Lectures 8-9. Biogeocenoses and its components. Concept, structure. Methods for studying phytocenoses.

Literature

Korobkin V.I., Peredelsky L.V. Ecology. Rostov on Don: Phoenix, 2005. 576 p. (Higher education)

Stepanovsky A.S. Biological ecology. Theory and Practice: Textbook for students of universities, students on environmental specialties. M.: Uniti-Dana, 2009. 791 p.

Stepanovsky A.S. General Ecology: Textbook for universities. M.: Uniti, 2001. 510 p.

Lecture 8.

1. The concept of biogeocenosis

2. Component composition of the BGC

3. Phytocenoses - the main component of biogeocenosis

4. Determination of the concept of "phytocenosis"

5. Structure of phytocenosis

5.1. Species structure

Quantitative indicators of the species structure

How to describe the floristic composition of phytocenosis?

Violence

5.2. Spatial, or morphological structure of biocenosis

Vertical heterogeneity

Horizontal heterogeneity

Lecture 9.

6. Field methods for studying biogeocenoses

Methods of bookmarking trial areas

Technique descriptions of Yarusov

Methodology for the detection of floral composition

7. Diagnostic signs of phytocenoses to attribute to a specific association

Introduction

In one of the first lectures, the concept was considered levels of organization of life (biological spectrum). The main levels of living organization: gene, cell, organ, organism, population, community (biocenosis). Or, accordingly (according to Y. Odumu, 1975):

1) Gene, or molecular

2) Cellular and fabric levels

3) Organ

4) Organism

5) Population-species Intermediate between the "organisman" and "supervisory" levels.

6) Ecosystem, biogeocented relationships in the supervisory systems within biogeocenosis, ecosystems are being studied (between populations, grouped, organisms inside the BGC).

7) Biosphere the highest, the relationship between the macroecosystems, biogeocenoses (forest-steppe, forest-swamp, forest-tundra, etc.) is being studied, the law of the cycle of substances, energy in the global aspect.

General Ecology studies the last three levels of biological organization from the body to ecosystems.

Why starting with the organist? Because he is the first who May exist independently! Outside organisms, life does not appear.

 - The main subject of study with the ecosystem approach in ecology becomes the processes of transformation of the substance and energy between the biota and the physical environment, i.e. the processes of material and energy exchange in the ecosystem as a whole. It is the relationship between living organisms (individuals) among themselves and with a habitat on the population-biocenomotics level and levels of biological systems even higher rank (biogeocenoses and biosphere).

 - The main object of study is the ecosystem.

Biogerocenosis rank ecosystem in general ecology is considered the most important unit, and the body or type is the smallest unit, but also refers to important objects.

Why is it so important and so it is necessary to study nature at the level of ecosystems, and first of all biogeocenoses? Because, knowing the laws of formation and functioning of ecosystems, one can foresee and prevent their destruction as a result of the impact on them of negative factors, to provide security measures and eventually preserve the human habitat as a species.

1. The concept of biogeocenosis

The term "Biogeocenosis" was proposed by Academician V. N. Sukachev at the end of the 30s. For forest ecosystems.

The definition of biogeocenosis in V.N. Sukachev (1964: 23) is considered classic - "... This is a combination at a certain length of ground surface homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rock, vegetation, animal peace and world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions), which has a special specificization of the interactions of these components of its components and a certain type of metabolism and energy: among themselves and with other phenomena of nature and is an internal controversial unity, located in constant motion and development ... ".

Translated "Biogeocenosis is The whole set of species and the whole set of environmental factors determining the existence of this ecosystem with the inevitable anthropogenic effects ". Last add given the inevitable anthropogenic impact Tribute to modernity. In the time of V.N. Sukacheva did not have the need to attribute an anthropogenic factor to the main environment that it is now. But then it was clear that the components biogeocenosis do not just exist near, but actively interact with each other (fig. one).

2. Component composition of the BGC

Biocenosis,or a biological community of joint-living three components: vegetation, animal and microorganisms.

In nature there are no single groups and settlements, and in biocenoses, we usually deal with groups consisting of many species. Biocenoses, as a form of organization of a living matter, develops for quite a long time and therefore is characterized by a sufficiently established structural organization of organisms in it with stability.

The main properties of biocenoses are the ability to produce a living agent, possessself-regulation and self-reproducibility .

Biocenosis sizes depend on the size of the territory with homogeneous abiotic properties, i.e. biotope.

Biotopeetogenic "geographical" space of a biocenosis life, which is more familiar to call Ecotopom.

Ecotop form the soil with a characteristic subsoil, with a forest bedding, as well as with one or another number of humus (humus), and atmosphere with a certain amount of solar radiation, with one or another amount of free moisture, with a characteristic content of carbon dioxide, various impurities, aerosols, etc., in aqueous biogeocenoses instead of amthosphere - water.

Of all the components of the biotope closer to the biogenic component of the biogerocenosis, it is soil, since its origin is directly related to the living substance. The organic substance in the soil is a product of biotic metering at different stages of transformation.

Community of organisms is limited by a biotope (in the case of oyster borders of the borders) from the very beginning of existence. Biocenosis and biotope are functioning in continuous unity.

Biogeocenosis Science - biogeocenology.It is engaged in the problems of the interaction of living organisms among themselves and with the surrounding abiotic, i.e. inanimate, medium.

Biogeocenology is one of the directions of general ecology, ecosystem or biogeocenotic level of organization of life (biological spectrum) .

3. Phytocenoses - the main component of biogeocenosis

Each component of biocenosis, like biogeocenosis, may be an object of attention from an environmental point of view, it can be devoted not only to a special course of lectures, but also all his creative life.

The main, node subsystem of biogeocenoses - phytocenoses.

Phytocenoses are:

1) the main receivers and transformers of solar energy,

2) the main suppliers of products in biogeocenosis,

3) In their structure, objectively reflects the processes of education and the transformation of the basis of life on the planet - organic matter, and in general, all the processes occurring in biogeocenosis.

4) At the same time they are easily accessible to study directly in nature,

5) For them, for several decades, effective field methods of research and methods of reading actual materials have been developed and developed.

It is focusing that we will be given to the phytocenosis and methods of studying. Moreover, many patterns inherent in phytocenosis are also applied to zoecenosis and microorganisms.

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The textbook is written in accordance with the requirements of the current state educational standard and the program recommended by the Ministry of Education of Russia. It consists of two parts - theoretical and applied. In the five sections, the main provisions of general ecology, the teachings on the biosphere, human ecology; Anthropogenic effects on the biosphere, environmental protection and protection problems ambient. In general, the textbook forms students a new environmental, noosphere worldview.
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CONTENT
Dear reader! 10
Preface 11.
Introduction ECOLOGY. A brief overview of development 13
§ 1. Item and objectives of ecology 13
§ 2. History of Ecology Development 17
§ 3. The value of ecological education 21
Part I. Theoretical Ecology
Section first. General Ecology 26.
Chapter 1. Organism as a living holistic system 26
§ 1. Levels of biological organization and ecology 26
§ 2. The development of the body as a living holistic system 32
§ 3. Systems of organisms and the biota of land? 6
Chapter 2. Interaction of the body and medium 43
§ 1. Concept of habitat and environmental factors 43
§ 2. The main ideas about the adaptations of organisms 47
§ 3. Limit Factors 49
§ 4. The value of physical and chemical factors Environments in the life of organisms 52
§ 5. Effectical factors and their role in the life of plants and soil biota 70
§ 6. Resources of living beings as environmental factors 77
Chapter 3. Populations 86
§ 1. Static populations 86
§ 2. Dynamic populations 88
§ 3. Life expectancy 90
§ 4. Population growth growth dynamics 94
§ 5. Environmental Survival Strategies 99
§ 6. Regulation of the population density 100
Chapter 4. Biotic Community 105
§ 1. Species structure of biocenosis 106
§ 2. Biocenosis spatial structure 110
§ 3. Environmental niche. Relationships of organisms in biocenosis 111
Chapter 5. Environmental Systems 122
§ 1. Ecosystem Concept 122
§ 2. Production and decomposition in Nature 126
§ 3. Gomeostasis ecosystem 128
§ 4. Energy ecosystem 130
§ 5. Biological productivity Ecosystems 134
§ 6. Ecosystem dynamics 139
§ 7. System approach and modeling of Ecology 147
Section two. The doctrine of the biosphere 155
Chapter 6. Biosphere - Global Earth Ecosystem 155
§ 1. Biosphere as one of the shells of the Earth 155
§ 2. Composition and borders of the biosphere 161
§ 3. Course of substances in nature 168
§ 4. Biogeochemical cycles of the most vital biogenic substances 172
Chapter 7. Natural Earth Ecosystems As Khorological Units of Biosphere 181
§ 1. Classification of natural ecosystems Biosphere on a landscape basis 181
§ 2. Ground beomes (ecosystems) 190
§ 3. Freshwater ecosystems 198
§ 4. Marine Ecosystems 207
§ 5. The integrity of the biosphere as a global ecosystem 213
Chapter 8. The main directions of the evolution of the biosphere 217
§ 1. Teaching V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere 217
§ 2. Biodiversity of the biosphere as a result of its evolution 223
§ 3. 0 By regulating the impact of biota on the environment 226
§ 4. Noosphere as a new stage of the evolution of the biosphere 230
Section Third. Human Ecology 234.
Chapter 9. Bibosocial nature of man and ecology 234
§ 1. Man as a biological type 235
§ 2. Population characteristic of man 243
§ 3. Natural resources of the Earth as a limiting factor of human survival 250
Chapter 10. Anthropogenic Ecosystems 258
§ 1. Man and ecosystems 258
§ 2. Agricultural ecosystems (agroecosystems) 263
§ 3. Industrial and city ecosystems 266
Chapter 11. Ecology and human health 271
§ 1. The influence of natural-ecological factors on human health 271
§ 2. Influence of socio-ecological factors on human health 274
§ 3. Hygiene and human health 282
Part II. Applied ecology
Section fourth. Anthropogenic effects on the biosphere 286
Chapter 12. Main types of anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere 286
Chapter 13. Anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere 295
§ 1. Pollution of atmospheric air 296
§ 2. Basic Sources of Pollution of the Atmosphere 299
§ 3. Environmental consequences of the Pollution of the atmosphere 302
§ 4. Environmental consequences of global pollution of the atmosphere 307
Chapter 14. Anthropogenic effects on the hydrosphere 318
§ 1. Pollution of the hydrosphere 318
§ 2. Environmental consequences of pollution of hydrosphere 326
§ 3. IsGing underground and surface waters 331
Chapter 15. Anthropogenic impact on a lithosphere 337
§ 1. Impact on the soil 338
§ 2. Impact on rocks and their arrays 352
§ 3. Impact on subsoil 360
Chapter 16. Anthropogenic effects on biotic communities 365
§ 1. Forest value in nature and human life 365
§ 2. Anthropogenic impact on forests and other plant communities 369
§ 3. Environmental consequences of human impact on plant world 372
§ 4. The value of the animal world in the biosphere 377
§ 5. Impact of man on animals and causes of their extinction 379
Chapter 17. Special types of exposure to the biosphere 385
§ 1. Contamination of the production environment and consumption of production 385
§ 2. Noise exposure 390
§ 3. Biological Pollution 393
§ 4. Impact of electromagnetic fields and radiation 395
Chapter 18. Extreme influences on the biosphere 399
§ 1. Impact of weapons of mass destruction 400
§ 2. Impact of man-made environmental disasters 403
§ 3. Natural Disasters 408
Section fifth. Environmental Protection and Environmental Protection 429
Chapter 19. Basic Principles of Environmental Protection and Rational Environmental Management 429
Chapter 20. Engineering Environmental Protection 437
§ 1. Principal areas of engineering environmental protection 437
§ 2. rationing of environmental quality 443
§ 3. Atmospheric Protection 451
§ 4. Protection of hydrosphere 458
§ 5. Litosphere Protection 471
§ 6. Protection of biotic communities 484
§ 7. Environmental protection from special types of influences 500
Chapter 21. Fundamentals of Environmental Law 516
§ 1. Sources of environmental law 516
§ 2. State Environmental Protection Bodies 520
§ 3. Environmental Standardization and Passportization 522
§ 4. Environmental expertise and environmental impact assessment (EIA) 524
§ 5. Environmental Management, Audit and Certification 526
§ 6. Concept of environmental risk 528
§ 7. Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) 531
§ 8. Environmental control and public environmental movements 537
§ 9. Environmental rights and obligations of citizens 540
§ 10. Legal responsibility for environmental offenses 543
Chapter 22. Ecology and Economics 547
§ 1. Ecological and economic accounting of natural resources and pollutants 549
§ 2. License, contract and limits for environmental management 550
§ 3. New environmental financing mechanisms 552
§ 4. Concept of sustainable development concept 556
Chapter 23. Environmentalization of Public Consciousness 560
§ 1. Antropocentrism and ecocentrism. Formation of a new environmental consciousness 560
§ 2. Environmental Education, Education and Culture 567
Chapter 24. The international cooperation In the field of ecology 572
§ 1 International Environmental Protection Objects 573
§ 2. Basic principles of international environmental cooperation 576
§ 3. Russia's participation in international environmental cooperation 580
Ecological manifest (on N. F. Reymmers) (instead of imprisonment) 584
Basic concepts and definitions in the field of ecology, environmental protection and environmental management 586
Subject 591.
Recommended literature 599.

(Document)

n1.DOC.

Name: CD Ecology: electronic textbook. Textbook for universities

Year: 2009

Publisher: Knorus.

ISBN.: 539000289x.

ISBN-13 (EAN): 9785390002896

the text is taken from the electronic textbook

Section I. General Ecology

Introduction Ecology and a brief overview of its development

1. Ecology object and objectives

The most common definition of ecology as a scientific discipline is the following: ecology  Science, which studies the conditions for the existence of living organisms and the relationship between organisms and their habitat. The term "ecology" (from Greek. "Okos" house, dwelling and "logos"  doctrine) was first introduced into the biological science of German scientist E. Geckel in 1866 initially ecology and developed as component Biological science, in close connection with other natural sciences  chemistry, physics, geology, geography, soil science, mathematics.

The subject of ecology is a totality or structure of ties between organisms and the environment. The main object of study in ecology  ecosystems i.e., uniform natural complexes formed by alive organisms and habitats. In addition, the area of \u200b\u200bits competence includes study separate species of organisms (organism level), their populations i.e. the aggregates of individuals of one species (population-species level), population aggregates, i.e. biotic communities  biocenoses (biocenotic level) and biosphere In general (biosphere level).

The main, traditional, part of the ecology as biological science is general ecology which studies the general patterns of relationships of any living organisms and medium (including a person as a biological creature).

As part of general ecology, the following main sections are allocated:

 out ecology Exploring individual bonds of a separate organism (species, individuals) with its surrounding medium;

 population ecology (demoecology), in whose task is to study the structure and dynamics of populations of individual species. The population environment is considered as a special section of outecology;

 syncology (Biocenology), which studies the relationship of populations, communities and ecosystems with the medium.

For all these directions, the main thing is to study survival of living beings in the environment And the tasks in front of them are predominantly biological properties  to study the patterns of adaptation of organisms and their communities to the environment, self-regulation, stability of ecosystems and the biosphere, etc.

In the above understanding, the general environment is often called bioecology When they want to emphasize her biocentricity.

From the point of view of the time factor, the ecology is differentiated on historical and evolutionary.

In addition, ecology is classified according to specific objects and environmental environments, i.e. distinguish ecology of animals, plant ecology and ecology of microorganisms.

Recently, the role and value of the biosphere as an environmental analysis object continuously increases. Special great importance In modern ecology, it is paid to human interaction issues with the environment. The nomination of these sections in environmental science is associated with a sharp strengthening of the mutual negative impact of a person and a medium that increased the role of economic, social and moral aspects, due to the sharply negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.

Thus, modern ecology is not limited to the framework of the biological discipline, treating the relationship mainly animals and plants with the medium, it turns into interdisciplinary science, which studies the most complicated problems of human interaction with the environment. Relevance and versatility of this problem caused by exacerbation environmental setting On the scale of the entire planet, led to the "ecologization" of many natural, technical and humanitarian sciences.

For example, at the junction of ecology with other branches of knowledge, the development of such new directions, such as engineering ecology, geoecology, mathematical ecology, agricultural ecology, cosmic ecology, etc.

Accordingly, the term "Ecology" received a broader interpretation, and an environmental approach in studying the interaction of human society and nature was recognized as fundamental.

The environmental problems of the Earth as the planet is engaged in intensively developing global ecology The main object of studying which is a biosphere as a global ecosystem. Currently, such special disciplines appear as social ecologystudying the relationship in the system "Human Society  Nature" and its part  ecology of man (Antropoecology), in which the interaction of a person as a biosocial being with the surrounding world is considered.

Modern ecology is closely related to politics, economics, right (including international law), psychology and pedagogy, since only in the Union with them it is possible to overcome the technocratic paradigm of thinking and develop a new type of environmental consciousness, a radically changing behavior of people in relation to nature.

From a scientific and practical point of view, the division of ecology on theoretical and applied is quite substantiated.

Theoretical Ecology Removes the general laws of life organization.

Applied ecology He is studying the mechanisms for the destruction of the biosphere by a person, ways to prevent this process and develops the principles of rational use of natural resources. The scientific basis of applied ecology makes up a system of general examination laws, rules and principles.

Based on the above concepts and directions, it follows that the tasks of the ecology are very diverse.

In general theoretical plan, they include:

 Development of a general theory of environmental stability;

 Study of environmental mechanisms for adaptation to the medium;

 Research Regulation of population numbers;

 study of biological diversity and mechanisms to maintain it;

 Research of production processes;

 Investigation of the processes occurring in the biosphere in order to maintain its sustainability;

 Modeling the state of ecosystems and global biosphere processes.

The main applied tasks that the ecology should decide currently the following:

 Forecasting and assessment of possible negative consequences in the environmental environment under the influence of human activity;

 Improving environmental quality;

 Optimization of engineering, economic, organizational and legal, social or other solutions to ensure environmentally friendly sustainable development, primarily in the environmentally threatened areas.

Strategic task Ecology is considered to develop the theory of interaction between nature and society on the basis of a new look, considering human society as an integral part of the biosphere.

Currently, the ecology becomes one of the most important natural SciencesAnd, as many environmentalists believe, the very existence of a person on our planet will depend on its progress.
2. A brief overview of the history of ecology

In the history of ecology, three main stages can be distinguished.

First stage The origin and formation of ecology as science (up to 60s. Hih century). At this stage, data on the relationship of living organisms with their habitat was accumulated, the first scientific generalizations were made.

In the XVII andVIII century. Environmental information was a significant proportion in many biological descriptions (A. Reomyur, 1734; A. Rutch, 1744, etc.). Elements of the ecological approach were kept in the studies of Russian scientists I. I. Lephekhina, A. F. Middondorf, S. P. Krashennikova, French scientist J. Buffon, Swedish naturalist K. Linnei, German scientist G. Yeghera, etc.

In the same period, J. Lamarc (17441829) and T. Malthus (17661834) for the first time, humanity is preventing humanity about the possible negative consequences of human impact on nature.

Second phase Registration of ecology in an independent branch of knowledge (after the 60s. Hih century). The beginning of the stage was marked by the output of the works of Russian scientists K. F. Rulely (18141858), N. A. Seversow (18271885), V. V. Dokuchaeva (1846-1903), which first substantiated a number of principles and concepts of ecology that were not Have lost their value to the present. It's not by chance that an American ecologist Yu. Odum (1975) considers V. V. Dokuchaeva one of the founders of ecology. In the late 70s. Hih in. German hydrobiologist K. Mebius (1877) introduces the most important concept of biocenosis as a natural combination of organisms under certain conditions of the environment.

The invaluable contribution to the development of the fundamentals of ecology was made by C. Darwin (1809-1882), which revealed the main factors of the evolution of the organic world. The fact that C. Darwin called the "struggle for existence", from evolutionary positions can be interpreted as a relationship of living beings with an external, abiotic medium and among themselves, that is, with a biotic environment.

German biologist-evolutionist E. Gekkel (1834-1919) First realized that this is an independent and very important area of \u200b\u200bbiology, and called it ecology (1866). In its capital labor, "Universal Morphology of Organizations" he wrote: "By ecology, we understand the amount of knowledge related to the economy of nature: the study of the entire combination of the relationship between the animal with its environment, both organic and inorganic, and above all  its friendly or hostile Relations with those animals and plants with which he directly or indirectly comes into contact. In short, ecology  is the study of all complex relationships that Darwin called "the conditions generating the struggle for existence."

As an independent science, ecology finally took shape at the beginning of the twentieth century. During this period, the American scientist Ch. Adams (1913) creates the first ecology report, other important generalizations and reports are published (V. Sheford, 1913, 1929; Ch. Elton, 1927; R. Hesse, 1924; K. Raunker, 1929 and Dr.). The largest Russian scientist XX in. V. I. Vernadsky creates the fundamental teaching about the biosphere.

In the 30s and 40s. Ecology has risen at a higher level as a result of a new approach to the study of natural systems. First, A. Tensley (1935) put forward the concept of an ecosystem, and a few later V. N. Sukachev (1940) substantiated the idea of \u200b\u200bBiogeocenosis close to this. It should be noted that the level of domestic ecology in the 20s40s. It was one of the most advanced in the world, especially in the field of fundamental developments. During this period, such outstanding scientists were worked as academician V. I. Vernadsky and V.N. Sukachev, as well as large ecologically V. V. Stanchinsky, E. S. Bauer, G. Ghause, V. N. Beklemishev, A. N. Formosov, D. N. Kashkarev, etc.

In the second half of the twentieth century. Due to the pollution of the environment and a sharp increase in the impact of a person in nature, the ecology is of particular importance.

Begins third stage (50s. XX century.  To date)  Transformation of the ecology into a complex science, including the sciences on the protection of natural and surrounding man medium. Of the strict biological science, the ecology turns into a "significant cycle of knowledge, including sections of geography, geology, chemistry, physics, sociology, cultural theory, economy ..." (Reimers, 1994).

The current period of the Ravitia Ecology is associated with the names of such major foreign scientists, like Y. Odum, J. M. Andersen, E. Pianka, R. Riclefs, M. Bigon, A. Schweizer, J. Harper, R. Wethcker, N. Borlaug , T. Miller, B. Needle, etc. Among the domestic scientists should be called I. P. Gerasimova, A. M. Gilyarov, V. G. Gorshkova, Yu. A. Israel, K. S. Losev, N. N. Moiseeva, N. P. Naumova, N. F. Reimers, V. V. Rozanova, Yu. M. Svirizheva, N. V. Timofeeva-Resovsky, S. S. Schwartz, I. A. Shilova, A. V. Yablokova, A. L. Yanshina, etc.

The first environmental acts in Russia are known from the IX andII centuries. (For example, the Code of Laws of the Yaroslav Wise "Russian True", in which the rules for the protection of hunting and Brathtrich land were established). In the XIVXVII centuries. In the southern borders of the Russian state existed "die-eyed forests", peculiar protected areas, on which economic cuttings were prohibited. The story has kept more than 60 environmental decrees of Peter I. With it, it began to study the richest natural resources of Russia. In 1805, the Society of Nature Tests was founded in Moscow. At the end of the Xih  early twentieth century. There was a movement for the protection of rare nature objects. The works of prominent scientists V. V. Dokuchaeva, K. M. Bair, G. A. Kozhevnikova, I. P. Borodina, D. N. Anunuy, S. V. Zavadsky and others were laid by the scientific foundations of nature conservation.

The beginning of the environmental protection of the Soviet state coincided with a number of first decrees, starting with the Decreta of Earth from October 26, 1917, which laid the foundations of environmental management in the country.

It is during this period that the main type of environmental activity  is born and obtained protection of Nature.

In the period of the 30s40s, due to the exploitation of natural wealth caused, mainly, the growth of industrialization in the country, the protection of nature began to be considered as "a unified system of measures aimed at defense, development, high-quality enrichment and rational use of natural Country Foundations "(from the resolution of the First All-Russian Congress for Nature Protection, 1929).

Thus, in Russia arises the new kind Environmental activities  rational use of natural resources.

In the 50s. further development productive forces in the country, strengthening the negative impact of a person in nature led to the need to create another form regulating the interaction of society and nature,  human habitat protection. During this period, republican laws on the protection of nature are accepted, which proclaim the integrated approach to nature not only as a source of natural resources, but also as a human habitat. Unfortunately, the Lysenkovskaya pseudonauka also triumphed, the words of I. V. Michurin were killed on the need not to wait for mercy in nature.

In the 60s 80s. Practically annually, government decisions were taken to strengthen the protection of nature (about the protection of the Volga and Urals basin, the Azov and Black Seas, Lake Lake, Baikal, the industrial cities of Kuzbass and Donbass, the Arctic coast). The process of creating environmental legislation continued, land, water, forestry and other codes were published.

These decisions and adopted laws, as shown by the practice of their application, did not give the necessary results  a destructive anthropogenic effect on nature continued.
3. The value of environmental education

Environmental education not only gives scientific knowledge From the field of ecology, but also is an important link to the environmental education of future specialists. This implies the grafting of them high ecological culture, ability careful relationship To natural riches, etc. In other words, specialists, in our case of the engineering and technical profile, should form a new environmental consciousness and thinking, the essence of which is that a person  part of nature and the conservation of nature  is the preservation of a full-fledged human life.

Ecological knowledge is needed to every person in order to come true the dream of many generations of thinkers about creating a decent environment of the environment, for which you need to build beautiful cities, develop so perfect productive forces so that they can provide harmony of man and nature. But this harmony is impossible if people are hostile to each other and, especially if there are war, which, unfortunately, takes place. As the American ecologist B. Commoner rightly noted at the beginning of the 70s: "The search for the sources of any problem related to the environment leads to the indisputable truth that the root cause of the crisis is not the case as people interact with nature, but in that How they interact with each other ... and that, finally, the world between people should precede the world between people and nature. "

Currently, the natural development of relations with nature is dangerous for the existence of not only individual objects, territories of countries, etc., but also for all mankind.

This is explained by the fact that a person is closely connected with living nature origin, material and spiritual needs, but, unlike other organisms, these relationships took such scales and forms that it could lead (and already leads!) To the almost complete involvement of living cover planets (biospheres) in the livelihood of modern society, putting humanity on grand ecological catastrophe.

Man, thanks to his nature to him, seeks to secure "comfortable" conditions of aging, seeks to be independent of its physical factors, for example, from climate, from lack of food, get rid of animals and plants harmful to him for him (but not very harmful the rest of the living world!), so p. Therefore, a person is primarily different from other species by interacting with nature through the created it culture i.e. humanity as a whole, developing, creates a cultural environment on Earth due to the transfer from generation to generation of its labor and spiritual experience. But, as K. Marx noted,  "Culture, if it develops spontaneously, and not sent consciously ... leaves the desert after himself."

Only knowledge of how to manage and, in the case of ecology, these knowledge should "master the masses can" master the masses, can "master the masses", at least most of the society, which is possible only through universal ecological education of people since school bench and ending with the university .

Environmental knowledge allows you to realize the full fear of war and stretches between people, because this is not just the death of individuals and even civilizations, because it will lead to a universal ecological catastrophe, to the death of all mankind. Therefore, the most important of the environmental conditions for the survival of a person and all the living  is a peaceful life on Earth. It is for this that an environmentally educated person will have to strive.

But it would be unfair to build all the ecology "around" only a person. The destruction of the natural environment entails detrimental consequences for human life. Environmental knowledge allows him to understand that man and nature  a single whole and ideas about the domination of it over nature are quite ghostly and primitive.

An ecologically educated person will not allow a natural attitude towards the environment of his life. It will fight against ecological barbarism, and if in our country there will be the majority in our country, they will provide a normal life with their descendants, decisively becoming to protect wildlife from the greedy offensive "wild" civilization, transforming and improving the civilization itself, finding the best "environmentally friendly »Options for the relationship of nature and society.

In Russia, the CIS countries pay great attention to environmental education. The Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the CIS member states adopted a recommendatory legislative act on the environmental education of the population (1996) and other documents, including the concept of environmental education.

Environmental education, as indicated in the preamble of the concept, is intended to develop and consolidate the more advanced stereotypes of people's behavior aimed at:

1) economies of natural resources;

2) preventing unjustified environmental pollution;

3) widespread preservation of natural ecosystems;

4) respect for the international community of behavioral and coexistence issues;

5) the formation of conscious readiness for active personal participation in environmental activities and their financial support;

6) promoting joint environmental action and the implementation of a unified environmental policy in the CIS.

Currently, violation of environmental laws can be stopped, only raising for due height environmental culture Each member of society, and it is possible to do, first of all, through education, through the study of the foundations of ecology, which is especially important for specialists in the field of technical directions, primarily for builders engineers, chemistry engineers, petrochemistry, metallurgy, engineering, Food and mining industry, etc. This tutorial is intended for a wide range of students studying in technical directions and specialties of universities. According to the authors, he must give the main submissions at the main directions of theoretical and applied ecology and lay the foundation for the ecological culture of the future specialist based on a deep understanding of the highest value of the harmonious development of man and nature.
Control questions

1. What is ecology and what is the subject of studying it?

2. What is the difference between the tasks of theoretical and applied ecology?

3. Stages of the historical development of ecology as science. The role of domestic scientists in its formation and development.

4. What is environmental protection and what is its basic views?

5. Why is it necessary for every member of society, including engineering and technical workers, environmental culture and environmental education?

Chapter 1. Interaction of the body and medium
1.1. Main levels of organization of life and ecology

Gene, cell, organ, organism, population, community (biocenosis)  Main levels of organization of life. Ecology studies the levels of a biological organization from the body to ecosystems. It is based on both the whole biology lies theory evolutionary Development organic world Ch. Darwin, based on ideas about natural selection. It can be represented in a simplified form: as a result of the struggle for existence, the most adapted organisms survive, which transmit favorable signs that provide survival, to their offspring, which can be developed further, ensuring the stable existence of this type of organisms in these specific environments. If these conditions change, then organisms are survived with the signs transmitted to them by inheritance for new conditions, and so on.

Materialistic ideas about the origin of life and evolutionary theory C. Darwin can be explained only from the standpoint of ecological science. Therefore, it is not by chance that after the opening of Darwin (1859), the term "ecology" of E. Geckel (1866) appeared. The role of the medium, i.e. physical factors, in the evolution and existence of organisms is no doubt. This environment was named abiotic and the components of its individual parts (air, water, etc.) and factors (temperature, etc.) are called abiotic components, Unlike biotic componentsrepresented by living matter. Interacting with the abiotic medium, i.e. with abiotic components, they form certain functional systems, where the living components and the medium  "single solid organism".

In fig. 1.1 The above components are presented as biological levels levels Biological systems that differ in the principles of organization and scale of phenomena. They reflect the hierarchy of natural systems in which smaller subsystems make up large systems, which are the subsystems of larger systems.

Fig. 1.1. Spectrum of the levels of the biological organization (according to Yu. Odumu, 1975)

The properties of each individual level are much more complicated and diverse the previous one. But this can be explained only partially based on the properties of the prior level. In other words, it is impossible to predict the properties of each subsequent biological level on the basis of the properties of the individual components of its lower levels, just as it is impossible to predict the properties of water based on the properties of oxygen and hydrogen. This phenomenon is called emergenity The presence of systemic integer specific properties that are not inherent in its subsystems and blocks, as well as the sum of other elements not combined by the system-forming connections.

Ecology studies the right side of the spectrum shown in Fig. 1.1, i.e., levels of a biological organization from organisms to ecosystems. In ecology the body is considered as a holistic system, interacting with an external medium, both abiotic and biotic. In this case, in our field of view, such a totality is like as biological view, Consisting of similarity individuals, which, however, as individuals differ from each other. They are in the same way, as unlike one person on the other, also relating to one type. But all of them unites the one for all genofund providing their ability to reproduce within the species. There can be no offspring of individual species, even closely related, united in one race, not to mention the family and larger taxa, uniting even more "distant relatives".

Since each individual individual (individual) has its own specific features, the attitude of them to the state of the medium, to the effects of its factors different. For example, an increase in temperature is part of individuals may not withstand and die, but the population of the entire species survives at the expense of other individuals, more adapted to elevated temperatures.

Population, in general, this is a combination of individuals of one species. Genetics are usually added as a mandatory moment  the ability of this totality to self-reproduction. Ecology, given both of these features, emphasize some of the insolation in space and in the time of similar aggregates of the same species (Gilyarov, 1990).

Isolation in space and in time of similar populations reflects the real natural structure of the biota. In a real natural environment, many species are scattered on huge spaces, therefore it is necessary to study a certain species group within a certain territory. Some of the groupings are well adaptable to local conditions, forming the so-called ecotype. This even a small group of individuals related to among themselves genetically can give rise to a large population, and a very sustainable long time. This is facilitated by the adaptability of individuals to the abiotic environment, intraspecific competition, etc.

However, there are no real events and settlements in nature, and we usually deal with groupings consisting of many species. Such groupings are called biological communities, or biocenoses.

Biocenosis A combination of jointly dwelling populations of different types of microorganisms, plants and animals. The term "biocenosis" first applied Mebios (1877), studying the group of organisms of the oyster bank, that is, from the very beginning, this community of organisms was limited to a certain "geographical" space, in this case the boundaries of overtakes. In the future, this space was called biotope Under which the environmental conditions are understood on a certain territory: air, water, soil and the rocking rocks. It is in this environment that there are vegetation, animal peace and microorganisms that constitute biocenosis.

It is clear that the biotope components do not simply exist near, but actively interact with each other, creating a certain biological system that Academician V. N. Sukachev called biogeocenosis. In this system, the set of abiotic and biotic components has "... its own, special specifics of interactions" and "a certain type of metabolism and energy of them between themselves and other phenomena of nature and representing internal contradictory dialectical unity in constant movement, development" (Sukachev, 1971). Biogeocenosis scheme is shown in Fig. 1.2. This famous scheme V.N. Sukacheva is adjusted by G. A. Novikov (1979).

Fig. 1.2. Biogeocenosis scheme for A. Novikov (1979)

The term "biogeocenosis" was proposed by V. N. Sukachev at the end of the 30s. Sukachev's representations later formed the basis biogeocenology In the whole scientific direction In biology engaged in the problems of the interaction of living organisms among themselves and with the surrounding abiotic medium.

However, a few earlier, in 1935, the English Botanist A. Tensley was introduced the term "ecosystem". Ecosystem, according to A. Tensley,  "The set of complexes of organisms with a complex of physical factors of its environment, i.e. habitat factors wide sense" There are similar definitions from other famous ecologists  Yu. Oduma, K. Willi, R. Wheekker, K. Watt.

A number of supporters of the ecosystem approach in the West consider the terms "biogeocenosis" and "ecosystem"  synonyms, in particular Y. Odum (1975, 1986).

However, a number of Russian scientists do not share this opinion, seeing certain differences. Nevertheless, many do not consider these differences to be essential and put a sign of equality between these concepts. This is the more necessary that the term "ecosystem" is widely used in related sciences, especially environmental content.

Special importance for ecosystems have trophic i.e., the nutritional relations of organisms governing the entire energy of biotic communities and the entire ecosystem as a whole.

First of all, all organisms are divided into two large groups of automotive and heterotrophs.

Avtotrophny Organisms use inorganic sources for their existence, thereby creating organic matter from inorganic. Such organisms include photosyntheses of green plants of sushi and aqueous medium, blue-green algae, some bacteria due to chemosynthesis, etc.

Since the organisms are sufficiently diverse by types and forms of nutrition, they enter each other into complex trophic interactions, thereby carrying out the most important environmental functions in biotic communities. Some of them produce products, others consume, the third converts it into an inorganic form. They are called respectively: producers, consversals and relegates.

Products Product manufacturers, which then feed all other organisms  These are terrestrial green plants, microscopic sea and freshwater algae producing organic substances from inorganic compounds.

Consue  These are consumers of organic substances. Among them are animals that use only vegetable food  herbivores (cow) or feeding only with meat other animals  carnivore (predators), as well as consumed both  "Omnivorous"(Man, Bear).

Recurates (destructors)  Restorers. They return substances from dead organisms again into a non-living nature, decomposing the organic to simple inorganic compounds and elements (for example, on CO 2, NO 2 and H 2 O). Returning to the soil or to the aqueous medium of biogenic elements, they, thereby completing the biochemical circulation. This is done in the main bacteria, most other microorganisms and mushrooms. Functionally relegates  These are the same consiefs, so they are often called them microconsumes.

A. G. Bannikov (1977) believes that insects also play an important role in the decomposition processes of dead organic and in the soil-forming processes.

Microorganisms, bacteria and other more complex forms, depending on the habitat, are divided into aerobic i.e. living in the presence of oxygen, and anaerobic Living in oxygen-free medium.
1.2. Organism as a living holistic system

Organism  Any living creature. It differs from the inanimate nature of a certain set of properties inherent in alive matter only: cellular organization; metabolism on the leading role of proteins and nucleic acids providing homeostasis The organism is self-proclaimation and maintenance of constancy of its internal environment. Living organisms are inherent in movement, irritability, growth, development, reproduction and heredity, as well as adaptability to the conditions of existence  adaptation.

Interacting with the abiotic medium, the body acts as holistic systemwhich includes increasingly low levels of the biological organization (the left part of the spectrum, see Fig. 1.1). All these parts of the body (genes, cells, cellular fabrics, entire organs and their systems) are components of a darganism level. Changing some parts and functions of the body inevitably entails a change in other parts and functions. Thus, in the changing conditions of existence, as a result of natural selection, certain organs receive priority development. For example, a powerful root system in plants of a dry zone (nick) or "blindness" as a result of reduction of eyes in animals that exist in the dark (mole).

Living organisms have metabolism, or metabolism At the same time there are many chemical reactions. An example of such reactions can serve breath, Which still Lavuise and Laplace considered a variety of burning, or photosynthesisBy which the solar energy is binding to green plants, and as a result of further metabolic processes are used by the whole plant, etc.

As is known, in the process of photosynthesis, in addition to solar energy, carbon dioxide and water are used. Total chemical equation Photosynthesis looks like this:

where C 6 H 12 O 6  rich in the energy of the glucose molecule.

Almost all carbon dioxide (CO 2) comes from the atmosphere and its movement is directed downward, to plants where photosynthesis is carried out and oxygen is released. Breathing  The reverse process, the movement CO 2 at night is directed up and the absorption of oxygen is used.

Some organisms, bacteria are capable of creating organic compounds and at the expense of other components, for example, due to sulfur compounds. Such processes are called chemosynthesis.

The metabolism in the body occurs only with the participation of special macromolecular protein substances  enzymesperforming the role of catalysts. Each biochemical reaction in the course of the body's life is controlled by a special enzyme, which in turn is monitored by a single genome. Changing a gene called mutation, leads to a change in the biochemical reaction due to the change in the enzyme, and in the event of a lack of the latter, then to the fallout of the corresponding stage of the metabolic reaction.

However, not only enzymes regulate the metabolic processes. They help cophermen. large molecules, part of which are vitamins. Vitamins Special substances that are necessary for metabolism of all organisms  bacteria, green plants, animals and humans. The absence of vitamins leads to diseases, since the necessary coherers are not formed and the metabolism is disturbed.

Finally, for a number of metabolic processes requires special chemicals called hormones, which are produced in various places (organs) of the body and are delivered to other places with blood or by diffusion. Hormones are carried out in any organism with general chemical coordination of metabolism and help in this case, for example, nervous system Animals and man.

At the molecular genetic level, the impact of pollutants, ionizing and ultraviolet radiation is especially sensitive. They cause a violation of genetic systems, cell structures and suppress the effect of enzyme systems. All this leads to diseases of man, animals and plants, oppressing and even the destruction of the types of organisms.

Metabolic processes proceed with different intensity throughout the body's life, the entire path of its individual development. This is his way from the origin and until the end of the life is called ontogenesis. Ontogenesis It is a combination of consecutive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations undergoing the organism for the entire period of life.

Ontogenesis includes height organism, i.e. increase the mass and size of the body, and differentiation, i.e. the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, leading them to specialization to perform various functions in the body. In organisms with sexual reproduction, ontogenesis begins with a fertilized cell (zygotes). In case of breeding, the formation of a new organism by dividing the parent body or a specialized cell, by kinding, as well as from rhizomes, tuber, bulbs, etc.

Each organism in ontogenesis passes a number of development stages. For organisms breeding sexually distinguish germ (embryonic), onceozhod (posthamsbrion) and period of development adult organism. The germinal period ends with the release of the embryo from the egg shells, and the birth at birth. Important environmental importance For animals, the initial stage of the post-approach development occurs by type direct Development or by type metamorphosis, passing the larvae stage. In the first case, there is a gradual development in adult shape (chicken  chicken, etc.), in the second  development occurs at the beginning lichwoodwhich exists and feeds on your own before turning into an adult person (taddastic  frog). In a number of insects, the larvae stage allows you to survive the unfavorable time of the year (low temperatures, drought, etc.)

In the ontogenesis of plants distinguish growth, development (adult organism is formed) and aging (Weakening biosynthesis of all physiological functions and death). The main feature of the ontogenesis of higher plants and most algae is the alternation of the cullless (sporophyte) and sexual (gematophyte) of generations.

The processes and phenomena passing on the ontogenetic level, i.e. at the level of the individual (individual),  is the necessary and very significant functioning of the entire living. Ontogenesis processes can be violated at any stage with the action of chemical, light and thermal pollution of the medium and can lead to the appearance of freaks or even to the death of individuals on the postpartum stage of ontogenesis.

Modern ontogenesis of organisms has developed over long evolution, as a result of their historical development  phylogenesis. It was not by chance that this term introduced E. Hekkel in 1866, since the reconstruction of the evolutionary transformations of animals, plants and microorganisms is necessary for the purposes of ecology. This is engaged in the science  phylogenetics, which is based on the data of three sciences  morphology, embryology and paleontology.

The relationship between the development of living in the historical and evolutionary plan and the individual development of the body is formulated by E. Geckel in the form of biogenetic Law : Ontogenesis of all organism is a brief and compressed repetition of phylogenesis of this species. In other words, at the beginning of the mother's womb (in mammals, etc.), and then, appearing on the light, individual in its development repeats in abbreviated form historical development of its kind.
1.3. General Characteristics of Earth Biot

Currently, there are more than 2.2 million species of organisms. Systematics are increasingly complicated, although its main skeleton remains almost unchanged since its creation by an outstanding Swedish scientist Karl Linneie in the middle of the 20th century.

Table 1.1.

Higher taxa sytems of the Empire of Cellic Organisms

It turned out that there are two large groups of organisms on Earth, the differences between which are much deepest than between higher plants and higher animals, and, therefore, on the right among the cells, two tighters were allocated: prokaryotes  low organized milk and eukaryotes  high-organized nuclear. Procarniot (Procaryota) are represented by the kingdom of so-called drobyanok To which are related bacteria and cinema algae, in the cells of which there is no kernel and DNA in them, no membrane is separated from the cytoplasm. Eukaryota (Eucaryota) are represented by three kingdoms: animals mushrooms and plants The cells of which contain kernel and DNA separated from the cytoplasm of the nuclear membrane, since it is located in the core itself. Mushrooms are highlighted in a separate kingdom, as it turned out that they not only do not belong to plants, but are probably the origin of the amoeboid bewood simplests, that is, have a closer connection with the animal world.

However, such a division of living organisms into four kingdoms has not yet formed the basis of reference and educational literature, therefore, with further presentation of the material, we adhere to traditional classifications for which bacteria, blue-green algae and mushrooms are departments of lower plants.

The whole set of plant organisms of this territory of the planet of any detail (region, district, etc.) is called flora, And the totality of animal organisms  fauna.

Flora and the fauna of this territory in aggregate are biot. But these terms have a much wider application. For example, the flora of flowering plants, the flora of microorganisms (microflora), the microflora of soil, etc. is similar, the term "fauna" is similar: the fauna of mammals, the fauna of birds (ornithofauna), microfauna, etc. The term "biota" is used when they want evaluate the interaction of all living organisms and the environment or, say, the influence of the "soil biota" on the process of soil formation and others. Below is given general characteristics Fauna and flora in accordance with the classification (see Table 1.1).

Procarniot They are the most ancient organisms in the history of the Earth, their traces of their livelihoods are revealed in the deposits of Precambria, i.e. about a billion years ago. Currently, there are about 5,000 species.

The most common among the shotguns are bacteria And currently these are the most common microorganisms in the biosphere. Their sizes range from tenths to two or three micrometers.

Bacteria are common everywhere, but most of them in soils are hundreds of millions per gram of soil, but in chernozem more than two billion.

Soil microflora is quite diverse. Here, bacteria perform various functions and are divided into the following physiological groups: the bacteria of rotting, nerthymers, nitrogen-mixing, serobacteria, etc. There are aerobic and anaerobic forms among them.

As a result of erosion, the soil bacteria fall into the reservoirs. In the coastal part of them up to 300 thousand per 1 ml, with the removal from the shore and with depth of their amount decreases to 100-200 individuals per 1 ml.

In the atmospheric air bacteria is significantly less.

Bacteria in the lithosphere below the soil horizon are widespread. Under the soil layer, they are just less than in the soil. Bacteria apply to hundreds of meters deep earth crust And even meet at the depths of two or more thousand meters.

Blue-green algae Similar structures with bacterial cells are photosynthetic autotrops. They live mainly in the surface layer of freshwater reservoirs, although there are in the seas. The product of their metabolism is nitrogenous compounds that contribute to the development of other plankton algae, which under certain conditions can lead to the "flowering" of water and to its pollution, including plumbing systems.

Eukaryota These are all other Earth's organisms. The most common among them are plants, which are about 300 thousand species.

Plants  These are practically the only organisms that create organic due to physical (non-living) resources  solar insolation and chemical elementsextracted from soils (complex biogenic elements). All other feed on the finished organic food. Therefore, plants as it were created, produce food for the rest of the animal world, i.e. are producers.

All unicellular and multicellular plants have, as a rule, autotrophic powered by photosynthesis processes.

Seaweed This is a large group of plants living in water, where they can either freely swim, or attached to the substrate. Algae  This is the first photosynthetic organisms on Earth, which we must appear oxygen in its atmosphere. In addition, they are able to absorb nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium and other components directly from the water, and not from the soil.

The rest, more highborganized plants  Sushi inhabitants. They receive nutrient elements from the soil through the root system, which are transported through the stem in the leaves, where the processes of photosynthesis take the beginning. Lichens, mosses, fern, voted and coated (flowering) are one of the most important elements geographical landscape, dominate Here are flowering, which are more than 250 thousand species. Sushi vegetation  Chief oxygen generator entering the atmosphere, and its mindless destruction will not only leave animals and a person without food, but also without oxygen.

Lower soil mushrooms play a major role in the process of soil formation.

Animals Posted by a large variety of forms and sizes, their more than 1.7 million species. All the kingdom of animals  is heterotrophic organisms, consversals.

The greatest number of species and the greatest number of individuals arthropods. Insects, for example, so much that there are more than 200 million individuals for each person. In second place in the number of species stands class mollusks But their number is significantly less than insects. In third place in terms of the number of species vertebrae, among which mammals occupy about a tenth part, and half of all species fall on fish.

It means that most of the vertebrate species were formed in water conditions, and insects  are purely animals sushi.

Insects developed on land in close tie with flowering plants, being their pollinators. These plants appeared later than other species, but more than half of the species of all plants fall on the flowering. The speciation in these two classes of organisms was now in close relationship.

If you compare the number of species land Organisms I. aquatic This ratio will be approximately the same for plants, and for animals  The number of types on land  92-93%, in water  7-8%, it means that the output of organisms on land gave a powerful impetus to the evolutionary process in the direction of increase species diversityWhat leads to an increase in the sustainability of the natural communities of organisms and ecosystems in general.
1.4. On the habitat and environmental factors

The habitat of the body  is a combination of abiotic and biotic levels of his life. The properties of the medium are constantly changing and any creature to survive, adapts to these changes.

The impact of the medium is perceived by organisms through the medium factors called environmental.

Environmental factorsThese are certain conditions and elements of the medium that have a specific impact on the body. They are divided into abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3. Classification of environmental factors

Abiotic factors They call the entire set of factors inorganic medium affecting the life and distribution of animals and plants. Among them are physical, chemical and aeffic. It seems to us that one should not underestimate the ecological role of natural geophysical fields.

Physical factors These are the source of which serves the physical state or phenomenon (mechanical, wave, etc.). For example, the temperature  if it is high, there will be a burn if it is very low  charming. Other factors may affect the temperature: in water  the flow, on land and humidity, and so on.

Chemical factors These are those that occur from chemical composition medium. For example, the salinity of water, if it is high, life in the reservoir may not be absent (Dead Sea), but at the same time, most marine organisms cannot live in fresh water. The life of animals on land and in water depends on the adequacy of the oxygen content, etc.

Effigic factors, i.e. soil,  This is a combination of chemical, physical and mechanical properties of soils and rocks that affect both organisms living in them, that is, for which they are a habitat and the root system of plants. The effects of chemical components (biogenic elements), temperature, humidity, soil structures, humus content, etc. on the growth and development of plants are well known.

Natural geophysical fields Global environmental impact on the biota of land and man. It is well known for ecological importance, for example, magnetic, electromagnetic, radioactive and other fields of the Earth.

Geophysical fields are also physical factors, but have a lithospheric nature, moreover, it is possible to believe with a complete reason that the teaching factors have predominantly lithospheric nature, since the medium of their occurrence and action is soil, which is formed from the rocks of the surface part of the lithosphere, so We also combined them into one group (see Fig. 1.3).

However, not only abiotic factors affect the organisms. Organisms form a community where they have to fight for food resources, for the possession of certain pastures or the territory of hunting, i.e., to enter into a competitive struggle among themselves both in intraspecific and, especially, at the interspecific level. These are already factors of wildlife, or biotic factors.

Biotic factors  A combination of the influences of the vital activity of some organisms on the vital activity of others, as well as on a non-living habitat (Khrustalev et al., 1996). In the latter case, we are talking about the ability of the organisms themselves to a certain extent to influence the conditions of habitat. For example, in the forest under the influence of plant cover creates a special microclimate, or microsudes, where, compared to open-handling, its temperature and humidity regime is created: in winter, there are a few degrees in winter, in the summer  is cooler and wet. Special microenvironment is also created in the voupels of trees, in nonora, caves, etc.

It should be noted that the conditions of microinches under the snow cover, which has already purely abiotic nature. As a result of the sweeping action of the snow, which is most effectively at its thickness of at least 50-70 cm, in its base, about the 5-centimeter layer, small animals are living in winter, since the temperature conditions for them are favorable (from 0 to minus 2 С). Thanks to the same effect, the shoots of winter cereals  rye, wheat are preserved under the snow. In the snow, large animals  deer, moose, wolves, foxes, hares, etc. are hidden in the snow from strong frosts.

Intravidal interactions Between the individuals of the same species add up from group and mass effects and intraspecific competition. Group and mass effects  The terms proposed by the Grass (1944) denote the integration of animals of one species in groups of two or more individuals and the effect caused by overpopulation of the medium. Currently, most often these effects are called demographic factors. They characterize the dynamics of the number and density of groups of organisms in the population level, which is based on internal competitionwhich is radically different from interspecific. It manifests itself mainly in the territorial behavior of animals that protect the places of their nesting and the famous area in the district. So there are many birds and fish.

Intervidal relationships Significantly more diverse (see Fig.1.3). Two people living nearby may not affect each other at all, can affect and favorably, and unfavorable. Possible types of combinations and reflect different kinds Relationships:

 neutralism both types of independent and do not have any action on each other;

 competition Each of the species has an adverse effect on another;

 mutualism Types cannot exist without each other;

 protocooperation (Community)  Both types form a community, but can exist and separately, although the community brings them both benefits;

 commminasalism One kind, commented, extracts benefit from the cohabitation, and the other kind of  the host has no benefit (mutual tolerance);

 amenzalism One species, amenasal, experiencing from another oppression of growth and reproduction;

 predation The predatory view is powered by its victim.

Intervidal relations underlie the existence of biotic communities (biocenoses).

Anthropogenic factors  Factors generated by man and affecting the environment (pollution, soil erosion, forest destruction, etc.), are considered in applied ecology (see "Part II" of this textbook).

Among abiotic factors, quite often allocate climatic (temperature, air humidity, wind, etc.) and hydrographic The factors of the aqueous medium (water, flow, salinity, etc.).

Most factors, qualitatively and quantitatively change in time. For example, climatic  within 24 hours, season, by year (temperature, illumination, etc.).

Factors whose changes are repeated regularly, called periodic. These include not only climatic, but also some hydrographic  tides and flows, some ocean flows. Factors arising unexpectedly (eruption of a volcano, a predator attack, etc.), are called non-periodic.

The division of factors on the periodic and non-periodic (MONCHADI, 1958) is very important when studying the adaptability of organisms to the living conditions.

1.5. On the adaptation of organisms to the habitat

Adaptation (Lat. Adaptation)  Adaptation of organisms to the medium. This process covers the structure and functions of organisms (individuals, species, populations) and their organs. Adaptation is always developing under the influence of three main factors  variability, heredity and natural selection (as well as artificial by person).

The main adaptations of organisms to the factors of the external environment are hereditaryly due. They were formed at the historical and evolutionary path of biota and changed together with the variability of environmental factors. Organisms adapted to permanent periodic factorsBut among them it is important to distinguish primary and secondary.

Primary These are the factors that existed on Earth before life occurred: temperature, illumination, tides, fits, etc. Adaptation of organisms to these factors are the most ancient and most perfect.

Secondary Periodic factors are a consequence of changes in primary: air humidity depending on temperature; vegetable food depending on cyclicity in the development of plants; A number of biotic factors of intravidal influence, etc. They have arisen later primary, and adaptation to them is not always clearly expressed.

Under normal conditions, only periodic factors, non-periodic no, should be operated in habitat.

The source of adaptation is genetic changes in the body  mutationsarising both under the influence of natural factors at the historical and evolutionary stage and as a result of artificial influence on the body. Mutations are diverse and their accumulation may even lead to disintegration phenomena, but thanks to selection Mutations and their combination acquire the importance of the "leading creative factor of the adaptive organization of living forms" (BSE. 1970. T. 1).

The historical and evolutionary path of development on organisms there are abiotic and biotic factors in the complex. Known both successful adaptation of organisms to this complex of factors and "unsuccessful", i.e., instead of adaptation, the species dies.

An excellent example of a successful adaptation of the horse's evolution for about 60 million years from a low-speed ancestor to a modern and beautiful fast animal with a height in the withers to 1.6 m. The opposite example of this example is relatively recent (tens of thousands of years ago) Mammoth extinction. Highlyoary, the subarctic climate of the last glaciation led to the disappearance of vegetation, which was feddown by these animals, by the way, well adapted to low temperatures (Velichko, 1970). In addition, opinions are expressed that in the disappearance of Mammoth "Want" and a primitive person who also had to survive: Mammoth meat was used as food, and the skin was saved from the cold.

In the above example with mammoth, the lack of plant food initially limited the amount of mammoths, and its disappearance led to their death. Vegetable food performed here in the form of a limiting factor. These factors play crucial role In survival and adaptation of organisms.

1.6. Limiting environmental factors

For the first time, the German agrochemist Y. Lubi in the middle of the 4th century pointed to the value of the limiting factors. He installed minimum law: Vintage (products) depends on the factor in a minimum. If in the soil useful components as a whole represent a balanced system and only some substance, for example, phosphorus, is contained in quantities close to a minimum, it can reduce the harvest. But it turned out that even the same mineral substances, very useful with the optimal content of them in the soil, reduce the harvest if they are in excess. So, factors can be limiting, being at the maximum.

In this way, limiting environmental factors It should be called such factors that limit the development of organisms due to their shortage or excess compared to the need (optimal content). They are sometimes called them restrictive factors.

As for the minimum law of Y. Libiha, it has a limited action and only at the level of chemicals. R. Mitrychelich showed that the crop depends on the cumulative action of all plant life factors, including the temperature, humidity, illumination, etc.

Differences B. cumulative and isolated Actions relate to other factors. For example, on the one hand, the effect of negative temperatures is enhanced by the wind and high humidity, but on the other  high humidity weakens the action of high temperatures, etc. But despite the mutual influence of factors, they still cannot replace each other as found Reflection B. law of Independence Factors V. R. Williams: Living conditions are equivalent, none of the factors of life can be replaced by another. For example, it is impossible to force the moisture (water) to be replaced by the action of carbon dioxide or sunlight, etc.

The most fully and most generally the complexity of the influence of environmental factors on the body reflects the law of tolerance V. Sheford: The absence or impossibility of prosperity is determined by the disadvantage (in a qualitative or quantitative sense) or, on the contrary, an excess of any of a number of factors, the level of which may be close to the limits of the data transferred by this organism. These two limit call limits tolerance.

Regarding the action of one factor, this law can be illustrated as follows: a certain body is able to exist at a temperature of minus 5 to plus 25 0 s, i.e. the range of its tolerance Lies within these temperatures. Organisms, which requires conditions limited by a narrow range of temperature tolerance, called snothermal ("Wall"  narrow), and capable of living in a wide range of temperatures  heuritener ("Evry"  wide) (Fig. 1.4).

Fig. 1.4. Comparison of the relative limits of the tolerance of the stenothermal and
heuritem organisms (according to F. Ruttner, 1953)

Likewise, other limiting factors operate, and organisms in relation to the nature of their impact are called, respectively, stenobionmi and evuryonata. For example, they say the organism is unbionten in relation to humidity or euvribionten to climatic factors, etc. Orvibioned organisms to the main climatic factors are most widespread on Earth.

The range of tolerance of the body does not remain constant , for example, it narrows if any factors are close to any limit or when the organism is reproduced, when many factors become limiting. It means that the nature of the environmental factors under certain conditions may vary, i.e. it may be, and may not be limiting. In this case, it is impossible to forget that the organisms themselves are capable of reduced the limiting effect of factors by creating, for example, a certain microclimate (microenide). Here there is no careless factor compensationwhich is most effective at community level, less often  in the species level.

Such factors compensation usually creates conditions for physiological acclimatization Evribiota species having widespread, which, acclimatizing in this particular place, creates a peculiar population called ectype The tolerance limits of which correspond to local conditions. With deeper adaptation processes here may also appear genetic races.

So, B. natural conditions Organisms depend OT the states of critical physical factors, from the content of the required substances and from the band of tolerance organisms themselves to these and other components of the medium.
Control questions

1. What are the levels of biological organization of life? Which of them are objects of studying ecology?

2. What is biogeocenosis and ecosystem?

3. How are organisms for the nature of the power source divide? On environmental functions in biotic communities?

4. What is a living organism and how does it differ from inanimate nature?

5. What is the adaptation mechanism in the interaction of the body as a holistic system with the environment?

6. What is the breath and photosynthesis of plants? What is the meaning of the metabolic processes of autotrophs for the Bitique of the Earth?

7. What is the essence of the biogenetic law?

8. What is the features modern classification Organisms?

9. What is the body's habitat? Concepts about environmental factors.

10. What is the combination of factors inorganic medium called? Give name and give the definition of these factors.

11. What do the set of factors of the living organic medium call? Give the name and give the definitions of the vital activity of some organisms on the vital activity of others on intraspecific and interspecific levels.

12. What is the essence of adaptations? What is the value of periodic and non-periodic factors in the adaptation processes?.

13. What are the environmental factors that limit the development of the body? Laws of the minimum of Y. Libiha and Tolerance V. Sheford.

14. What is the essence of an isolated and cumulative action of environmental factors? Law V. R. Williams.

15. What is understood under the range of body tolerance and how are they divided depending on the value of this range?

12th ed., Add. and recreated. - Rostov N / D: Phoenix, 2007. - 602 p.

Laureate of the Competition of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation on the creation of new generation textbooks on common natural science disciplines (Moscow, 1999). The first Russian textbook on the "Ecology" discipline for students of universities, students of technical sciences.

The textbook is written in accordance with the requirements of the current state educational standard and the program recommended by the Ministry of Education of Russia. It consists of two parts - theoretical and applied. In the five sections, the main provisions of general ecology, the teachings on the biosphere, human ecology; Anthropogenic effects on the biosphere, environmental protection and environmental protection problems. In general, the textbook forms students a new environmental, noosphere worldview.

It is intended for students of higher educational institutions. The textbook is also recommended for teachers and students of secondary schools, lyceums and colleges. It is also necessary for a wide range of engineering and technical workers dealing with the issues of rational environmental management and environmental protection.

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CONTENT
Dear reader! 10
Preface 11.
Introduction ECOLOGY. A brief overview of development 13
§ 1. Item and objectives of ecology 13
§ 2. History of Ecology Development 17
§ 3. The value of ecological education 21
Part I. Theoretical Ecology
Section first. General Ecology 26.
Chapter 1. Organism as a living holistic system 26
§ 1. Levels of biological organization and ecology 26
§ 2. The development of the body as a living holistic system 32
§ 3. Systems of organisms and the biota of land? 6
Chapter 2. Interaction of the body and medium 43
§ 1. Concept of habitat and environmental factors 43
§ 2. The main ideas about the adaptations of organisms 47
§ 3. Limit Factors 49
§ 4. The value of physical and chemical factors of the environment in the life of organisms 52
§ 5. Effectical factors and their role in the life of plants and soil biota 70
§ 6. Resources of living beings as environmental factors 77
Chapter 3. Populations 86
§ 1. Static populations 86
§ 2. Dynamic populations 88
§ 3. Life expectancy 90
§ 4. Population growth growth dynamics 94
§ 5. Environmental Survival Strategies 99
§ 6. Regulation of the population density 100
Chapter 4. Biotic Community 105
§ 1. Species structure of biocenosis 106
§ 2. Biocenosis spatial structure 110
§ 3. Environmental niche. Relationships of organisms in biocenosis 111
Chapter 5. Environmental Systems 122
§ 1. Ecosystem Concept 122
§ 2. Production and decomposition in Nature 126
§ 3. Gomeostasis ecosystem 128
§ 4. Energy ecosystem 130
§ 5. Biological productivity Ecosystems 134
§ 6. Ecosystem dynamics 139
§ 7. System approach and modeling of Ecology 147
Section two. The doctrine of the biosphere 155
Chapter 6. Biosphere - Global Earth Ecosystem 155
§ 1. Biosphere as one of the shells of the Earth 155
§ 2. Composition and borders of the biosphere 161
§ 3. Course of substances in nature 168
§ 4. Biogeochemical cycles of the most vital biogenic substances 172
Chapter 7. Natural Earth Ecosystems As Khorological Units of Biosphere 181
§ 1. Classification of natural ecosystems Biosphere on a landscape basis 181
§ 2. Ground beomes (ecosystems) 190
§ 3. Freshwater ecosystems 198
§ 4. Marine Ecosystems 207
§ 5. The integrity of the biosphere as a global ecosystem 213
Chapter 8. The main directions of the evolution of the biosphere 217
§ 1. Teaching V. I. Vernadsky about the biosphere 217
§ 2. Biodiversity of the biosphere as a result of its evolution 223
§ 3. 0 By regulating the impact of biota on the environment 226
§ 4. Noosphere as a new stage of the evolution of the biosphere 230
Section Third. Human Ecology 234.
Chapter 9. Bibosocial nature of man and ecology 234
§ 1. Man as a biological type 235
§ 2. Population characteristic of man 243
§ 3. Natural resources of the Earth as a limiting factor of human survival 250
Chapter 10. Anthropogenic Ecosystems 258
§ 1. Man and ecosystems 258
§ 2. Agricultural ecosystems (agroecosystems) 263
§ 3. Industrial and city ecosystems 266
Chapter 11. Ecology and human health 271
§ 1. The influence of natural-ecological factors on human health 271
§ 2. Influence of socio-ecological factors on human health 274
§ 3. Hygiene and human health 282
Part II. Applied ecology
Section fourth. Anthropogenic effects on the biosphere 286
Chapter 12. Main types of anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere 286
Chapter 13. Anthropogenic impact on the atmosphere 295
§ 1. Pollution of atmospheric air 296
§ 2. Basic Sources of Pollution of the Atmosphere 299
§ 3. Environmental consequences of the Pollution of the atmosphere 302
§ 4. Environmental consequences of global pollution of the atmosphere 307
Chapter 14. Anthropogenic effects on the hydrosphere 318
§ 1. Pollution of the hydrosphere 318
§ 2. Environmental consequences of pollution of hydrosphere 326
§ 3. IsGing underground and surface waters 331
Chapter 15. Anthropogenic impact on a lithosphere 337
§ 1. Impact on the soil 338
§ 2. Impact on rocks and their arrays 352
§ 3. Impact on subsoil 360
Chapter 16. Anthropogenic effects on biotic communities 365
§ 1. Forest value in nature and human life 365
§ 2. Anthropogenic impact on forests and other plant communities 369
§ 3. Environmental consequences of human impact on plant world 372
§ 4. The value of the animal world in the biosphere 377
§ 5. Impact of man on animals and causes of their extinction 379
Chapter 17. Special types of exposure to the biosphere 385
§ 1. Contamination of the production environment and consumption of production 385
§ 2. Noise exposure 390
§ 3. Biological Pollution 393
§ 4. Impact of electromagnetic fields and radiation 395
Chapter 18. Extreme influences on the biosphere 399
§ 1. Impact of weapons of mass destruction 400
§ 2. Impact of man-made environmental disasters 403
§ 3. Natural Disasters 408
Section fifth. Environmental Protection and Environmental Protection 429
Chapter 19. Basic Principles of Environmental Protection and Rational Environmental Management 429
Chapter 20. Engineering Environmental Protection 437
§ 1. Principal areas of engineering environmental protection 437
§ 2. rationing of environmental quality 443
§ 3. Atmospheric Protection 451
§ 4. Protection of hydrosphere 458
§ 5. Litosphere Protection 471
§ 6. Protection of biotic communities 484
§ 7. Environmental protection from special types of influences 500
Chapter 21. Fundamentals of Environmental Law 516
§ 1. Sources of environmental law 516
§ 2. State Environmental Protection Bodies 520
§ 3. Environmental Standardization and Passportization 522
§ 4. Environmental expertise and environmental impact assessment (EIA) 524
§ 5. Environmental Management, Audit and Certification 526
§ 6. Concept of environmental risk 528
§ 7. Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) 531
§ 8. Environmental control and public environmental movements 537
§ 9. Environmental rights and obligations of citizens 540
§ 10. Legal responsibility for environmental offenses 543
Chapter 22. Ecology and Economics 547
§ 1. Ecological and economic accounting of natural resources and pollutants 549
§ 2. License, contract and limits for environmental management 550
§ 3. New environmental financing mechanisms 552
§ 4. Concept of sustainable development concept 556
Chapter 23. Environmentalization of Public Consciousness 560
§ 1. Antropocentrism and ecocentrism. Formation of a new environmental consciousness 560
§ 2. Environmental Education, Education and Culture 567
Chapter 24. International Cooperation in Ecology 572
§ 1 International Environmental Protection Objects 573
§ 2. Basic principles of international environmental cooperation 576
§ 3. Russia's participation in international environmental cooperation 580
Ecological manifest (on N. F. Reymmers) (instead of imprisonment) 584
Basic concepts and definitions in the field of ecology, environmental protection and environmental management 586
Subject 591.
Recommended literature 599.