divided Copernikovo doctrine after the Inquisition declared his heretical. Galilee firmly stood on the fact that in a discussion order about the heliocentric system of the world and write, and it was not forbidden to say, and the book itself was released with the permission of censorship. After the interrogation of Galilee was arrested and imprisoned in the chalks of the Inquisition. On June 22, 1633 in the Church of St. Mary, with a large coherence of the people, the last act of the conviction over Galileem took place. By the sentence, his book was banned, and he himself is subject to imprisonment, the duration, which is left at the discretion of the Holy Service. The humiliating act of the trill and renunciation strongly undermined the health of the patient Galilee, but in spite of all the Galilers mentally saw his future work "conversations and mathematical evidence", in which the ideas of "dialogue" received their further development. "Conversations" were completed in 1637. The book summarizes everything that Galilee in the field of mechanics. In 1642, Galilee did not. One of the remarkable thinkers, a great astronomer, a mechanic, a physicist, a mathematician, passed away.

Galilee is considered one of the founders of experienced natural science and new Science. It was he who formulated the requirements for a scientific experiment, consisting in the elimination of side circumstances, in the ability to see the main thing. By experiment, Galilee denied the teachings of Aristotle on the proportionality of the falling rate of the body weight, showed that the air has weight and determined its density. He was the first to send the auditorium to the sky for scientific purposes, thereby expanding the scope of knowledge. Mind experiments of Galilee are built on idealization of the movement of balls, carts and other material objects horizontally and an inclined plane. A mental experiment was in the future widespread in physics and became the most important method of cognition, they used Maxwell when creating the theory of the electromagnetic field. Mind experiments allowed many scientists (Maxwell, Boltzmann, carno, etc.) to establish patterns in chaotic thermal motion and thermodynamics. Thus, the principle of relativity of Galilee, which received its further development in the theory of relativity, and the mental experiment introduced into the science of them and became the necessary method of modern physics, indicate an extremely high methodological level, in which the great Italian scientist stood in their research.

4. Ioogan Kepler and the opening of the laws of heavenly mechanics.

Ioogan Kepler was born on December 27, 1571, his father, Heinrich Kepler, who ruined the nobleman, served as a simple soldier, mother - the daughter of the village restaurant, did not know how to read and write. At birth, the boy miraculously remained alive. When he was four years old, his parents threw him, at the age of 13 he died for the third time, but his life did not leave him. After graduating from the monastery school in 1579, Kepler was transferred to a spiritual three-year school, after which remained in the Tubingen seminary, and after - at the University of Tubingen. At the university, he met the teachings of Copernicus, becoming his hot supporter. Working as a teacher of mathematics and philosophy in the school of G. Graz, he began to engage together with teaching scientific work For astronomy, as well as make calendars and horoscopes. Kepler was forced to engage as astrology, so as not to die with hunger, feed his family and conduct research on astronomy.

For his life, Kepler wrote a lot of work. His first book, published in 1597, came out under the interesting name "cosmographic mystery". Kepler set the task to find numerical relations between the orbits of the planets. Trying various combinations of numbers, he came to the geometric scheme, which could be found out the distances of the planets from the Sun. Kepler sent their job to Danish Astronoma Quiet Brage and Galileu. Because of the persecution by the Catholic Church, life in his homeland became unbearable, and Kepler rides in Prague. There he was appointed imperial mathematician and was supposed to work under the leadership of Quiet Brage - Imperial Astronomer. In 1601, the magazine of the thirty-year-old observations of the King Astronomy was dying in the hands of Kepler.

In 1609, the book of Kepler "New Astronomy or Heavenly Physics with comments on the movement of the planet Mars on observations of quiet Brage" was born. For the past eight years, he worked on the calculations, seventy-one had to repeat every calculation, but, not looking at everything he formulated the first two laws on the movement of the planets:

1. All planets move along the ellipses, in one of the focus of which the sun is located.

2. The radius-vector spent from the Sun to the planet, in equal intervals describes equal areas.

The need and misfortune continues to pursue him, in 1611 his wife and son died, and he stayed with two children in his arms. The material need made him leave Prague, and he went to Linz, where he took the place of the teacher of mathematics. In 1615 he receives news about the accusation of his mother in witchcraft. He spends all his strength and resourcefulness to save the mother from the fire, in 1621 he achieves her liberation. Even after such impacts of fate, the power of the Spirit does not leave him, and he produces a new work "Harmony of the World", containing the third law of heavenly mechanics: the squares of the conversion periods of the planets are like cubes of large semi-axes of their orbits.

Other Kepler's most famous works are: "Rudolphs of the table" - Astronomical planetary tables, over which Kepler worked for 20 years. Named were in honor of the Emperor Rudolf 2. These tables served as sailors and astronomers, compilers of calendars and astrologers and only in the 19th century were replaced more accurate. His works in mathematics Kepler made a great contribution to the theory of conical

Sections, in the development of the theory of logarithms, contributed to the development of integral calculation and the invention of the first computing machine. B1618, the thirty-year war begins. The treasure is still empty Kepler lives random earnings, Making numerous trips to Regensburg with troubles about the issuance of a salary. During one of these trips, Kepler fell ill and died. In 1774, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences bought most of the archive of Kepler.

This wonderful person and a large scientist in his homeland, in Vailen and Regensburg, are placed by the monument and museums are open. Kepler was destined to immortality as a reward for his perseverance and ingenuity with which he resumed his attempts to solve the secrets of nature, for the laws of the planets opened by him.

In 1996, 425 years old since the birth of one of the greatest astronomers of the world of Johann Kepler.

5. Mechanics and Methodology of Isaac Newton.

In 1987, 300 years old since the release of the outstanding work of Professor Cambridge University Isaac Newton "Mathematical starts of natural philosophy".

In its fundamental work, containing in Russian translation of 700 pages, a brilliant English physicist, astronomer and mathematician outlined the system of laws of mechanics, the law of world community, gave a general approach to the study of various phenomena based on the "method of principles", i.e. The work had not only a large scientific, but also a great methodological meaning. For Newton, the legacy of his predecessors was very important: "If I saw on others, then because it was on the shoulders of the giants." Among these giants, Galilea and Kepler should be called first. At the age of 27, he became a professor at the University of Cambridge.

In his works on optics, Newton put very important and difficult question: "Are that the rays of light are very small particles emitted by luminous bodies?" And the hypothesis of the expiration, and then a corpuscular theory recognized as unconditionally by its followers and supported by Newton's authority that dominates 18 V optics. With this theory, many did not agree because On its basis it was impossible to explain the interference and diffraction of light. In the theory of Light Newton, I wanted to unite the corpuscular and wave perceptions. On this occasion, Newton had two interesting thoughts:

1. It is possible to transform bodies and back. In 1933-1934. For the first time, the facts of transformation of an electron and a positron in gamma quanta (photons) and the birth of an electron and a positron were opened when the photon interacts with charged particles. This is a fundamental discovery of modern physics of elementary particles.

2.o the influence of bodies on the spread of light.

The vertex of the scientific creation of Newton is "beginning ..". Approximately two and a half years of intense work was worthwhile the preparation of the first edition "started ..". The book consisted of three parts: In the first two, the laws of movement of the body were set out, the third part was devoted to the system of the world. For the first edition, Newton wrote his own preface, where he talks about the trend of the modern natural science to him "subjugate the phenomenon of nature by the laws of mathematics." Next, Newton formulates the purpose of the work and the tasks of physics: "The essay is proposed by us as mathematical foundations of physics. The whole difficulty of physics is to recognize the forces of nature in the phenomena of movement, and then, according to these forces, explain all other phenomena, "he managed to cope with this difficult task. As the first law, Newton's mechanics took Open Galilee the law of inertia, formulating it more strictly. The kernel of mechanics is the second law that binds the change in the body pulse with the power acting on it. The change in the body pulse per unit of time equal to the power acting on it and occurs in the direction of its action. In the third law, the mechanics reflected that the effect of bodies always be the nature of the interaction and that the forces of action and the opposition are equal in size and are opposite to the direction. The fourth law was the law of global gravity. Exposing the Regulation on the general nature of the forces of grave and the same nature on all planets, showing that the body weight on any planet is proportional to the mass of this planet, "by setting the experiment in the proportionality of body weight and its weight (gravity), Newton concludes that the force of grave Between the bodies are proportional to the masses of these bodies.

The fact that the strength of the distance is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, they even considered Newton to Newton, but only Newton managed to logically substantiate and convincingly prove this universal law with the help of laws and experiment. The establishment of proportionality between mass and weight meant that the mass is not only a measure of inertia, but also a measure of gravity.

In the third part of the book, the scientist outlined the general system of the world and the heavenly mechanics, the theory of compression of the Earth in the poles, the theory of tides and sings, the movement of comets, perturbations in the movement of the planets, etc., based on the law of the World Affairs. The theory of gravity caused philosophical discussions and needed further proof. The first was the question of the shape of the Earth. According to Newton's theory, the land was compressed in the poles, on the theory of Descartes - stretched. The disputes were resolved as a result of measuring the arc of the earth Meridian in the Equatorial Zone (Peru) and in the North (Lapland) with two expeditions of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The theory of Newton was faithful.

In the works of Newton its methodology and research worldview is revealed. Newton was convinced of the existence of matter, space and time, in the existence of objective laws of the world, affordable human knowledge. With her desire to reduce everything to Newton's mechanics, mechanical materialism was maintained (mechanical mehang). Despite its huge achievements in the field of natural science, he deeply believed in God, very seriously treated religion. He believed that "the wisdom of the Lord opens the same in the structure of nature and in the sacred books. Study both is noble thing. " Newton was the author of the "interpretation of the book of the Prophet Daniel", "Apocalypse", "Chronology". From this we can conclude that for Newton there was no conflict between science and religion, in his worldview, both.

Newton itself characterizes his method of cognition: "Timestone two or three general principles movements from phenomena and then state how the properties and actions of all bodily belongs arise from these obvious principles, it would be very an important step In philosophy, at least the causes of these principles and were not yet open. " Under the principles of Newton implies the most general laws underlying physics. This method after was named by the method of principles, the Research Requirements for Newton outlined in the form of 4 regulations:

1. It should not take other reasons in nature over those that are true and sufficient to explain the phenomena.

2. The same phenomena must be attributed to the same reasons.

3. Independent and unchanged in experiments the properties of bodies subjected to research must be taken for general properties material tel.

4. Laws, inductantly found from experience, should be considered true until they contradict other observations.

Since the principles are established by studying the phenomena of nature, then they are hypotheses, of which the investigations checked in practice are obtained by logical deduction. Therefore, the method of the principles of Newton is a hypothetical and deductive method, which in modern physics is one of the main for the construction of physical theories. Newton's method was highly appreciated in the methodological statements of many scientists, including A. Einstein and S.I.Vavivova, but many scientists also believed that the principles and hypotheses are derived directly from experience. Consequently, directly from experience by formal logic displays the theory, which has only a goal to tie one experienced data with others.

A lot of questions and disputes in the history of physics were called Newton's views on space and time. Newton comes from the fact that in practice people learn space and time by measuring spatial relations between bodies and temporary relations between processes. Developed by the concept of space and time Newton calls relative. It assumes that in nature there are absolute space independent of these relationships and the time as Pucented containers of bodies and events. The space and time according to Newton, do not depend on matter and material processes, which is not consistent with the ideas of physics of the 20th century. Since Matter in Newton is an inert and incapable of self-apparent, and empty absolute space is indifferent to matter, then as a primary source of movement, he recognizes the "first impetus", that is, God.

Newton - this brilliant genius - pointed out, according to Einstein, the path of thinking, experimental research and practical constructions, created brilliant methods and perfectly owned them, was extremely inventive in finding mathematical and physical evidence, was the fate itself put on a turning point mental Development mankind. Modern physics did not discard the mechanics of Newton, it only set the boundaries of its applicability.

6. Speakers and difficulties of the ICM

The ICM was under the influence of metaphysical materialistic ideas about matter and the forms of its existence. The fundamental ideas of this painting of the world are classic atomism and mechanism. The core of the ICM is Newton's mechanics, in any physical theory there are quite a lot of concepts, but there are basic in which the specificity of this theory is manifested, its basis, its ideological aspect. Such concepts include: matter, movement, space, time, interaction. Matter is a substance consisting of the smallest, further indivisible, absolutely solid moving particles (atoms), i.e. Discrete ideas about matter were adopted in the ICM. And therefore, the most important concepts in the mechanics were the concepts of a material point and an absolutely solid body, the material point is the body, the sizes of which in the conditions of this problem can be neglected. Absolutely solid body is a system material dots, the distance between which remains unchanged.

Space . Aristotle denied the existence of a blank space, tying space, time and movement. Atomists recognized atoms and an empty space in which the atoms move. Newton is considering two vessels of space: the relative with which people get acquainted by measuring spatial relations between the bodies, and the absolute is an empty provider of bodies, it is not associated with time and its properties do not depend on the presence or absence of material objects. It is a three-dimensional, continuous, infinite, homogeneous, isotropic. Spatial relations are described in the MKM geometry Euclidea.

Time . Newton considers two types of time: relative and absolute. Relative time learn in the measurement process. "Absolute, true, mathematical time in itself and by its very essence, without any relationship with something external, proceeds evenly and otherwise called durable." Thus, time is an empty reservoir of events that does not depend on anything, it flows in one direction (from the past to the future), it is continuously, infinitely and everywhere equally (uniformly).

Traffic . In the ICM, only a mechanical movement was recognized, i.e. Changing the position of the body in space with a flow of time. It was believed that any complex movement could be represented as a sum of spatial movements (superposition principle). The movement of any body was explained on the basis of the three Newton laws.

It should be noted that in the mechanics the question of the nature of the forces did not have a fundamental importance. For its laws and methodology, it was enough that force is the quantitative characteristic of the mechanical interaction of tel. She just sought to reduce all the phenomena of nature to the action of attraction and repulsion forces, having met an irresistible difficulty on this path.

The most important principles of the ICM are the principle of the relativity of Galilee, the principle of long-range effects and the principle of causality. The principle of relativity of Galilee claims that all inertial reference systems (ISO) from the point of view of mechanics are completely equal (equivalent). The transition from one inertial system to another is carried out on the basis of Galilee transformations.

In the ICM it was assumed that the interaction is transmitted instantly and the intermediate environment in the transmission of interaction between participation does not accept. This situation is the principle of long-range.

As you know, there are no undue phenomena, you can always distinguish the cause and consequence, the reason and the consequence are interrelated, and affect each other. The investigation may be the cause of another phenomenon. "Any place has a phenomenon associated with preceding the obvious principle that it cannot arise without a dealer." In nature, there may be more complex connections:

1.U and the same consequence can be different reasons, for example, the transformation saturated para into liquid by increasing pressure or by lowering the temperature.

2. in thermal motion, for example, speed, kinetic energyThe impulse of a separate particle change without changing macroparameters (temperature, pressure, volume) characterizing the system as a whole. As a result of the development of thermodynamics and statistical physics, a number of important laws were opened, including the conservation and conversion of energy for thermal processes (the first beginning of the thermodynamics) and the law of increasing entropy in isolated systems (the second beginning of thermodynamics).

Thermodynamics - This is a section of physics, which studies the patterns of energy transition from one species to another. The first law of thermodynamics reads: heat, reported by the system, is consumed to change its internal energy and to perform the system of work against external forces. From the point of view of the first start of thermodynamics, any processes can occur in the system, just not to disturb the law of preserving and turning energy.

All real processes are irreversible, since the presence of friction forces necessarily leads to the transition of an ordered movement into an unordered one. To characterize the state of the system and the direction of flowing processes and was introduced in physics a special function of the state - entropy. It turned out that the entropy of a closed system cannot decrease. The closedness of the system means that it processes in it spontaneously, without external influence. In the case of reversible processes (there are no in reality) the entropy of the closed system remains unchanged, in the case of irreversible processes - it increases. Thus, the actual entropy of a closed system can only increase, this is the law of increasing entropy (one of the wording of the second start of thermodynamics). This law has great importance To analyze processes in closed macroscopic systems. The statistical nature of this law means its greater fundamentality compared with dynamic laws.

In modern physics, probabilistic statistical ideas were widely distributed (statistical physics, quantum mechanics, theory of evolution, genetics, information theory, planning theory, etc.). Undoubtedly, their practical value: product quality control, checking the work of a particular object, assessing the reliability of the unit, the organization of mass service. But neither thermodynamics nor statistical physics managed to radically change the representations of the ICM, to destroy it: the ICM was changed and expanded its borders. The development of physics to the middle of XLXV was mainly in the framework of Newtonian views, but more and more new discoveries, especially in the field of electric and magnetic phenomena, did not fit into the framework of mechanical representations, i.e. The ICM became a brake for new theories, and was brewing the need to transition to new plants on matter and movement. Not insolvented was not the ICM itself, but its initial philosophical idea - mechanism. In the depths of the ICM, elements of the new - electromagnetic - paintings of the world began to take shape.

All of the above-mentioned mechanical picture of the world can be summarized by the following conclusions:

1. Let the success of the mechanics led to the mechanicalism and the idea of \u200b\u200bthe mechanical essence of the world became the basis of the worldview. Indivisible atoms were the basis of nature. Live creatures are "divine cars" acting under the laws of mechanics. God created the world and led him to move.

2. And the framework of the ICM developed molecular physics. The idea of \u200b\u200bwarmth was formed in two directions: as a mechanical movement of particles and as a movement of weightless, imperceptible "fluids" (heatborne, phlogiston).

Based on electric magnetic "liquids", the mechanics sought to explain electrical and magnetic phenomena, based on the vitality of "life force" tried to understand the work of living organisms.

3. The analyzes of thermal machines led to the emergence of thermodynamics, the most important achievement of which was the discovery of the law of conservation and energy transformation. But in the ICM, all types of energy were reduced to the energy of mechanical movement. Macromiro and microworld obeyed the same mechanical laws. Only quantitative changes were recognized. This meant the lack of development, i.e. the world was considered metaphysical.

Bibliography:

1. Dyagilev F.M. "Concepts of modern natural science"

2. Salopov E.F. "Concepts of modern natural science"

The mechanical program for describing nature, put forward in an antique atomism, is most fully realized in the classical mechanics of Galilee Newton, with the formation of which begins scientific stage study of nature.

The formation of scientific views on the structure of matter belongs to the XVI century, when Galileem was laid the basis of the first in the history of the science of the physical picture of the world - mechanical. He developed a methodology for a new way to describe nature - scientific and theoretical. The essence of it is that only some physical and geometric characteristicswho became the subject of scientific research. The selection of individual characteristics of the object made it possible to build theoretical models and check them in a scientific experiment. Such a methodological concept of Galilee has become decisive in the formation of the entire classical natural science.

I. Newton, relying on the works of Galilean, developed a strict scientific theory of mechanics, describing both the movement of celestial bodies, and the movement of earth objects among the same laws. As part of the mechanical picture of Newton's world and its followers, matter was considered as a real substance consisting of individual particles - atoms and corpuscles.

SpaceIn which the matter is located, it was three-dimensional and described by Euclidean geometry, it absolutely, constantly and always stays alone.

Timeit was presented as a value that does not depend on any space or from matter.

It was believed that all physical processes can be subordinate to the laws of mechanics. The movement was considered as a movement in space according to continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics. And all physical phenomena reduced to move material dots.

The philosophical substantiation of the mechanical understanding of nature gave R. Descarte, who believed that the world can be described completely objectively, without taking into account the human observer (the concept of absolute duality, i.e. independence of thinking and matter).

The Newtonian concept of space and time, on the basis of which the physical picture of the world was built, turned out to be dominant until end XIX. in.

Spaceit was considered infinite, flat, "straight-line", Euclidean. Its metric properties were described by Euclidean geometry. It was considered as absolute, empty, homogeneous and isotropic (no dedicated points and directions) and performed as "extended" material bodies, as an inertial system independent of them.

Timeit was understood by the absolute, uniform, evenly current. It immediately and everywhere in the whole universe "uniformly and synchronous" and acts as the process of duration independent of material objects. Classical mechanics reduced time to duration, fixing the defining property of the time "Show the duration of the event". (Aksenov G.P. On the cause of time // Questions of philosophy. - 1996. - №1, p.43).

The value of the instructions of time in the mechanics was considered absolute, independent of the state of the reference body.

The image of the universe In this regard, it was a giant mechanism where events and processes are a circuit of interrelated causes and consequences. From here it was established and faith in what theoretically, you can accurately reconstruct any past situation in the Universe or to predict the future with absolute certainty. I. R. Prigogin called this faith in the predictability of the "fundamental myth of classical science."

In general terms, the scientific picture of the XIX century was the universe as an equilibrium and unchangeable with an infinite time of existence, in which random local perturbations of observed non-equilibrium formations are quite likely to organize structures (galaxies, planetary systems, etc.).

Such a "picture of the world", the appearance of life on our planet examined as an unnecessied phenomenon or artifact ("Artificially made"), as "deviation" in the existence of the Universe, as a temporary phenomenon and with the rest of the space is not associated.

The mechanical approach to the description of nature turned out to be unusually fruitful. Based on Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular-kinetic theory and a number of other theories were created. Physics as science has achieved tremendous success in its development and occupied the leading position among other sciences.