The most direct determination of the charge of the electron was produced in the experiments of R. Millique, in which very small charges were measured, arising in small particles. The idea of \u200b\u200bthese experiments was as follows. According to the main ideas of the electronic theory, the charge of a body arises as a result of the change in the number of electrons contained in it (or positive ions, the charge of which is equal to or marathed the electron charge). As a consequence, the charge of any body should vary only by jumpingly and moreover, such portions that contain an integer charge of electron charges. So installing the discrete nature of the change on the experience electric charge, It is possible to obtain the confirmation of the existence of electrons, and determine the charge of one electron (elementary charge).

It is clear that in such experiments, the measured charges should be very small and consist only of a small number of electron charges. Otherwise, adding or exclusion of one electron will only lead to a small amount of total charge changes and therefore can easily escape from the observer due to the inevitable errors when measuring the charge.

In experiments, it was found that the charge of particles really changed to jumps, and the change of charge was always multiple to a certain final charge.

The Milline Experience scheme is shown in Fig. 249. The main part of the device is a carefully made flat capacitor, the plates of which are joined to the voltage source of several thousand volts. The voltage between the plates can be changed and accurately measured. Small droplets of oil obtained using a special pulverizer fall through the hole in the upper plate into the space between the plates. The movement of a separate droplet of oil is observed in a microscope. The capacitor is concluded in a protective cover, supported at a constant temperature that protects the droplet from convection currents of air.

Oil droplets are charged during spraying, and therefore every two forces act: the resulting force of gravity and ejecting (archimedes) strength and force caused by an electric field.

Passage of electric current through metals

Electronic conductivitymetals. The passage of current through metals (first-type conductors) is not accompanied by a chemical change of them. This circumstance makes it implies that the metal atoms during current passage are moved from one conductor to another. This assumption was confirmed by the experiments of German Physics Charles Viktor Eduard Rickka (1845 -1915). Rickka was a chain, which included three cylinder ends closely pressed to each other, of which two extreme were copper, and the average aluminum. Through these cylinders, an electric current was passed for a very long time (more than a year), so that the total number of flowing electricity has achieved a huge amount (over 3,000,000 CL). By producing a thorough analysis of the place of contact of copper and aluminum, Rickka could not detect traces of penetration of one metal into another. Thus, when the current passes through metals, the metal atoms are not moved along with the current.

How does the charges take place when passing the current through the metal?

According to the ideas of electronic theory, which we have repeatedly used, negative and positive charges, which are part of each atom, differ significantly from each other. A positive charge is associated with atom himself and under normal conditions inseparable from the main part of the atom (its kernel). The negative charges are electrons with a certain charge and mass, in almost 2000 times the smallest mass of the lighter hydrogen atom, relatively easily can be separated from the atom; An atom that lost an electron forms a positively charged ion. In metals there is always a significant number of "free", separated from the atoms of electrons, which wander on the metal, moving from one ion to another. These electrons under the action electric field Easily move on metal. The ions are the cores of the metal, forming its crystal lattice (see TOM I).

One of the most convincing phenomena that detects the difference between positive and negative electrical charges in the metal is mentioned in § 9 a photoelectric effect showing that the electrons relatively easily can be pulled out of the metal, while the positive charges are firmly connected to the metal substance. Since at the passage of current atoms, and therefore, the associated positive charges are not moved along the conductor, then free electrons should be considered carriers in the metal. Important confirmation of these ideas was important experiments performed for the first time in 1912 L. I. Mandelshtam and N. D. Palekxi *), but not published by them. Four years later (1916) R. Ch. Tolman, and T. D. Stewart published the results of their experiments that were similar to the experiments of Mandelstam and Papailxi.

When setting these experiments, they proceeded from the following thought. If there are free charges in the metal, possessing the mass, then they should obey the law of inertia (see Tom I). Quickly moving, for example, from left to right, the conductor is a combination of metal atoms moving in this direction, which are fond of with them and free charges. When such a conductor suddenly stops, then the atoms included in its composition; Free inertia charges must continue to move away from left to right, while various interference (collision with stopped atoms) will not stop them. The occurrence of the phenomenon is similar to what is observed with a sudden stop of the tram, when "free", not attached to the car items and people in the inertia continue to move forward for some time.

In this way, summary After stopping the conductor, free charges in it should move in one direction. But the movement of charges in a certain side is electric current. Therefore, if our arguments are valid, then after a sudden stopping of the conductor, you should expect the appearance of short-term current in it. The direction of this current will allow to judge the sign of those charges that moved by inertia; If you leave the right to move positive charges, the current will be detected directed from left to right; If negative charges will move in this direction, there must be a current having a direction from right to left. The current current depends on charges and the ability of their carriers more or less to maintain their movement on the inertia, despite the interference, that is, from their mass. Thus, this experience not only allows you to verify the existence of the existence in the metal of free charges, but also to determine the charges themselves, their sign and mass of their carriers (more precisely, the ratio of charge to mass e / M).

In practical implementation, the experience turned out to be more convenient to use not applied, but rotary traffic Explorer. The scheme of such experience is shown in Fig. 141. On the coil, in which two isolated semi-axes are found 00, wire spiral strengthened. The ends of the spiral are soldered to both halves of the axis and with the help of sliding contacts 2 ("Brushes") are attached to a sensitive galvanometer 3. The coil was driven into rapid rotation and then suddenly slowed down. Experience really found that at the same time electric current arose in the galvanometer. The direction of this current has shown that negative charges are moving on inertia. Measuring the charge carried by this short-term current, it was possible to find the ratio of free charge to the mass of its carrier. The ratio of it turned out to be equal to E / M \u003d L, 8 ∙ 10 11 CB / kg, which coincides well with the value of such a relationship for electrons defined by other methods. So, experiments show that there are free electrons in metals. These experiments are one of the most important confirmations of the electronic theory of metals. Electric current in metals is an ordered movement of free electrons(Unlike their indiscriminate heat movement, always existing in the conductor).

Structure of metals. Both free electrons included in the metal and its ions are in a continuous erratic movement. The energy of this movement is the internal body energy. The movement of ions forming a crystal lattice consists only of fluctuations around their equilibrium positions. Free electrons can move throughout the volume of metal.

If there is no electric field inside the metal, the electron movement is completely chaotically; At each moment of the speed of various electrons, various directions are different and have (Fig. 143, but).The electrons in this sense are similar to the usual gas, and therefore they are often referred to as electronic gas. Such a thermal movement will not cause any current, since as a result of complete chaoticness in each direction there will be the same electrons as in each direction, and therefore the total charge carried through any platform inside the metal will be zero.

The case, however, will change if we decide to the ends of the conductor the potential difference, i.e., create an electrical field inside the metal. Let the field strength equal to E. Then for each electron eE (E.- Electron charge), directed due to the negativity of the electron charge is opposite to the field. Due to this, the electrons will receive additional velocities directed in one direction (Fig. 143, b). Now the movement of electrons will not be quite chaotic: along with an erratic thermal motion, electronics will move as a whole, and therefore an electric current will occur. I figured it out figuratively, it can be said that the current in metals is an "electronic wind" caused by an external field. Cause of electrical resistance. Now we can understand why the metals have resistance to electric current, i.e., why it is necessary to maintain the potential difference at the ends of the metallic conductor to maintain long-term current. If the electrons had not experienced any interference in their movement, then, being sent to an orderly movement, they would move on inertia, without the action of the electric field, unlimited long. However, in reality, the electrons are experiencing collisions with ions. At the same time, the electrons who have had a certain speed of an ordered movement before deployment, after impact, they will bounce in arbitrary, random directions, and the ordered electron movement (electric current) will turn into an erratic (thermal) movement: after elimination of the electric field, the current will very soon disappear. In order to obtain a long-term current, it is necessary after each collision again and again drive electrons in a certain direction, and for this it is necessary that the power acts on the electrons all the time, i.e. so that the metal field is inside the metal.

The greater the potential difference is maintained at the ends of the metal conductor, the stronger inside it the electric field, the greater the current in the conductor. The calculation that we do not give shows that the potential difference and current should be strictly proportional to each other (Ohma law).

Moving under the action of an electric field, electrons acquire some kinetic energy. During collisions, this energy is partially transmitted by the lattice ions, which they come into a more intense thermal movement. Thus, in the presence of current all the time, the energy transition of an ordered movement of electrons (current) into the energy of the chaotic movement of ions and electrons, which represents the internal energy of the body; This means that the internal energy of the metal increases. This explains the allocation of Joule heat.

Summarizing, we can say that the cause of electrical resistance is that electrons are experiencing collisions with metal ions with its movement.These collisions produce the same result as the effect of a certain constant friction force seeking to slow down the movement of electrons.

The difference in conductivity of different metals is due to some differences in the number of free electrons in a unit of metal volume and under the conditions of electron motion, which is reduced to the difference in the average length of the free run, that is, the paths passing by an average electron between two collisions with metal ions. However, these differences are not very significant, as a result of which the conductivity of some metals differs from the conductivity of others in just a few dozen times; At the same time, the conductivity of even the worst metal conductors hundreds of thousands of times more conductivity of good electrolytes and billions of times exceeds the conductivity of semiconductors.

The phenomenon of superconductivity means that conditions occurred in the metal under which electrons do not experience resistance to their movement. Therefore, to maintain a long-term current in the superconductor does not need to have a difference in potentials. It is enough to bring electrons in motion, and then the current in the superconductor will exist after eliminating the potential difference.

Opening work. Free electrons are inside the metal in a continuous thermal motion. However, despite this, they are not spilled out of metal. This suggests that there are some forces that prevent them from reaching them, that is, that on the electrons, seeking to exit the surface of the metal, the electric field is operating in the surface layer, directed from the metal (electrons are negative). This means that when the electron passes through the surface layer of the force, the forces acting on the electron in this layer do negative operation - BUT(here and\u003e 0), and therefore, between points inside the metal and the outside there is some voltage called voltage output.

It follows from what it follows that to remove an electron from metal to a vacuum, you need to make anti-forces acting in the surface layer, positive work A, called operation.This value depends on the nature of the metal.

There is an obvious relationship between the operation of the output and the potential of exit

where e.- Electron charge (more precisely, the absolute value of the charge charge is equal to the elementary charge). Therefore, the operation is usually written in the form of eQ\u003e.

Work eSRanti-forces in the surface layer can be made due to the reserve of kinetic energy. If kinetic energy Less exit work, it will not be able to penetrate the surface layer and remain inside the metal. Thus, a condition in which the electron can fly out of metal has the form

Here t.- Electron mass, v N.- Normal (perpendicular to the surface) component of its speed, EU - Output.

At room temperature, the average energy of the thermal movement of electrons in the metal is several dozen times less than the operation of the output; Therefore, almost all electrons are held by the field existing in the surface layer, inside the metal.

The operation of the exit is usually measured not in Joules, but in electronette(eV). One electronologist is the work performed by the fields above the charge, equal to the charge of the electron(i.e. above the elementary charge e), when passing a voltage of one volt:Emitting electrons by rolled bodies.The thermal movement of electrons in the metal has an erratic character, so the speed of individual electrons can differ significantly from each other, just as it takes place for gas molecules. This means that inside the metal there is always a number of fast electrons that can break through the surface. In other words, if the picture of the metal structure taken by us is correct, the evaporation of electrons, similar to the evaporation of liquids, should occur.

However, at room temperatures, condition (89.2) is performed only for the insignificant fraction of metal electrons, and the evaporation of electrons is so weak that it is impossible to detect it. The case will change if you heat the metal to a very high temperature (1500-2000 ° C). In this case, thermal velocities increase, the number of departing electrons increases, and their evaporation can be easily observed on the experience. Lamp can serve for such experience L.(Fig. 144), containing, except for filament TO(for example, tungsten), an additional electrode L. Air from the lamp is carefully speculated so as not to complicate the phenomena by the participation of air ions. The lamp is connected to the battery £ I and a galvanometer G.so that the negative pole of the battery is connected to the heat thread.

With cold thread, the galvanometer does not show current, because there are no ions between the cathode and anode, which could be transferred to charges. If, however, rolling the thread with auxiliary battery B 2.and gradually increase the flow current, then the thread in the chain appears in the circuit. This current is formed by electrons evaporating from the threads, which under the action of the attached electric field move from the thread TOto electrodes BUT.The number of electrons emitted from the unit of the surface of the hot cathode is very dependent on its temperature and on the material from which it is made (output operation). Therefore, the observed current increases very quickly with the increase in the thread temperature.

If attaching the battery poles B 1.so that the thread was connected to a positive pole, then the current in the chain will not be, no matter how much we heated the thread. This is because the electric field now tends to move the electrons from A to K and therefore returns the evaporating electrons back to the filament. This experience also proves that only negative electrons are evaporated from metals, but not positive ions that are firmly connected in the crystal lattice of the metal. Described phenomenon wearing name thermoelectronic emission,found a variety of and important applications.

Electron (elementary particle)

This article was written by Vladimir Gorunovich for the site "Wikita", called the "electron in the field theory", placed on this site in order to protect information from the vandals, and then supplemented on this site.

The field theory of elementary particles, acting within science, relies on the foundation proven by physics:

• Classical electrodynamics,
• Quantum mechanics
• Conservation laws are fundamental laws of physics.

In this, the principal difference between the scientific approach used by the field theory of elementary particles - a genuine theory should be strictly acting within the framework of the laws of nature: this is the science.

Use not existing in nature elementary particles, invent not existing in nature fundamental interactions, or replace existing interaction in the nature of fabulous, ignore the laws of nature, engaged in mathematical manipulations over them (creating the visibility of science) is the lot of fairy tales issued for science. As a result, the physics rolled into the world of mathematical fairy tales.

1 Electron Radius
2 Electrical Electrical Field
3 Magnetic Moment Electron
4 Mass of the Department of Electron
5 Physics 21st century: electron (elementary particle) - result

Electron (Eng. Electron) - the lightest elementary particle with an electric charge. Quantum number L \u003d 1/2 (spin \u003d 1/2) is a lepton group, an electron subgroup, an electrical charge -e (systematization by the field theory of elementary particles). The stability of the electron is due to the presence of an electrical charge, in the absence of which the electron would decay in analogously to muon neutrino.

According to the field theory of elementary particles, the electron consists of a rotating polarized alternating electromagnetic field with a constant component.

Electromagnetic Electron Field Structure (E-constant electric field, H-constant magnetic field, yellow variable electromagnetic field marked)

Energy Balance (percentage of all internal energy):

• continuous electric field (E) - 0.75%,
• permanent magnetic field (H) - 1.8%,
• a variable electromagnetic field - 97.45%.

This explains the pronounced wave properties of the electron and its reluctance to participate in nuclear interactions. The electron structure is shown in the figure.

1 Electron Radius

The radius of an electron (the distance from the center of the particle to the place in which the maximum mass density is achieved) is determined by the formula:

equal to 1.98 ∙ 10 -11 cm.

The electron occupied by the formula:

it is 3.96 ∙ 10 -11 cm. To the value of R 0 ~, another radius of an annular region occupied by an alternating electromagnetic field of an electron was added. It must be remembered that a part of the mass of the peace of rest focused in permanent (electrical and magnetic) electron fields is beyond the limits of this area, in accordance with the laws of electrodynamics.

The electron is greater than any atomic nucleus, therefore cannot be present in atomic nuclei, and is born in the process of the decay of the neutron, as well as the positron is born during the decay process in the proton kernel.

The allegations that the radius of the electron is about 10 -16 cm is soft and contradict the classical electrodynamics. With such linear sizes, the electron must be heavier than the proton.

2 Electrical Electrical Field

The electrical electrical field consists of two areas: an outer area with a negative charge and an internal area with positive charge. The size of the inner region is determined by the radius of the electron. The difference between the charges of the outer and internal regions determines the total electrical charge of the electron. The basis of its quantization is the geometry and structure of elementary particles.

the electrical field of the electron at the point (A) in the far zone (R\u003e\u003e R e) exactly, in the system Si is equal:

the electrical field of the electron in the far zone (r\u003e\u003e R e) exactly, in the system SI is equal to:

where n. \u003d R / | R | - single vector from the center of the electron in the direction of the observation point (a), R is the distance from the center of the electron to the observation point, E is an elementary electric charge, the vectors are highlighted in bold font, ε 0 - electrical constant, Re \u003d Lħ / (M 0 ~ C ) - The radius of the electron in the field theory, L is the main quantum number of the electron in the field theory, ħ is a constant plank, M 0 ~ - the magnitude of the concluded electron concluded in the variable electromagnetic field, C is the speed of light. (There is no multiplier in the SGS system.)

These mathematical expressions are true for the far zone of the electric field of the electron: (R \u003e\u003e Re), and the unscrupuls that "the electric field of the electron remains Coulomb until the distance of 10 -16 cm" has nothing to do with reality - this is one of the fairy tales, contrary to the classic electrodynamics.

According to the field theory of elementary particles, a constant electrical field of elementary particles with a quantum number L\u003e 0, both charged and neutral, is created by a constant component of the electromagnetic field of the corresponding elementary particle. And the field of electrical charge arises as a result of the presence of asymmetry between the external and internal hemisters that generate electrical fields of opposite characters. For charged elementary particles, a field of elementary electrical charge is generated in the far zone, and the electrical charge sign is determined by the sign of the electric field generated by the external hemisphere. In the near zone, this field has this field complex structure And the dipole, but the dipole point it does not possess. For an approximate description of this field as a system of point charges will require at least 6 "quarks" inside the electron - it is better to take 8 "quarks". It is clear that it goes beyond the standard model.

In an electron, as in any other charged elementary particle, you can select two electrical charges and, accordingly, two electrical radius:

• electric radius of an external constant electric field (charge -1.25e) - R Q- \u003d 3.66 10 -11 cm.
• electric radius of an internal constant electric field (charge + 0.25e) - R q + \u003d 3 10 -12 cm.

These characteristics of the electrical field of the electron correspond to the distribution of the 1 field theory of elementary particles. Physics While experimentally did not set the accuracy of this distribution, and which distribution most accurately corresponds to the real structure of the constant electrical field of the electron in the near zone.

Electric radius indicates the average location evenly distributed around the circle of an electrical charge, creating a similar electric field. Both electrical charges lie in the same plane (the plane of rotation of the variable electromagnetic field of the elementary particle) and have a common center that coincides with the center of rotation of the variable electromagnetic field of the elementary particle.

Electric Electric Field Tension in the Middle Zone (R ~ R e), in the SI system, as vector sum, is approximately equal to:

where n -=r -/ R is a single vector of near (1) or long (2) charge points Q - electrone in the direction of the observation point (a), n +.=r +./ R is a single vector of near (1) or long (2) charge points Q + electrone in the direction of the observation point (A), R is the distance from the center of the electron to the projection of the observation point to the plane of the electron, Q - - external electric charge -1.25 E, Q + - internal electrical charge + 0.25e, vectors highlighted in bold font, ε 0 - electrical constant, Z is the height of the observation point (a) (distance from the point of observation to the electron plane), R 0 is the normalization parameter. (There is no multiplier in the SGS system.)

This mathematical expression is the sum of the vectors and it must be calculated according to the rules of the formation of vectors, since this is a field of two distributed electrical charges (q - \u003d -1.25e and q + \u003d + 0.25e). The first and third terms correspond to the neighbor points of charges, the second and fourth - far. This mathematical expression does not work in the inner (ring) field of an electron generating its permanent fields (while performing two conditions; R

The potential of the electric field of the electron at the point (a) in the near zone (R ~ R e), in the system Si is approximately equal:

where R 0 is the normalization parameter, the value of which may differ from in the formula E. (There is no multiplier in the SGS system.) This mathematical expression does not work in the inner (ring) electron field generating its permanent fields (with simultaneously execution of two conditions: R

Calibration R 0 For both the expressions of the near area, it is necessary to produce on the boundary of the area generating permanent electron fields.

3 Magnetic Moment Electron

A counterweight quantum theory The field theory of elementary particles argues that the magnetic fields of elementary particles are not created by spin rotation of electrical charges, and exist simultaneously with a constant electric field as a constant component of the electromagnetic field. Therefore, there are magnetic fields in all elementary particles with a quantum number L\u003e 0.

Since the magnitudes of the main quantum number L and the back in Leptons coincide, the magnitude of the magnetic moments of charged leptons in both theories may coincide.

The field theory of elementary particles does not consider the magnetic moment of the electron anomalous - its value is determined by a set of quantum numbers to the extent that the quantum mechanic works in the elementary particle.

So, the main magnetic moment of the electron is created by the current:

• (-) with magnetic moment -0.5 Eħ / M 0E C

To obtain the resulting magnetic moment of the electron, it is necessary to multiply by the percentage of the energy of an alternating electromagnetic field, separated by 100 percent and add the spin component (see the field theory of elementary particles source), as a result we obtain 0,5005786 Eħ / M 0E C. In order to translate into ordinary boron magnetones, you need to multiply the resulting number to two.

4 Mass of the Department of Electron

In accordance with the classic electrodynamics and the Einstein formula, the mass of the elementary particles with a quantum number L\u003e 0, including the electron, is defined as the equivalent of the energy of their electromagnetic fields:

where certain integral It takes through the entire electromagnetic field of the elementary particle, E is the electric field strength, H is the magnetic field strength. All components of the electromagnetic field are taken into account: a constant electric field, a constant magnetic field, an alternating electromagnetic field.

As follows from the above formula, the magnitude of the mass of the coach of the electron depends on the conditions in which the electron is located. So placing an electron into a constant external electric field, we will affect E 2, which will affect the mass of the particle. A similar situation will occur when placing an electron into a constant magnetic field.

5 Physics 21st century: electron (elementary particle) - result

A new world has opened before you - the world of dipole fields, the existence of which the physics of the 20th century did not suspect. You saw that the electron has not one, but two electrical charges (external and internal) and the corresponding two electrical radius. You saw that linear dimensions of the electron significantly exceed the linear dimensions of the proton. You saw, from which there is a mass of the coach of the electron and that the imaginary Boson Higgs was not at the deeds (the decisions of the Nobel Committee are not the laws of nature ...). Moreover, the amount of mass depends on the fields in which the electron is located. All this goes beyond the submissions that prevail in physics of the second half of the twentieth century. - Physics of the 21st century - New physics goes to a new level of knowledge of matter.

Vladimir Gorunovich

). According to changes in the definitions of the main UN units, 1,602,176,634 × 10-19 A · s. Closely associated with a constant fine structure describing electromagnetic interaction.

Electric charge quantization

Any electrical charge observed in the experiment is always multiple to one elementary - Such an assumption was expressed by B. Franklin in 1752 and later he was repeatedly checked experimentally. For the first time, elementary charge was experimentally measured by a milliken in 1910.

The fact that the electrical charge is found in nature only in the form of an integer number of elementary charges can be called quantization of electric charge. At the same time, in classical electrodynamics, the question of the reasons for quantization of the charge is not discussed, since the charge is an external parameter, and not a dynamic variable. A satisfactory explanation is why the charge is obliged to be quantized until it is found, but a number of interesting observations have already been received.

Fractional electric charge

Repeated search for long-lived free objects with a fractional electric charge, conducted by various techniques for a long time, did not give results.

It is worth, however, it should be noted that the electrical charge of quasiparticles can also be no damp in a whole. In particular, it is the quasiparticles with a fractional electric charge responsible for the fractional quantum effect of the Hall.

Experimental definition of elementary electric charge

Number of Avogadro and Permanent Faraday

Josephson Effect and Constant Credication Background

Another accurate method for measuring the elementary charge is to calculate it from the observation of two effects of quantum mechanics: the Josephson effect, in which the voltage fluctuations occur in a certain superconducting structure and the quantum effect of the hall, the effect of quantization of Hall resistance or the conductivity of two-dimensional electronic gas in strong magnetic fields and at low temperatures. Permanent Josephson

where h. - Permanent Planck, can be measured directly using the Josephson effect.

it can be measured directly using a liner's quantum effect.

Of these two constants, the magnitude of the elementary charge can be calculated:

Notes

1. Elementary Charge. (eng.). The Nist Reference On Constants, Units, And Uncertainty. . Caption date 20 May 2016.
2. The value in SGSE units is given as the result of the Codata value in the cabins, taking into account the fact that the pendant is exactly equal to 2,997,924,580 units of electrical charge SGSE (franklin or static).

The electron is the elementary particle, which is one of the main units in the structure of the substance. Electron charge negative. The most accurate measurements were made at the beginning of the twentieth century by Millykeine and Ioffe.

The electron charge is minus 1,602176487 (40) * 10 -1 9 CL.

After this value, the electrical charge of other smallest particles is measured.

General Concept of Electron

In the physics of elementary particles, it is said that the electron is indivisible and non-structural. It is involved in electromagnetic and gravitational processes, belongs to the lepton group, as well as his antiparticle is a positron. Among other leptons has the easiest weight. If electrons and positrons face, it leads to their annihilation. Such a pair may occur from the gamma quantum of particles.

Before neutrinos measured, it was the electron that was considered the easiest particle. In quantum mechanics they are referred to fermions. Also, the electron has a magnetic moment. If the positron belongs to it, then the positron is separated as a positively charged particle, and the electro is called a non-geatrome as a particle with a negative charge.

Separate properties of electrons

Electrons refer to the first generation of leptons, with the properties of particles and waves. Each of them is endowed with a state of a quantum, which is determined by measuring energy, spin orientation and other parameters. It is revealed to fermions to fermions through the inability to stay in one state of the quantum at the same time two electrons (on the principle of Pauli).

It is studied in the same way as a quasiparticle in a periodic crystalline potential, in which effective mass is capable of significantly different from the mass at rest.

Through the movement of electrons, electric current, magnetism and thermo EMF occurs. The electron charge in motion forms a magnetic field. However, the outer magnetic field deflects a particle from direct direction. At acceleration, the electron acquires the ability to absorb or radiation of energy as a photon. Electronic atomic shells, the number and position of which determine the chemical properties.

Atomic mass mainly consists of nuclear protons and neutrons, while the mass of electrons fits about 0.06% of the total atomic weight. The electrical force of the coulon is one of the main forces capable of keeping the electron next to the core. But when molecules are created from atoms and chemical bonds arise, electrons are redistributed in a new formed space.

Nucleons and hadrons participate in the appearance of electrons. Isotopes with radioactive properties are able to emit electrons. Under the conditions of laboratories, these particles can be studied in special devices, and for example, telescopes can detect radiation from them in plasma clouds.

Opening

The electron opened German physicists in the nineteenth century, when the cathode properties of the rays were studied. Then other scientists began to study it in more detail, taking into the rank of a separate particle. Remedies and other related physical phenomena were studied.

For example, the Thomson Group appreciated the electron charge and a mass of cathode rays, whose relationship, as it found out, does not depend on the material source.
And Beckel found out that minerals emit radiation by themselves, and their beta rays are able to deviate through the effects of the electric field, and the mass and charge remained the same attitude as the cathode rays.

Atomic theory

According to this theory, an atom consists of a kernel and electrons around it, located in the form of a cloud. They are in certain quantized energy states, the change in which is accompanied by the process of absorption or radiation of photons.

Quantum mechanics

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a hypothesis was formulated, according to which material particles have properties of both particles actually and waves. Also, the light is able to manifest itself in the form of a wave (it is called de Broglyl wave) and particles (photons).

As a result, the famous Schrödinger equation was formulated, which described the spread of electronic waves. This approach was called quantum mechanics. With the help of it, the electronic state of energy in the hydrogen atom was calculated.

Fundamental and quantum electron properties

The particle exhibits fundamental and quantum properties.

The fundamental is the mass (9,109 * 10 -31 kilograms), an elementary electrical charge (that is, the minimum portion of the charge). According to the measurements that were carried out to the present, the electron does not detect any elements capable of identifying its substructure. But some scientists adhere to the opinions that it is a point charged particle. As indicated at the beginning of the article, the electronic electric charge is -1,602 * 10 -19 cl.

Being a particle, the electron can be wave at the same time. An experiment with two slits confirms the possibility of its simultaneous passage through both of them. This comes in conflict with the properties of the particle, where each time it is possible to pass only through one slot.

It is believed that electrons have the same physical properties. Therefore, their permutation, from the point of view quantum mechanicsdoes not lead to a change in system state. Wave function electrons is antisymmetric. Therefore, its solutions are applied to zero when the same electrons fall into one quantum state (Pauli principle).

The electron is a negatively charged elementary particle belonging to the lepton class (see Elementary particles), the carrier of the smallest known mass and the smallest electrical charge in nature. Opened in 1897 by the English scientist J. J. Thomson.

Electron - component atom, number of electrons in neutral atom equally nuclear Number, i.e. the number of protons in the core.

The first accurate measurements of the electrical charge conducted in 1909-1913. American Fiak R. Milliken. The current value of the absolute value of the elementary charge is the SSSE units or approximately CL. It is believed that this charge is really "elementary", i.e. it cannot be divided into parts, and the charges of any objects are its whole multiple.

You may have heard about quarks with electrical charges and, apparently, they are firmly locked inside the hadrons and in free state do not exist. Together with a constant Planck H and the speed of light with an elementary charge forms dimensionless constant \u003d 1/137. The permanent structure is one of the most important parameters of quantum electrodynamics, it determines the intensity of electromagnetic interactions (the most accurate modern value \u003d 0.000015).

Mass of the electron g (in power units). If the laws of conservation of energy and electric charge are valid, any electron decays are prohibited, such as so that, therefore, the electron is stable; Experimentally obtained that the time of his life is at least years.

In 1925, American Physicists S. Gaudsmith and J. Ulybek to explain the features of atomic spectra introduced the internal moment of the amount of electron movement - spin (S). Electron spin is equal to half a constant plank, but physicists usually say simply that the electron spin is equal to \u003d 1/2. His own magnetic moment is associated with the electrome back. The magnitude of Erg / Gs is called Magneton Bora MB (this is the unit of measurement of the magnetic moment in atomic and nuclear physics; here h is a constant plank, and M - absolute value charge and electron mass, C - speed light); Numeric coefficient is an electron-reflector. From the quantum-mechanical relativistic equation of Dirac (1928), there was a value that is, the magnetic moment of the electron was supposed to be equity to one boron magneton.

However, in 1947, in experiments, it was found that a magnetic moment is about 0.1% more than magneton boron. An explanation of this fact was given taking into account the polarization of the vacuum in quantum electrodynamics. Very time-consuming calculations were theoretical value (0.000000000148), which can be compared with modern (1981) experimental data: for an electron and positron (0.000000000050).

The values \u200b\u200bare calculated and measured up to twelve decimal plates, and the accuracy of experimental work is higher than the accuracy of theoretical calculations. These are the most accurate measurements in the physics of elementary particles.

The features of the movement of electrons in atoms subordinate to the quantum mechanics equations are determined by optical, electrical, magnetic, chemical and mechanical properties of substances.

Electrons are involved in electromagnetic, weak and gravitational interactions (see Unity of Nature Forces). Thus, due to the electromagnetic process, annihilation of an electron and a positron occurs with the formation of two-quanta :. Electrons and positrons of high energies can also participate in other processes of electromagnetic annihilation with the formation of hadrons: hadron. Now such reactions are stiguously studied on numerous accelerators on connoisseurs (see Charged Particle Accelerators).