Introduction

1. The concept of language.

1.1 What is a language

1.2 Language - codes system.

2. Natural language.

3. Artificial language.

Conclusion.

Bibliography

Introduction

The work of a specialist in the field of management consists in constant contact and relationship, both with ordinary people and with people of professional orientation - constant communication, reporting correctly outlined thoughts. The most important mechanism in contact with society and a separate individual is a language, both natural and artificial.

What is a language.

The language is the system of signs that serves way of communication, transfer of information and personality expression. You can also describe the language, as the condition for the existence of abstract thinking. Therefore, thinking is a distinctive feature of people.

The language of words is a socio-psychological phenomenon that allows us to transmit and store, both information and accumulated by our ancestors. As a result, the language of people is needed and historically determined.

The language is the so-called system of codes, signs. (See Schema No. 1.) The sign is nothing but any perceived sensitly subject (visual, audible or other), serving a representative of another subject and a carrier of information about this subject (signs - Images: photos, copies of various documents, prints fingers; symbols signs - for example, alphabetic letters, musical notes, Morse signs).

Scheme number 1:

Society of people is unthinkable without signs. Any thought can be transferred from one person to the perception of the other, with sound signs. The very concept, thought arises in the head of man before the sound complex comes, otherwise the words. When we try to choose a sound complex for some concept, the very concept itself is already in our head. In order for the language to appear, a person must first form a sound complex, and then compare it with the world around us, establish a sign correlation.

According to its origin, languages \u200b\u200bare natural and artificial.

Natural language.

Natural languages \u200b\u200bare the sound (speech) historically in society, and then graphic (letter) information iconic systems. They arose to consolidate and transmit the accumulated information in the process of communicating between people. Natural languages \u200b\u200bare speakers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who own them.

Human everyday reasoning is conducted in the natural language. This language has developed to simplify the communication process, exchange of thoughts at a loss of clarity and accuracy. Natural languages \u200b\u200bhave enormous expression capabilities - you can express any feelings, experiences, knowledge, emotions.

Natural language executes the main functions - representative and communicative. Representative function is output from the fact that language is a means of expression using symbols or an abstract character representation, (for example: knowledge, concepts, thoughts) affordable due to the thinking of specific intellectual entities. The communicative function is manifested in the fact that the language is the possibility of transmitting an abstract character from one intelligent person to another. Symbols, letters, words, suggestions are based on material basis. It realizes the material superstructure of the language, that is, this is the commonality of the rules for building words, letters and other language symbols, and only with this superstructure of one or another material basis forms a specific natural language.

Based on the semantic status of the natural language, we note the following:

Based on the fact that the language is a set of rules, therefore, there is a huge number of natural languages. The material basis of any language, natural origin is multidimensional, this means that it is divided into visual, verbal, tactile varieties of signs. All these types do not depend on each other, but in a large number of existing languages \u200b\u200btoday, they are inextricably linked, and the main - verbal symbols.

The material basis of the language, natural origin, is studied only in two dimensions - verbal and visual, otherwise the letter.

By virtue of the distinces in the superstructure and base, separately taken

natural language shows the same abstract content in unique, unique. On the other hand, in any separate language, such an abstract content is shown, which is not shown in other languages. However, this does not mean that each separate language has its own special scope of abstract content. For example, the "man", "MAN" explains to us one abstract content, but the content itself does not apply not to English not to the Russian language. The sphere of abstract content is unique for different natural languages. That is why the translation from one to another natural language is possible.

The object of logical analysis of the language is an abstract content, while natural languages \u200b\u200bare only a necessary condition for such an analysis.

The sphere of abstract content is the structural area of \u200b\u200bvarious objects. Objects base some unique abstract structure. Natural languages \u200b\u200bshow elements of this structure, as well as some fragments. Any natural language in a sense reflects the structure of objective reality. However, this description shows a superficial and controversial nature.

During the formation, the natural language changed - this is due to the interaction of cultures of different peoples and technical progress. As a result, some words lose their meanings over time, while others opposite acquire new ones.

For example, the word "satellite" - only one value was used before (fellow traveler, comrade on the way.), And today it has one more - a space satellite.

Natural language lives its own life. It contains a lot of features and nuances that prevents the senses in words. Does not help it and availability huge number Hyperball, figurative expressions, archaisams, idiom, metaphor. In addition, the natural language is full of exclamations, interjections, the meaning of which is difficult to convey.

Artificial languages.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare auxiliary iconic systems created on the basis of natural languages \u200b\u200bfor accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are designed using a natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. The language that acts as a means of building or studying another language is called the metalanas, the basis of the language-object. Meta language, as a rule, has a richer compared to the language-object expressive opportunities.

Any artificial language has three levels of organization:

· Syntax - the level of the structure of the language where relations are formed and examined between signs, methods of education and the transformation of iconic systems;

· Sinematics, where the relationship of the sign is being investigated to its meaning (the value under which it is understood by either the thought, expressed by the sign, or an object indicated by him);

· Pragmatatic, where there are ways to use signs in this community using artificial language.

The construction of an artificial language begins with the introduction of the alphabet, i.e. The set of characters with which the object of this science is indicated, and the rules for building the formulas of this language. Part of the correctly built formulas is taken for axioms. Thus, all knowledge, decorated with the help of an artificial language, acquires an axiomatized form, and with her evidence and reliability.

Characteristic feature Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare the unambiguous certainty of their dictionary, the rules for the formation of expressions and give them values. In many cases, this feature turns out to be the advantage of such languages \u200b\u200bin comparison with natural languages, amorphous from both the dictionary and the rules of education and importance.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bof varying degrees of rigor are widely used in modern science Both technique: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computing technology, cybernetics, communication, stenograph.

For example, mathematics from the very beginning were striving to formulate evidence and theorems on a clear dialect of a natural language. Although vocabulary this dialect is constantly expanding, the main forms of proposals, ligaments, alliances remain almost the same as they were developed in ancient times. For a long time it was believed that the "mathematical dialect" consists of strictly formulated proposals. But already in the Middle Ages, the development of algebra led to the fact that the formulations of the theorems often became more and more inconvenient. Accordingly, the calculations became increasingly difficult. Even in order to just understand the phrase:

"The first square, folded with the square of the second and

with a twin product of the first to second,

there is a square of the first, folded with the second "

a significant effort is required. Mathematical severity and convenience began to contradict each other. Then noticed that this rule The mathematical language can be reduced to several conditional signs, and now it is written briefly and clear:

x2 + 2 xy + y2 \u003d (x + y) 2

This was the first stage of clarifying the mathematical language: the symbolism of arithmetic expressions, their equalities and inequalities was created. The language of mathematical logic, which became the symbolic language of modern mathematics, originated at the moment when the inconvenience of the mathematical language for the needs of mathematics was finally conscious. The new symbolism clarified the mechanical nature of many transformations, allowed us to give simple algorithms for their implementation.

The role of the formalization of the natural language in scientific knowledge and in logic in particular:

1. Formalization makes it possible to analyze, clarify, determine and explain the concepts. Many concepts are not suitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and inaccuracies. For example, the concept of continuity of the function, geometric Figure In mathematics, simultaneity of events in physics, heredity in biology differ significantly from those ideas that they have in everyday consciousness. In addition, some initial concepts are designated in science in the same words that are used in spoken To express completely other things and processes. Such concepts of physics, as power, work, energy, reflect well-defined and accurately indicated processes: for example, the force is considered in physics as a reason for changing the speed of a moving body. In conversational speech, this concept attaches a wider, but an indefinite meaning, as a result of which the physical concept of force is not applicable to the characteristic, for example, a person.

2. Formalization acquires a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presentation of evidence in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the initial using the exactly indicated transformation rules gives it the necessary severity and accuracy. What important is the rigor of evidence is evidenced by the history of attempts to proof axioms about parallel in geometry, when instead of such evidence, the axiom itself was replaced by an equivalent statement. It was the failure of such attempts forced N.I. Lobachevsky recognize this proof impossible.

3. Formalization based on the construction of artificial logical languages \u200b\u200bserves as a theoretical foundation for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby computerization is not only scientific and technical, but also of another knowledge.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare also used by legal and logical science for theoretical or practical analysis of mental structures.

The artificial language generally accepted in modern logic is the language of predicate logic. The main semantic categories of the language are: names of objects, sign names, suggestions.

Names of objects is separate phrasesdenoting objects. Every name is it double meaning - Subject and semantic. The name value is a lot of items to which the name refers (Denotat). The semantic value is the inherent properties of items with which many objects (concept) are distinguished.

The names of the signs are the qualities, signs or relationship of objects. Usually it is a fant, for example, "be red", "jump", "love", etc.

Suggestions are a language expressions in which something is approved or denied. According to its logical meaning, they express the truth or lie.

The logical language also has its own alphabet, which includes a specific set of signs (characters), logic ligaments. Using a logical language, a formalized logical system is constructed, called predicate calculus.

Conclusion.

For me, as for the future specialist in the field of state and municipal administration, relationship with people has great importance. The success of knowledge in my career depends on the proper use of natural n. And artificial languages. The first steps of knowledge are associated with natural language. A gradual study requires a more accurate study. This is what leads to the creation of artificial languages. The greater accuracy is our knowledge, the more realize the possibility of applying in practice. Consequently, the problem of developing artificial languages \u200b\u200bof science is not only theoretical, it has some practical content. And yet, the main role of knowledge is in the natural language. No matter how the abstract artificial language is also developed, it has a kind of natural language.

Bibliography.

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2. Bühler K. Language Theory: Representative Language Function. - M.: Progress, 1993.

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80,000 words and phraseological expressions / Russian Academy science Institute of Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradova. - 4th ed., Augmented. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1999

7. Paducheva E.V. Dynamic models in semantics vocabulary. M.: Languages Slavic culture

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10. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M: Prospekt, 1995.

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13. Shan N. M., Ivanov V. V. Modern Russian. Studies. For students ped. In-Tov on special. № 2101 "Rus. Yaz. or T." In 3 h. 1. Introduction. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling - 2nd ed., Fixed and complemented. - M.: Enlightenment, 1987.

14. Schiffman Hr. Feeling and perception - P.: Peter., 2003, p. 128.

See: James Boswell., Life of Samuel Johnson., - M.: Text, 2003

British critic, poet and lexicographer. See there.

Schiffman H.R. Feeling and perception - P.: Peter., 2003, p. 128.

See there.

Sklin B. Digital connection. Theoretical foundations and practical application. Per. from English - M.: Publishing House "Williams", 2003, p.39

Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M.: Prospekt, 1995. p. 10-11.

See there.

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Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. M: Flint., 2006. C. twenty

Ivin A.A. Logics. M: URSS., 1996. C. 17.

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Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argument. M: Uniti., 1997. p.36-38.

Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M: Prospekt, 1995. p. 11-13.

Artificial language - The sign system created specifically for use in areas where the use of a natural language is less efficient or impossible. The designed languages \u200b\u200bdiffer in specialization and appointment, as well as by the degree of similarity with natural languages.

Distinguish the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages \u200b\u200band computer languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bfor automatic information processing using computers.

Information languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bused in various systems Information processing.

Formalized science languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bintended for symbolic record scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages \u200b\u200bof non-existent peoples created in fictional or entertainment purposes. The most famous are: the elf language, invented by J. Tolkin, and the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okramnd for the fantastic series "Star Trek" (see fictional languages).

International auxiliary languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bcreated from elements of natural languages \u200b\u200band offered as auxiliary interethnic communication.

For the purpose of creating artificial languages \u200b\u200bcan be divided into the following groups :

Philosophical and logical languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bhaving a clear logical structure Word formation and syntax: Slubb, Tokypona, Iphkill, Ilax.

Auxiliary languages \u200b\u200b- intended for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Wordso, Slotan.

artificial language natural specialization

Artistic or aesthetic languages \u200b\u200bare created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created for the experimentation of an experiment, for example, to verify the Supira-Wharf hypothesis (about the fact that the language on which the person speaks is limiting consciousness, drives it into a certain framework).

By its structure, artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages \u200b\u200b- on the basis of logical or empirical classifications of concepts: Limpan, Slubb, Ro, Solresol, Iphuil, Ilax.

A posteriori languages \u200b\u200b- languages \u200b\u200bbuilt predominantly based on international vocabulary: Interlingua, Ocidental

Mixed languages \u200b\u200b- words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artistic languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-forming elements: Vapauk, IDO, Esperanto, NEO.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare most famous :

baisik-Inglish

interlingua

latino-blue-Flexion

okidental

symmy

solresol

esperanto

The most famous artificial language became Esperanto (L. Renhaf, 1887) - the only artificial language, which received widespread and united around himself quite a few supporters international Language. The basis of Esperanto is international words borrowed from Latin and Greek, and 16 grammatical rules that have no exception. IN this language There is no grammatic genus, in it only two cases - nominative and accusative, and the remaining values \u200b\u200bare transmitted by prepositions. The alphabet is built on the basis of Latin. All this makes Esperanto as simple as a simple language that an unprepared person can learn enough to speak him for several months of regular occupations. In order to learn at the same level of any of the natural languages, at least a few years required. Currently, Esperanto is actively used, according to different estimates, from several tens of thousands of up to several million people. It is believed that for ~ 500-1000 people, this language is native, that is, studied from the moment of birth. Esperanto has descendants languages \u200b\u200bin which there are no shortcomings in Esperanto. The most famous among these languages \u200b\u200b- Esperantido and Noviol. However, none of them will receive such distribution as Esperanto.

For or against artificial languages?

The study of artificial language has one big drawback - almost the impossibility of its use in life. This is true. In the note called "artificial languages" printed in a large Soviet encyclopedia It is alleged that: "The idea of \u200b\u200ban artificial language, common to all of humanity, by itself is utopic and impracticable. Artificial languages \u200b\u200bare only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan and therefore vicious in principle." It was written in the early 50s. But in the mid-1960s, the same skepticism is peculiar to some scientists.

The author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief to the possibility of implementing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe universal language as follows: "As for the possibility of making the transition of humanity to a single language, created at least by the type of Esperanto language, then such an opportunity is utopia. Extreme conservatism of the language, the impossibility of jumps and sharp shocks, Inspection language with thinking and society and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow such a reform, not disorganizing society. "

The author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages \u200b\u200bwill never be able to be replaced by "None artificially invented" universal "language." He still allows the idea of \u200b\u200bthe auxiliary: "We can only go about the intermediary language. Which use only when talking with foreigners - and only"

Such statements proceed, apparently, from the fact that none of individual projects Universal, or world international, language live language did not. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for single idealists and torn off from the proletariat, from the masses of the groups of the same idealists, it may be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific teams and the masses, mastering scientific theory of paganorate - with the support of revolutionary parties and governments. The human ability to multilingualism is the phenomenon of language compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of the language (for the consciousness of it), which causes the absence of the influence of the origin of the language for its operation, open the path to all the people and the peoples of the Earth on which their problem should be solved language community. This will give a real opportunity for the most advanced project of the language of new humanity and its new civilization to turn into all the continents and the islands. globe Live, controlled by a developing language. And you can not doubt that it will be not only alive, but also the most survivable from languages. The needs that cause them to life are diverse. It is also important that the many-values \u200b\u200bof the terms in these languages \u200b\u200bare overcome in these languages \u200b\u200band unacceptable in science. Artificial languages \u200b\u200ballow in extremely compressed form to express certain concepts, perform the functions of peculiar scientific stenograph, economical presentation and expression of volumetric material. Finally, artificial languages \u200b\u200bare one of the funds of the internationalization of science, since artificial languages \u200b\u200bare united, international.

Decision

Kinetics of electrochemical corrosion

Corrosion rate is expressed through metal loss per unit of time. The mass of the corrosion of the metal can be calculated by the law of Faraday. For example,

Calculate how many grams of the lead electrocable collapsed when the wandering current passes 0.002a in 870 hours.

To solve the problem, we use the formula reflecting the United Faraday Law:

m \u003d M eq ∙ i ∙ τ / f

where m eq - molar mass Metal Equivalent, I - Current Current, τ - Time

τ \u003d 870h. \u003d 3132000C.

F \u003d 96500 CL / mol

M eq (Pb) \u003d M (Pb) / z;

M EQ (Pb) \u003d 207.2 / 2 \u003d 103.6 (g / mol)

m \u003d 103,6 · 0.002 · 3132000/96500 \u003d 6.7 (g)

Answer: 6.7 g.

Since the logic studies the forms of thinking, and thinking is inextricably linked with the language, the logic is also a science of language.

Language - this is any sign information system (System of words or signs) performing the function of formation, storage and transmission of information in the process of cognition of reality and communication between people.

By origin, languages \u200b\u200bare natural and artificial.

Natural languages \u200b\u200b- historically, the sound and graphic iconic systems in society. Natural languages \u200b\u200barise spontaneously in the process of joint activity and communication of people and peoples. Natural are the languages \u200b\u200bof different peoples, gesture language, etc.

Artificial languages \u200b\u200b- auxiliary iconic systems created by groups of people specifically - for more accurate transmission of specific information. Artificial languages \u200b\u200binclude musical signs, signs of code systems, ciffers, Morse, "Bloom Language", which enjoy criminals, etc.

There are also mixed languages, the base in which the natural (national) language is complemented by symbols and conventional symbolsbelonging to a specific subject area. This group of languages \u200b\u200bincludes the language of formal logic.

Symbols are certain signs. Sign-any sensually perceived subject that replaces, represents another item used in the process of cognition or communication as a representative of any object. The most typical three types of signs: (1) index signs; (2) signs images; (3) Symbols.

Index signs associated with objects represented as a result with reasons (symptoms, signs, instrument readings, etc.). So, smoke - a sign talking about the presence of fire; increased temperature man - about the disease; Changing the height of the mercury pillar - on the change in atmospheric pressure, etc.

Signs images there are those signs that themselves carry information about the objects represented by them (drawings, maps, pictures, photographs), since they are with denotable objects in relation to similarity.

Symbols signs do not have similarities with denotatic objects (emblems, emblems, banners, artistic and graphic symbols, signals or cipher signs).

One kind of signs are names. Name -this is a word or phrase denoting any object. Since the name is a sign, it matters and meaning. The name of the name is the subject denoted by this name. The meaning of the name is the concept of the subject. The relationship between the name, the subject value and meaning can be clearly expressed with the help of a triangle, in the corners of which are located: name, concept, subject.

This means that the name, concept and subject do not match, but closely interrelated: the name denotessubject I. expressesconcept of subject.

The relationship of thinking and language (concepts and words) does not mean their identities. The same concept can be expressed by different words. For example, words from different natural languages \u200b\u200bor synonym words in the same language. Synonyms -words, various sounds, but identical or close in meaning: "Labor" and "work"; "Treaty" and "Contract".

On the other hand, in any language there omonimi -words, the same in shape, sound, but different in meaning, according to the concept (for example, "key", "braid", "Bor", "Peace").

Sometimes words lose their initial values \u200b\u200band express new concepts (for example, the word "ink" initially marked "what the ink", and today "what he writes", and we can talk about red inks).

Multivality of words often leads to mixing concepts, and therefore, to errors in reasoning. Therefore, it is necessary to know exactly what the concept is expressed by this or that word, and use this word in a strictly defined value.

In scientific knowledge it is necessary to use unambiguous words and combinations. Such words are called terms. Term -a word or phrase, denoting a strictly defined concept and characterized by unambiguity (at least within the science or group of sciences).

According to the composition distinguish the names simple ("state") and complex, consisting of several words ("Satellite of the Earth", "Russian State").

Names can be denoted and non-existing objects in objective reality. For example, "Centaur", "Mermaid", "the most remote point of the universe", etc. These names are imaginaryor empty.

Formal logic uses characters. There are no homonyms and unclear expressions in this language. This allows strictly fixing the course of reasoning and accurately solve the question of their correctness or incorrectness.

In logic, the languages \u200b\u200bof the logic of statements and the logic of predicates are distinguished. The language of the logic of statements is used to describe the structure of statements, reasoning, proposals. Under statementsit is understood by simple or complex abstract symbolic expressions denoting judgments. Simple statements, combined into complex connections "and", "or", "if .., then", etc., are called propositional statements, and the logic with which such statements are described, sometimes called proposition of logic, or propositional calculus.The logic of statements can be classical (double-digit) or multivalued.

Language of predicate logic used to describe the internal structure of statements. Alphabet language of the logic of predicatesconsists of the following characters:

but) a, b, with ... -constant subject terms;

b) x, Y, Z...- variables subject terms;

in) R,Q,R.... - predicate terms (properties names);

d) p., q,r.... - propositional terms (statement names);

e) quantifier: - Everything, - some;

e) - logical unions, which are readily read by: "And", "or", "if ..., then ...", "If, and only if, then ..." and called the sign of denial, conjunction, disjunction, implications and equivalence;

g) technical signs: - comma; () - brackets.

With the help of the alphabet, a formalized logic system is constructed, called predicate calculus. The expressions of the language of the logic of predicates are called formulas. Formulas can be properly built and incorrectly built.

There is a special science of signs - semiotics.In this science, there are three sections - syntax, semantics and pragmatics, which is associated with the presence of three aspects of the language.

Syntaxis the semiotics section is called, in which the relationships between the signs themselves are investigated (rules for constructing and transforming language expressions, etc.). In the process of this study, distracted from the meanings and values \u200b\u200bof signs.

Semantic the semiotics section is called, in which the signs of signs are primarily investigated to the objects represented, as well as sense of signs, since they are one of the means to establish signs and their values.

Pragmatics he studies the attitude of a person to signs, as well as relations between people in the process of iconic communication.

The formal logic language allows to avoid the ambiguity and ambiguity of the natural language and to reduce the process of checking the correctness of reasoning to the "calculation".