On January 2, 1959, the Soviet Space Rocket for the first time in history reached the second space speed required for interplanetary flights, and brought the automatic-interplanetary station "Luna-1" to the lunar trajectory. This event marked the beginning of the "lunar race" between the two superpowers - the USSR and the USA.

"LUNA-1"

On January 2, 1959, the USSR carried out the launch of the Vostok-L carrier missile, which brought the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-1" to the lunar trajectory. AMC flew at a distance of 6 thousand km. From the lunar surface and entered the heliocentric orbit. The purpose of the flight was the achievement of "Luna-1" of the surface of the moon. All the on-board equipment worked correctly, but an error was crushed into the cyclogram of the flight, and the AMP did not hit the surface of the moon. The effectiveness of the side experiments did not affect. During the flight "Luna-1" managed to register the external radiation belt of the Earth, for the first time measuring the parameters of the solar wind, set the absence of a magnetic field in the moon and carry out an experiment to create an artificial comet. In addition, "Luna-1" became a spacecraft who managed to achieve the second cosmic speed, overcame force of gravity And became an artificial satellite of the sun.

"Pioneer-4"

On March 3, 1959, the American spacecraft "Pioneer-4" was launched from a cosmodrome at Cape Canaveral, who first made the root of the moon. The Geiger Counter and the photoelectric sensor for photographing the lunar surface were installed on its board. The spacecraft flew at a distance of 60 thousand kilometers from the moon at a speed of 7.230 km / s. For 82 hours, Pioneer-4 passed on land on the radiation setting: it was not found in the lunar environments of radiation. "Pioneer-4" became the first American spacecraft who managed to overcome the earthly attraction.

"LUNA-2"

September 12, 1959, the automatic interplanetary station "Luna-2" started from the Baikonur cosmodrome, which became the first station in the world that reached the surface of the moon. There was no own proprietary motor installation. From the scientific equipment at Luna-2, Geiger counters, scintillation counters, magnetometers and micrometeor detectors were installed. "Luna-2" delivered a pennant on the lunar surface with the image of the coat of arms of the USSR. A copy of this pennant N.S. Khrushchev presented the US President Eisenhower. It is worth noting that the USSR demonstrated the Model "Luna-2" at various European exhibitions, and the CIA could receive unlimited access to the model to study possible characteristics.

"LUNA-3"

On October 4, 1959, the AMS "Luna-3" started with Baikonur, the purpose of which was the study of outer space and the moon. In the course of this flight, for the first time in history, photos of the moon reverse side were obtained. Mass of the Moon-3 apparatus - 278.5 kg. On board the spacecraft, telemetry, radiotechnical and photographer orientation systems were established, which allowed to navigate relative to the moon and the sun, the system of power supply with solar batteries and a complex of scientific equipment with a photo laboratory.

Moon-3 made 11 revolutions around the Earth, and then entered the earthly atmosphere and ceased to exist. Despite the low quality of the pictures, the received photos provided the USSR priority in the name of objects on the surface of the moon. So on the map of the moon, Circus and Craters Lobachevsky, Kurchatov, Hertz, Mendeleev, Popova, Sklodovskaya Curie and the Lunar Sea of \u200b\u200bMoscow appeared.

"Ranger-4"

On April 23, 1962, the American Automatic Interplanetary Station Ranger-4 started from Cape Canaveral. AMS carried a capsule weighing 42.6 kg, containing a magnetic seismometer and a gamma spectrometer. The Americans planned to discharge the capsules in the ocean of storms and for 30 days to conduct research. But the onboard equipment failed, and Ranger-4 could not handle the teams that came from the ground. The duration of the flight of AMS "Ranger-4" is 63 hours and 57 minutes.

"LUNA-4C"

On January 4, 1963, the "Lightning" launch vehicle brought into the orbit of Moon-4C, which was first in history space flights Make a soft landing on the surface of the moon. But the start in the direction of the Moon for technical reasons did not occur, and on January 5, 1963, Luna-4C entered the tight layers of the atmosphere and stopped existence.

Ranger-9.

On March 21, 1965, the Americans launched Ranger-9, the purpose of which was obtained by the detailed photo of the lunar surface in the last minutes before the rigid fit. The device was oriented in such a way as central axis The chambers completely coincided with the speed vector. It should have been allowed to avoid "lubrication of the image".

17.5 minutes before the fall (the distance to the surface of the Moon was 2360 km) it was possible to obtain 5814 television images of the lunar surface. The work of Ranger-9 received the highest assessments of the global scientific community.

"LUNA-9"

On January 31, 1966, the Soviet AMS "Luna-9" started with Baikonur, which made the first soft landing on the moon on February 3. AMS lifted in the ocean of storms. With the station, 7 communication sessions took place, the duration of which was more than 8 hours. During the communication sessions, Luna-9 passed panoramic images of the lunar surface near the landing site.

"Apollo-11"

On July 16-24, 1969, the flight of the American Pilotous Space Ship of the Apollo series took place. This flight is primarily famous for the fact that the earthlings for the first time in history have landed on the surface of the cosmic body. July 20, 1969 at 20:17:39 The lunar module of the ship on board with the commander of the crew Nile Armstrong and the pilot Edwin Oldrin listed in the southwestern part of the sea of \u200b\u200bcalm. Astronauts made an exit to the lunar surface, which lasted 2 hours and 31 minutes 40 seconds. The pilot of the Command Module Michael Collins was waiting for them on an incense orbit. Astronauts in the landing site was installed US flag. Americans placed a set of scientific instruments on the surfaces of the moon and 21.6 kg of samples of lunar soil were collected, which was taken to Earth. It is known that after returning crew members and lunar samples were strict quarantine, which did not reveal any lunar microorganisms.

Apollo-11 led to the objective of the US President John Kennedy, to carry out a landing on the moon, overtaking in the Moon Race of the USSR. It is worth noting that the fact of landing Americans on the surface of the moon causes modern scientists in doubts.

"Lunohod-1"

November 10, 1970 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome "Luna-17". On November 17, the AMS lurked in the rainy sea, and the world's first planet carrier came to the Lunar Soil - the Soviet remote-managed self-propelled apparatus "Lunohod-1", which was intended for the study of the Moon and worked on the moon of 10.5 months (11 lunar days).

During the work "Lunohod-1" overcame 10,540 meters, moving at a speed of 2 km / h, and surveyed an area of \u200b\u200b80 thousand sq.m. He handed over to Earth 211 luna panoramas and 25 thousand photos. For 157 sessions from Earth "Lunohod-1" received 24,820 radio amand and produced chemical analysis Soil in 25 points.

On September 15, 1971, the resource of the isotope heat source has exhausted, and the temperature inside the hermetic container of the lunas began to fall. On September 30, the device did not come out for communication, and on October 4, scientists stopped attempts to enter into contact with him.

It is worth noting that the battle for the moon continues today: cosmic powers are developing the most incredible technologies, planning.

The man has always manifested cold gave cosmos ... They are striking with their gloomy mysteriousness. Probably, from a huge desire to touch the unknown, people came up with aircraft.

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Small spacecraft

Spacecraft "Cassini"

First satellites

To commit interplanetary wanderings, in due time it took the creation of powerful, modern and durable machines, which could overcome not only the power of attraction of our planet, but also various adverse conditions ambient interplanetary space. To overcome the strength of attraction of our planet, the aircraft requires a speed of over eleven kilometers per second. Overcoming the force of attraction of land acting on it in flight, the device goes into open space - Interplanetary space.

But here space just begins. Next, it is necessary to overcome the strength of the attraction of the Sun and get out of its "power", for this you will need the average speed of over sixteen kilometers per second. So the aircraft comes out of the area of \u200b\u200bthe influence of the Sun and falls into the interstellar space. However, this is not the limit, because the size of the cosmos is limitless, as the dimensions of human consciousness are boundless. To advance further, namely, go into the intergalactic space, you need to develop the speed of over five hundred kilometers per second.

The first satellite of our planet was "satellite-1", launched Soviet Union In order to study the outer space around the Earth. It was a breakthrough in the scope of study of space. Thanks to the launch of the first satellite, the Earth's own atmosphere was studied in detail, as well as the surrounding outer space. The fastest and most distant spacecraft in relation to our planet today is the Voyager-1 satellite. He explores the sunny system and its surroundings for forty years. During these forty years, invaluable data were collected, which can serve as a good bridgehead for scientific discoveries of the future.

One of the priority directions of science in the field of study of space is the study of Mars. As for the flight to this planet, so far such an idea remains only on paper, although work in its direction is conducted. By samples and errors, analyzing the failures of space aircraft, scientists are trying to find the most comfortable flight option for Mars. It is also very important that the safest conditions have been created inside the ship for the crew. One of the main problems today is the electrification of the spacecraft during high speed modes, which creates a risk of fire. But still, even despite this, the thirst for a person to knowledge of the cosmos is irrelevant. This is what the huge list of interplanetary travels exercised today.

Launches of spacecraft in 2017

List of running spacecraft In 2017, the year is very great. The leader in the list of spacecraft launches, of course, is America as the flagship scientific research In the field of study of space, however, other countries are also not lagging behind. And the start-up statistics are positive, for the entire 2017 year of unsuccessful launches was only three.

Space Moon Study

Of course, the most attractive object of human research has always been the moon. In 1969, the person first stepped on the surface of the moon. Scientists who were engaged in the study of the planet Mercury, argue that the Moon and Mercury are similar physical characteristics. A snapshot made by the spacecraft with the Saturn orbits shows that the moon looks like a light point in the middle of the boundless gloom of space.

Spacecraft of Russia

Most of the current Space Aids of Russia is the Soviet aircraft of reusable use, which were launched into space in the time of the USSR. However, modern aircraft in Russia also achieve success in the study of outer space. Russian scientists plan a lot of flights to the surface of the Moon, Mars and Jupiter. The greatest contribution to the study of Venus, the Moon and Mars was committed by Soviet research stations with the names of the same name. They committed a great set of flights, the results of which were invaluable photos and video materials, measurement measurements, pressure, study of the atmosphere of these planets, etc.

Classification of spacecraft

On the principle of work and specialization, spacecraft are divided into:

• artificial satellites planets;
• space stations for interplanetary studies;
• planets;
• spaceships;
• orbital stations.

Earth satellites, orbital stations and cosmic ships are designed for land research and the planets of the solar system. Space stations are designed for research outside Solar system.

Sucked apparatus of the Soyuz spacecraft

Soyuz is a piloted spacecraft with scientific equipment on board, onboard equipment, the possibility of communication between the spacecraft and the land, the presence of energy-forming equipment, telemetry system, orientation system and stabilization system and many other systems and instruments for research work and life support crew. The descent apparatus of the Soyuz ship has an impressive weight - from 2800 to 2900 kg, depending on the ship's brand. One of the minuses of the ship is a high probability of disabling radio communications and unscrewed solar panels. But it was corrected in later versions of the ship.

History of spacecraft series "Resource-F"

The history of the series "Resource" takes its early 1979. This is a series of spacecraft for conducting photos and video shooting in outer space, as well as for cartographic studies of the Earth's surface. The information obtained by the spacecraft of the "Resource-F" series is used in cartography, geodesy, as well as to control the seismic activity of the land cortex.

Small spacecraft

Artificial satellites with small sizes are designed to solve the simplest tasks. About how they are used and what role is played in the study of space and the surface of the Earth knows a lot. Basically, their task is to monitor and study the surface of the Earth. The classification of small satellites depends on their mass. Share:

• minStandovists;
• microsteps;
• nanoscale;
• picoscribe;
• femtoscribe.

Depending on the size and mass of the satellite, its task is determined, but one way or another, all satellites of this series are performed by the tasks of research on the surface of the Earth.

Electra-plating engine for spacecraft

The essence of the electric motor in conversion electrical Energy In kinetic. Electro-plastered engines are divided into: electrostatic, electrothermal, electromagnetic, magnetodynamic, impulse, ionic. The nuclear electric motor opens the flight opportunities for distant stars and planets due to its power. The motor setting converts energy into mechanical, which allows you to develop the speed necessary to overcome the power of the earth's attraction.

Design of spacecraft

Developing systems of spacecraft depends on the tasks that are pinned with these devices. Their activities may cover highly different areas of activity - from research to meteorological and military intelligence. Design and supplying devices with certain systems and functions occurs depending on the tasks set before them.

Spacecraft "Cassini"

The very world is known to the names of these intelligence officers of the Universe - "Juno", "Meteor", "Rosette", Galileo "," Phoenix "," Pioneer "," Jubilee "," Dawn "(Downey)," Akatsuki "," Voyager "," Magellan "," Ace "," Tundra "," Buran "," Rus "," Ulysses "," Levelier-Ilast "(14F150)," Genesis "," Viking "," Vega "," Luna- 2, "Luna-3", "Soho", "Meridian", "Stardast", "Gemini-12", "Spectr-RG", "Horizon", "Federation", a series of devices "Resource-P" and many Others, the list can be continued infinitely. Thanks to their information collected, we can open all new and new horizons.

No less high-quality and unique spacecraft "Cassini" was launched back in the distant 1997 year and served twenty years for the benefit of mankind. His prerogative is the study of the distant and mysterious "lord of the rings" of our solar system - Saturn. In September of this year, the device completed his honorable mission of the traveling star of mankind and, as it should be a falling star, burned down the ladder, without touching his native land.

Spacecraft - devices intended for the implementation of various tasks in outer space, as well as providing the possibility of conducting various research work directly on the surface of various celestial bodies. Such, for example, are artificial earth satellites, space ships, orbital stations.

The first spacecraft can be called the first artificial satellite of the Earth, derived in orbit October 4, 1957. All spacecraft can be divided into near-earth and interplanetary. The first moves along geocentric orbits and do not go beyond the limits of the gravitational field of the Earth.

According to the principle of management, all spacecraft are either piloted (space ships-satellites, inhabited orbital stations), or by automatic spacecraft (artificial satellites of the planets of the solar system, automatic interplanetary stations).

To date specified examples Spacecraft have already been created and successfully operate in outer space, and some are still under projects, such as transportation vehicles of reproductive use and interplanetary ships, which could fly and disembark a person to other planets of the solar system. The spectrum of tasks solved by spacecraft is very extensive. They can be used in planetary and interplanetary studies (automatic interplanetary stations and planets), in meteorological studies, and space ships and orbital stations, for example, provide the possibility of human vital activity in outer space.

Modern spacecraft use various rocket engines to eliminate the desired orbit, after which the rocket engines are activated only if necessary (for the trajectory correction, braking during landing), and all other hours of operation, the spacecraft moves along inertia, according to the laws of celestial mechanics.

A distinctive feature of most spacecraft is the ability of a long stay in the conditions of outer space and self-functioning without direct human participation. In many characteristics, such devices are similar to natural celestial bodies, which are also moving under the general laws of mechanics. Many are equipped with special astroorition systems, trajectory correction, thermal regime control systems, various onboard equipment, a radiocommunication system with Earth.

Usually, the spacecraft has a radiation surface, which is a radiator-emitter, which has a large heat radiation at a small ruggent coefficient. Almost all spacecraft systems should be protected from radiation radiation, which is achieved by applying special protective coatings. To protect against small meteor particles of the surface and optical objects of the machine, all external elements are covered with special protective "screens" (have special surface treatment).

People or equipment in the upper part of the earth's atmosphere - the so-called, near space, also called "" ( Kla).

The areas of use of spacecraft determine their separation into the following groups:

• suvurbital Ka;
• near-earth orbital Kamoving on the geocentric orbits of the artificial satellites of the Earth;
• interplanetary (expeditionary) Ka;
• note Ka.

It is also customary to distinguish automatic and manned spacecraft. Pilotous spacecraft, in particular include all types of manned spacecraft and orbital space stations. (Despite the fact that modern orbital stations make their flight in the field of near space, and formally can be called " Space aircraft", In the current tradition, they are called" Spacecraft».)

The name "" is sometimes used to designate active (that is, maneuvering) artificial satellites of the Earth, in order to emphasize their differences from passive satellites. In most cases, the values \u200b\u200bof the terms " Spacecraft"And" Spacecraft»Synosnic and interchangeable.

In the currently studied projects of creating hypersonic aircraft, another similar name " Spacecraft» ( In), denoting, thus, the means are intended to perform managed flights, both in an airless outer space and in the dense atmosphere of the Earth.

Classification of spacecraft

The following classes of spacecraft distinguish:

• artificial Earth satellites: - Automatic devices performing a variety of tasks in the Earth orbit;
• automatic interplanetary stations (cosmic probes) used to study long-range space;
• automatic or manned spacecraft used to deliver cargo and a person to an near-earth orbit (and in the future, and the orbits of other planets) and their return;
• orbital stations: - manned apparatuses intended for the long-term stay and work of people in the orbit of the Earth or another planet;
• orbital devices - an unmanned apparatus for the study of the planet with its orbits;
• descended devices - intended for delivery of people and / or equipment from an oily orbit or interplanetary trajectory to the surface of the planet with a soft planting;
• planet drives: - automatic laboratory complexes or vehicles intended for moving on the surfaces of planets and other celestial bodies.

Spacecraft are designed to perform the widest spectrum of scientific, national economic, military and other types of tasks, some of which are listed in the following list:

• Study of the Earth: - Earth remote sensing satellites;
• Meteorology: - Meteorological satellites;
• NAVIGATION: - navigation satellites;
• Planetary and interplanetary research - automatic interplanetary stations, planet carriers;
• Telecommunications and communications: - Telecommunication satellites;
• Providing human activity in outer space - manned space ships and orbital stations;
• Space tourism - manned space ships and orbital stations;
• Intelligence and military experiments - reconnaissance satellites, military satellites, manned spacecraft and orbital stations;

Due to the specifics of the tasks performed, the spacecraft can be equipped with various engine settings based on rocket engines, which include both traditional jet engines and promising (solar sail, using solar pressure and so-called "solar wind"; ion, nuclear, thermonuclear, etc.).

Mass characteristics of spacecraft

Features of flight

Side Systems

The need for long-term operation in the conditions of outer space and performing targets led to the development of the following basic systems of spacecraft: power supply systems, thermostat systems, radiation protection systems, systems space Communications, motion control systems, etc. For manned spacecraft, the presence of a developed life support system is also characteristic.

A separate complex of problems occurs when the spacecraft returns to the land or landing on the surface of other celestial bodies. In particular, it determines the development of complex systems for ensuring descent and landing.

Another class of tasks, often solved by the developers of spacecraft, is to ensure their docking with other artificial objects. The performance of these tasks assumes the presence of rapprochement systems and docking.

(Ka), different kinds aircraft equipped with special equipment and intended for flights into space or in space in scientific, national economic (commercial) and other purposes (see Space Flight). The world's first spacecraft was launched in the USSR October 4, 1957, the first piloted spacecraft - the ship "Vostok" managed by a citizen of the USSR Yu.A.Gagarin - April 12, 1961.
Spacecraft are divided into two main groups: near-earth orbital vehicles - artificial Earth satellites (ISS); Interplanetary spacecraft that go beyond the scope of the Earth's action - artificial satellites of the moon (ISL), Mars (ISM), Sun (ISS), interplanetary stations, etc. By the main purpose, spacecraft are divided into research, testing and specialized (the last 2 types of spacecraft are also called applied). Research spacecraft carry out a complex of scientific and technological experiments, research of a biomedio-biological nature, study the space environment and the phenomenon of nature, determine the characteristics and constants of the outer space, the parameters of the earth, other planets and celestial bodies. Test spacecraft are used to test and test under the conditions of space flight of structural elements, systems of aggregates and blocks of developed samples and methods of their use. Specialized spacecraft solve one or more applied tasks in national economic (commercial) or military purposes, such as communications and management, exploration, navigation, etc.
The design of the spacecraft may be compact (with a constant configuration when displaying orbit and in flight) deployed (the configuration changes in orbit due to the disclosure of individual structural elements) and inflatable (the specified form in orbit is ensured due to the supervision of the shell).
Distinguish light spacecraft with mass from a few kilograms to 5 tons; medium - up to 15 tons; Heavy - up to 50 tons and superheassed - 50 tons or more. According to a structural-based basis, the spacecraft are monoblock, multi-block and unified. The design of the monoblock spacecraft is a single and functionally indivisible basic base. The multi-block spacecraft is made of functional blocks (compartments) and in a constructive relation allows you to change the appointment by replacing individual blocks (extension them) on Earth or orbit. The basic design and layout base of the unified spacecraft allows you to install the appropriate instrument to create devices for various purposes.
According to the method of controlling, spacecraft are divided into automatic, manned (habitable) and combined (visited). The last 2 types are also called spacecraft (CC) or space stations (COP). Automatic spacecraft It has a complex of on-board equipment that does not require a crew on board and ensuring the execution of a given autonomous program. Pilotous spacecraft It is intended for tasks with the participation of a person (crew). Combined spacecraft - A variety of automatic, the design of which provides in the process of functioning a periodic visit to its astronauts for conducting scientific, repair, inspection, special and other works. A distinctive feature of most existing and future types of spacecraft is the ability to long-term independent operation under the conditions of outer space for which a deep vacuum is characterized, the presence of meteor particles, intensive radiation and weightlessness.
The spacecraft includes a housing with structural elements, providing equipment and special (targeted) equipment. The case of the spacecraft is a structural-layton basis for installation and placement of all its elements and the corresponding equipment. Supporting equipment of the automatic spacecraft provides for the following systems: orientation and stabilization, thermostat, power supply, command-software, telemetry, trajectory measurements, management and navigation, executive bodies, etc. On inhabited (manned) and visited spacecraft, in addition, Systems of life support, emergency salvation, etc. Special (Target) Equipment of the spacecraft may be optical, photographic, television, infrared, radar, radiotechnical, spectrometric, radiometric, radiometric, calorimetric, radiocommunication and relay, etc. (See also Space apparatus side equipment).
Research Spacecraft Due to the wide range of issues of the issues, the type of orbits used, the nature of the equipment and instrument equipment used by weight, sizes, designs, the type of orbits used. The mass of them ranges from a few kilograms to 10 tons or more, the height of the orbits is from 150 to 400,000 kilometers. The automatic research spacecraft includes Soviet artificial satellites of the Earth series "Cosmos", "Electron", "Proton"; American spacecraft Series of Satellite-Observatory Observatory "Explorer", "OGO", "OSO", "OJSC", etc., as well as automatic interplanetary stations. Separate types of automatic research spacecraft or equipment of their equipment are designed in the GDR, Czech Republic, Austria, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Japan and other countries.
Space vehicles of the Space series are designed for the studies of the near-earth space, the radiation of the Sun and the stars, the processes in the Earth's magnetosphere, the study of the composition of cosmic radiation and radiation belts, fluctuations of the ionosphere and the distribution of meteor particles in the near-empty space. Several dozen spacecraft of this series are launched annually. By the mid-1977, more than 930 spacecraft "Cosmos" were launched.
The spacecraft of the electronic series are intended for simultaneously studying external and internal radiation belts and the magnetic field of the Earth. Elliptical orbits (perigue height 400-460 kilometers, apogee - 7000-68,000 kilometers), mass of the spacecraft 350-445 kilograms. One rocket carrier (pH) is simultaneously displayed on these orbits 2 of spacecraft, various compositions of scientific equipment, sizes, designs and form; They form a space system.
Space devices of the Proton series were used for a comprehensive study of cosmic rays and interactions of particles of ultrahigh energies with a substance. The mass of the spacecraft is 12-17 tons, the relative mass of the scientific equipment is 28-70%.
Space apparatus "Explorer" - one of the American automatic research spacecraft. The mass of it, depending on the task, hesitates from a few kilograms to 400 kilograms. With the help of these spacecraft, the intensity of cosmic radiation is measured, the solar wind and magnetic fields in the moon area are studied, the troposphere, the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere, X-ray and ultraviolet radiation Sun, etc. In total, 50 launches were made.
Space apparatus of the OGO Observatory Satellite Series, OSO, OJSC have a highly specialized assignment. OGO spacecraft are used for geophysical measurements and, in particular, to study the influence solar activity on the physical parameters of the near-empty space. Mass 450-635 kilogram. OSO spacecraft were used to study the Sun. The mass of 200-1000 kilograms, the relative mass of scientific instrument 32-40%. The appointment of the Space Agency "OJSC" is to conduct astronomical observations. Mass 2000 kilogram.
Automatic interplanetary stations (AMS) are used to fly to other celestial bodies and studying interplanetary outer space. From 1959 over 60 automatic interplanetary stations (by mid-1977): Soviet automatic interplanetary stations of the Moon, Venus series, Mars, Probe; American automatic interplanetary stations "Mariner" series, "Ranger", "Pioneer", "Serveier", "Viking" and others. These spacecraft allowed to expand the knowledge of the physical conditions of the moon, nearest planets Solar System - Mars, Venus, Mercury, to obtain a complex of scientific data on the properties of planets and interplanetary space. Depending on the purpose and solved tasks in the onboard equipment, automatic interplanetary stations may include various automatic control units and devices: self-deviating research apparatus equipped with a necessary complex of funds (eg, "moonport" type devices), manipulators, etc. (See Cosmonautics).
Test spacecraft. In the Soviet Union, various modifications of spacecraft "Cosmos" are used as automatic testing spacecraft, in the US - satellites of type "OV", "ATS", "GGTS", "Dodge", "TTS", "SERT", "RW" et al. With the help of spacecraft of the Space series, the characteristics and capabilities of thermal control systems and ensuring the livelihoods of manned spacecraft were developed, the processes of automatic docking of satellites in orbit, methods for protecting the elements of the spacecraft from radiation. Pilotous and combined (visited) research spacecraft are intended for conducting medical and biological, physicochemical and nonathmospheric astronomical studies, research on the space environment, studying the atmosphere of the Earth, its natural resources etc. By mid-1977, 59 launches of piloted and visited spacecraft were implemented. These are Soviet space ships (CC) and space stations (COP) of the East series, "Sunrise", "Union", "Salute", American - Series "Mercury", "Gemini", "Apollo", "Skylab".
Specialized spacecraft People's economic (commercial) destination serve for meteorological observations, communications and research of natural resources. Specific gravity This group by the mid-70s amounted to about 20% of all the launched spacecraft (excluding military). Annual economic gain from the application of a global meteorological system using spacecraft and providing a two-week forecast may be, according to some estimates, about 15 billion dollars.
Meteorological spacecraft Used to obtain on a global scale information by which reliable long-term forecasts are compiled. The use of simultaneously several spacecraft with television and infrared (IR) equipment allows you to continuously monitor the distribution and movement of clouds ground Shar., forming powerful air vortices, hurricanes, storms, ensure control over the thermal regime ground surface and the atmosphere, determine the vertical profile of temperature, pressure and humidity, as well as other factors that are important for the preparation of weather forecast. Meteorological spacecraft include Meteor (USSR), "Tiros", "ESSA", "ITOS", "Nimbus" (USA).
The "meteor" type spacecraft is designed to obtain a complex meteorograph in visible and infrared (IR) spectrum bands both from the illuminated and the shadow side of the Earth. It is equipped with a three-axle electromechanical system orientation system, an autonomous system of orientation of solar panels, a thermostat system, a complex of control tools. Special equipment includes television and IR cameras, a complex of actinometric appliances of scanning and non-baking type.
The American Space Apparatus of Tiros type is designed to register IR radiation. Stabilizes by rotation. Diameter 1 meter, height 0.5 meters, weight 120-135 kilograms. Special equipment - television cameras and sensors. The storage of the information received until it is transferred to the Earth is carried out by a magnetic storage device. By the mid-1977, 10 Tiros spacecraft were launched.
Space apparatus of type "ESSA" and "ITIOS" - varieties of meteorological spacecraft. Mass "ESSA" 148 kilograms, "ITOS" 310-340 kilograms. By mid-1977, 9 ESSA spacecraft and 8 ITI spacecraft were launched.
Space apparatus of the type "Nimbus" is an experimental meteorological spacecraft for flight testing equipment. Weight of 377-680 kilogram.
Silent spacecraft Repeatering radio signals of earth stations located outside of direct visibility. The minimum range between stations in which the relaying of information with the help of connected spacecraft is economically appropriate, is 500-1000 kilometers. By the method of relaying information, connected space systems are divided into active using spacecraft, re-energized using the onboard equipment received signal ("Lightning", "Rainbow" - USSR, Synk - USA, international "Intelsat" and others), and passive ( American "Echo" and others)
Space devices like "Zipper" relay to television programs and carries out a long telephone and telegraph communications. Weight 1600 kilogram. It starts on strongly elongated elliptic orbits with a height of apogee 40,000 kilometers above the northern hemisphere. Equipped with a powerful multichannel relay system.
The spacecraft type "Rainbow" (the international registration index "Stationar-1") is designed to provide in a centimeter range of waves of continuous 24-hour telephone-telegraph radio and simultaneous transmission of non-ferrous and black and white programs of the Central Television of the USSR. Displays close to the geostationary circular orbit. Equipped with onboard relay equipment. Space devices like "Zipper" and "Rainbow" are part of the Far Space Radiocommunication System "Orbit".
Space apparatus of the IntelSat type serves commercial communication goals. Regularly exploited from 1965 exists in four modifications characterized by the possibilities of the relay system. IntelSate-4 is a stabilized by the rotation of the cylindrical form mass after burning out the fuel 700 kilograms, a diameter of 2.4 meters, height (including antenna block) 5.3 meters. It has 3000-9000 relay channels. The estimated duration of the operational use of the spacecraft is at least 7 years. By the middle of 1977, 21 launch of the spacecraft "Intelsat" of various modifications was launched.
Space apparatus of the "Echo" type is a long-term passive connected spacecraft. It is a thin-walled spherical shell with an outer reflective coating. From 1960 to 1964, 2 launch of spacecraft of this type was produced in the United States.
Spacecraft for the study of the natural resources of the Earth allow you to receive information about natural conditions continents and oceans, flora and fauna of land, human activity information is used in the interests of solving the tasks of forest and agriculture, geology, hydrology, geodesy, cartography, oceanology, etc. The development of this area refers to the beginning of the 70s. The first spacecraft for the study of the Natural Resources of Earth Type "ERTS" was launched in the United States in 1972. The study of the natural resources of the Earth is also produced using a special complex of instruments on Salute spacecraft (USSR) and Skybel (USA).
ERTS type spacecraft created on the basis artificial satellite Earth "Nimbus". Mass 891 kilograms. Special equipment consists of 3 television chambers, a 4-skate television spectrometer with optical-mechanical scanning, two video recording devices and data reception systems from earth stations. Resolving capacity of 50 meters from a height of 920 kilometers. The estimated duration of operational use is 1 year.
Abroad, mainly in the United States, a number of specialized spacecraft have been created, widespread for military purposes. Such spacecraft are divided into intelligence, navigation, communications and management, multipurpose. The reconnaissance spacecraft lead photographic, radiotechnical, meteorological intelligence, detect the launches of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), control nuclear explosions, and the like. Photographic intelligence is carried out in the United States since 1959 diskavormer type spacecraft. Detailed photo exploration using the SOSHOS spacecraft from 1961. Total to the middle of 1977 79 such spacecraft were launched. Samos is made in the form of a container with intelligence equipment, docked with the second stage of the Ajen carrier rocket. Space devices "Samos" were launched into orbits with an inclination of 95-110 ° and a height in perigue 130-160 kilometers, in the approach of 450 kilometers. The period of operational use is up to 47 days.
For periodic monitoring of changes in the terrain, preliminary exploration of construction of facilities, identifying the situation in the world ocean, mapping of land and issuing targets for the means of detailed intelligence serves spacecraft. They launched the United States until mid-1972. Their working orbits had an inclination of 65-100 °, height in perigue items 160-200 kilometers, in suitoee to 450 kilometers. The term of operational use from 9 to 33 days. Spacecraft could maneuver in height in order to access the necessary objects or to the intelligence area. Two cameras made a wide range of terrain.
Radio engineering exploration is conducted in the United States since 1962 of the Ferret type spacecraft designed for pre-exploration of radio engineering systems in a wide frequency range. The mass of the spacecraft is about 1000 kilograms. They are launched into orbits with an inclination of about 75 °, a height of 500 kilometers. Side specials and analyzers make it possible to determine the basic parameters of radio equipment (RTS): carrier frequency, pulse duration, operation mode, location and signal structure. Spacecraft for detailed radiotechnical exploration weighing 60-160 kilograms determine the parameters of individual radio equipment. Operated on the same heights and orbits with inclination within 64-110 °.
In the interests of the US military, Toros meteorological spacecraft, "Nimbus", "Essa", "ITOS", etc. So, the United States used spacecraft for the meteorological support of hostilities in Vietnam in 1964-73. Data on clouds were taken into account by the American military command when organizing military flights of aviation, planning land and marine operations, the disguise of aircraft carriers from Vietnamese aviation in the areas that thick clouds formed, and the like. From 1966 to mid-1977, 22 spacecraft of these types were launched in the United States. US Meteorological Space Aids Models "5B", "5C", "5D" is equipped with two television chambers for shooting clouds in the visible range of spectrum with a resolution of 3.2 and 0.6 kilometers, two cameras for shooting in the IR range with the same resolution and instruments for measuring the temperatures of the vertical profile of the atmosphere. There are also special spacecraft of meteorological exercising, reporting on the cloud state in areas that are subject to photographic spacecraft.
The spacecraft of early detection of the ICBR launches began to be created in the United States at the end of the 50s (Midas type, which from 1968 were replaced by the "IS" type spacecraft.
Midas type spacecraft were equipped with IR radiation detectors to detect the torches of MBR engines on the middle part of the active part of the trajectory. Announced polar orbits with a height of 3500-3700 kilometers. A mass in orbit 1.6-2.3 tons (together with the last stage of the carrier rocket).
IS cosmic devices are used to detect the MBR torches, launched from ground starting plants and submarines. An orbits close to simultaneous, height, as a rule, 32,000 - 40,000 kilometers with an inclination of about 10 °. Structurally, spacecraft are made in the form of a cylinder with a diameter of 1.4 meters, 1.7 meters long. Full weight 680-1000 kilograms (after fuel burning around 350 kilograms). The possible composition of special equipment is the detectors of IR and X-ray radiation, as well as television cameras.
Spacecraft monitoring nuclear explosions Developed in the United States since the late 50s. From 1963 to 1970, 6 pairs of NDS cosmic devices were launched into circular orbits of about 110,000 kilometers with an inclination of 32-33 °. The mass of spacecraft type "NDS" of the first pairs of 240 kilograms, the last - 330 kilograms. Spacecuts are equipped with a complex of special equipment for the registration of nuclear explosions at various heights and on Earth, stabilized by rotation. The period of operational use is about 1.5 years. Due to the created multi-purpose spacecraft of the "Imews" type, the launches of NDS spacecraft from the beginning of the 70s are discontinued.
Navigation spacecraft are used to navigate the combat patrol of submarines, surface ships and other moving units. The operational satellite system for determining the coordinates of warships with an accuracy of 180-990 meters consists of 5 spacecraft, replaced by the event of a new way. Operation orbits - polar, 900-1000 kilometers high.
Communication and management spacecraft are regularly operated since 1966. In the USA, by the mid-1977, 34 spacecraft of DCP types, "DSCS-2" and others were launched.
Space devices of the DCP series solve military communication tasks. One rocket carrier displays up to 8 spacecraft to orbits with a height of 33,000 - 34,360 kilometers with a small inclination (up to 7.2 °). In total, 26 spacecraft were launched. Structurally, spacecraft weighing 45 kilograms are made in the form of a polyhedron 0.77 meter high and a diameter of 0.81 - 0.91 meters. In orbit, it is stabilized by rotation at a speed of 150 rpm. The onboard receptionist has up to 11 duplex telephone channels. The spacecraft "DSCS-2" solve the tasks of communication in the interests of the command of the US Armed Forces, as well as the tactical relationship between the military units within the OTD.
Multipurpose military spacecraft Serve for early warning about missile attack, detecting nuclear explosions and solving other tasks. In the US, the Sius system has been developed with 1974 using Imews spacecraft for comprehensive intelligence. Multi-purpose spacecraft type "Imews" provides 3 tasks solutions: early detection of launching of intercontinental ballistic missiles and tracking; registration of nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and on the surface of the Earth; Global Msteorological Intelligence. A mass of about 800 kilograms is structurally performed in the form of a cylinder, turning into a cone (length of about 6 meters, the maximum diameter is about 2.4 meters). It starts at synchronous orbits with a height of about 26,000 - 36,000 kilometers and a period of circulation of about 20 hours. Equipped with a complex of special equipment, the basis of which are IR and television funds. The IR detector embedded in the telescope registers the torches of rockets.
Multipurpose also includes the "LASP" type spacecraft; It is intended mainly for conducting a review and detailed photo-exploration of strategic objects and mapping of the earth's surface. From 1971 to the middle of 1977, 13 such spacecraft were launched on solar-line orbits height in perigue 150-180, in suitoee 300 kilometers.
Development of spacecraft and their use for space studies have had a significant impact on the overall scientific and technical progress, on the development of many new areas of applied sciences and technology. Spacecraft have found wide practical application in national economy. By the middle of 1977, more than 2,000 spacecraft were derived. different types, including Soviet more than 1100, foreign about 900, by this time was constantly in orbits about 750 spacecraft.
Literature: the development of outer space in the USSR. [Official print messages for 1957-1975] M., 1971 - 77; Zaitsev Yu.P. Satellites "Cosmos" M., 1975; Designing scientific space equipment. M., 1976, Ilyin V.A, Kuzma G.E. Optimal flights of spacecraft with high thrust engines. M, 1976, Odintsov V.A., Anuchin V.M. Maneuvering in space. M, 1974; Korovkin A.S. Spacecraft management systems. M., 1972; Space trajectory measurements. M, 1969, Space Engineering Directory. Ed 2nd. M, 1977. Orbits of cooperation between the USSR international communication in the study and use of outer space. M., 1975, piloted space ships. Design and testing. Per. from English M., 1968. A.M. Belyakov, E.L. Palagin, F.R. Khantseviers.