The domestic army until the beginning of the 18th century was very different from Western troops, which is largely due to the Horde heritage, as a result of which for a long time the light cavalry was the main combat unit of Russia. She was faster and more agile than heavily armed mounted knights.

Tatars and Russians not only fought with each other, but also often waged joint hostilities, since under the banners of the Golden Horde, due to vassal dependence, the wars of Russia often fought, which adopted the tactics of the nomads.

The dependence that was established in the middle of the 13th century soon began to be felt by contemporaries as a given: the most ancient Russian chronicles represented the invasion of the Eastern hordes as "the punishment of the Lord," and resistance to it was perceived as something doomed. At the same time, Bishop Serapion of Vladimir at the end of the 13th century noted that the Tatars "although they do not know the law of God, they do not kill their fellow believers, do not rob, do not lock themselves in someone else's."

Perception of the khans

In the 13th-15th centuries, the Russian people considered the khans to be tsars, although before the yoke this title officially referred only to the rulers of Rome and Constantinople. Historian Anton Gorsky notes that such an attitude towards the rulers of the Horde is associated with the capture of the capital of Byzantium in 1204 by Catholic crusaders, which was perceived in Russia as "the destruction of the kingdom."

Just shortly after that, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars began, and the formed Golden Horde, according to the researcher, took the empty place of the vanished "kingdom" in the outlook of the inhabitants of Russia. One way or another, in 1261, the Orthodox returned to themselves Constantinople, and the emperor of Byzantium and the local patriarchy, to which the churches of Russia were subject, became allies of the Horde.

Until the second half of the XIV century, until the Golden Horde began to disintegrate into separate parts, the dependence on the Tatars in the Russian lands was not questioned, and armed conflicts with them mainly occurred due to princely strife, when one or another ruler attracted nomads to his side.

Orientation to the East

In the early days of the yoke, another reason for clashes with the Tatars could be the non-payment of tribute, but soon the collection was transferred to the princes, who, with the help of their subordinates, collected and took the rent to the Horde. A trip there was often fraught with dangers and even the likelihood of death: in the first hundred years of the Tatars' rule, more than ten Russian rulers were executed by order of the khans.

In addition to tribute, another duty of the population was the supply of soldiers, with which the Horde reinforced their armies.

The invasion of nomads reoriented Russia from west to east. If in the X century the Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan wrote that the Russians used mainly a sword, the blade of which was "Frankish work", then in the 15th century this weapon was finally supplanted by the Asiatic saber. Even more than a hundred years after the liberation from the Horde dependence, the Venetian diplomat Francesco Tiepolo noted that the cavalry armor of noble warriors was made in Persia.

At the same time, Russian horses also had an oriental appearance: unlike Western breeds, they were short, but much more unpretentious in keeping. In the 16th century, the European cavalry moved to formation in ranks, for which the riders required more equipment. Russian horsemen used simpler ammunition: for example, a whip instead of spurs.

Army base

The main force of the Russian army, like that of the Tatars, was the cavalry, which dominated the battlefields up to late XVII century, when infantry with firearms began to supplant it. The main tactics of the troops were the techniques mastered thanks to the nomads: quick attacks and feigned retreats, followed by luring the enemy into an ambush.

The Italian Paolo Giovio wrote at the beginning of the 16th century that the Tatars most often won thanks to surprise attacks, and not because of the battle formation or fortitude in battle. The lightning speed of the attack was facilitated by the main weapon of the riders - the bow, which made it possible to conduct ranged combat for some time. At the same time, thanks to the shallow saddle, the archer could shoot in all directions. The same was true for the Russian troops.

In close combat, they used a saber and a spear, and in order to reduce weight and, therefore, increase mobility, Russian horsemen used light armor. Foreign contemporaries compared domestic riders with nomads, noting the similarity of their tactics, as well as their unpretentiousness in everyday life.

Mark on history

At the end of the XIV century, the central power in the Golden Horde weakened, because of which the local elites began a continuous struggle for supremacy, which allowed the Russian lands, united under the leadership of Moscow, to gradually gain independence. The losing representatives of the Horde clans sought help from the Moscow rulers, who used the strife in the east to their advantage.

Even after the Mongol-Tatar yoke fell in 1480, the Russian army had to interact with the Tatars, periodically fighting the khanates that appeared instead of the Golden Horde, or to conduct joint hostilities with the nomadic allies. One of the examples of the alliance between Russians and Tatars was the Kasimov Khanate, which existed until 1681, which was completely controlled by Moscow.

Thanks to their close relationship, nomads have had a lasting impact on Russian army, which seriously changed its appearance only at the beginning of the 18th century due to the onset of the rule of gunpowder and the transformations of Peter I. Nevertheless, the influence of the nomadic east on domestic army, expressed in the maneuverability of the cavalry, was traced for many centuries.

Scientific and practical journal

Udk 34 on the question of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Russia

Tsirulnikov Igor Sergeevich, student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimirsky state university named after A.G. and N.G. Stoletovs

[email protected]

Resume: The article examines the question of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Russia, describes the concepts of a number of historians and authors on this issue with references to their works, describing their opinions and arguments on this or that position. Key words: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.

The question of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russia, more precisely, in determining the nature of this influence was and remains open and debatable. There is still no common position. Why can't historians come to a consensus on the answer to the question raised earlier? There are many reasons: a huge time difference, a small amount of accurate information and documents to establish the nature of the influence, different argumentation of the historians themselves. All this provided the basis for differences in the positions of different historians of different times. But the debatable nature of this issue allows us to consider it from different sides and points of view, evaluate both the positive and negative sides,

which is very important for analyzing the issue of the Horde's influence on Russia. This topic is very important both for its study by historians and for society as a whole, since the process involved in the issue was very long and left a huge imprint on Russia in various aspects: political, social, spiritual. Therefore, the study of this issue should not be suspended or reduced to "no", since the analysis of that time to resolve the issue will help to find out more information about Russia at that time, about how Russia developed and what was the influence of the Horde on this development: the oppression of the Yiga, diplomatic cooperation or little

About a question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia

Tsirul "nikov Igor" Sergeevich student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs

[email protected]

Annotation: In the article the question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia is considered, concepts of a number of historians and authors on the matter with references to their works describing their opinion and arguments on this or that position are described. Keywords: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.

significant for the development of Russia as a state. It is these three positions of historians that will be discussed below. But it is worth noting that these three "camps" of positions are not final and generally accepted. The question is debatable, and therefore the positions of historians are much more.

Let's formulate them as follows:

1) predominantly positive influence of the Golden Horde on Russia;

2) insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Russia;

3) the extremely negative influence of the Golden Horde on Russia.

It is also worth noting that, despite

such a division, in each of these points, the opinions of historians are different in the level of influence: if we take the first point of view (the first "camp" of historians "), as an example, then one historian may consider that the influence of the Horde on Russia was extremely positive, and the other historian who also belongs to this "camp" will consider that the influence was positive, but not without negative features. There is only one conclusion: there are differences between the historians of the same "camp", and, therefore, this issue is very difficult to study and analyze.

Let's take a closer look at each of the positions presented.

1) The predominantly positive influence of the Horde on Russia. N. M. Karamzin is considered the founder. In order to understand Karamzin's position on this issue, it is worth referring to his book "History of the Russian State". Let us examine excerpts from Chapter IV ("The State of Russia from the Invasion of the Tatars to John III") of Volume V, since it best traces Karamzin's conclusions on the issue of the Horde's influence on Russia.

Karamzin distinguishes two sides in the characterization of the influence of the Iga on Russia: negative and positive. "The invasion of Batyevo, a heap of ashes of corpses, bondage, slavery so long-term constitute, of course, one of the greatest disasters known to us from the chronicles of the States ...", - the author writes, thereby emphasizing, and therefore agreeing with many authors of the third point of view, that the Horde left an indelible and negative mark on the history of Russia. But a considerable number of positive aspects are also highlighted by Karamzin. “Another hundred years or more could pass in the Princely civil strife: what would they have been? Probably, the death of our fatherland: Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Sweden could divide it; then we would have lost both the existence of the state and the Faith, which were saved by Moscow; Moscow owes its greatness to the Khan, ”concludes Karamzin. That is, the author emphasizes that without the invasion of the Horde and, as a result, the rallying of the princes and the people of Russia, the state could cease to exist due to internecine wars and the division of the territory of Russia by European states. Also Karam-

zine sees others positive sides from the Yoke for Russia: “One of the memorable consequences of the Tatar domination over Russia was the rise of our Clergy, the multiplication of Monks and church estates,” writes Karamzin. Also, because of the Horde, trade in Russia developed, which, undoubtedly, was a good consequence for the state. But the main positive factor, which was announced earlier, is the rallying of the state in front of a common enemy, the end of civil strife, which could be fatal for Russia. This is the point of view that N.M. Karamzin adheres to.

NI Kostomarov, as another of the representatives of this point of view, in the article "The Beginning of Monocracy in Ancient Rus" states that "in northeastern Rus before the Tatars, no step was taken towards the destruction of the specific-veche system", thereby agreeing with Karamzin's position on the need Horde invasion for the rallying of Russia.

LN Gumilev adheres to a special point of view, although he is referred to precisely this "camp" of historians. In the book “Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe” he reasoned like this: “No, of course, the Mongols were not good-hearted! They could not act otherwise, because on all three fronts - the Chinese, the Near East and the Cuman-Russian - they were opposed by forces that significantly exceeded them in numbers and weapons.<...>Another thing is important: the collision of different fields of perception of the world always generates a violent reaction - death

redundant passionaries, bearers of different traditions ”. Gumilev does not prioritize enmity and clashes between the Horde and Russia, he believes that the main thing is the symbiosis of ethnic groups, which has given rise to new rounds in the culture of these ethnic groups, thereby the author emphasizes the influence of the Horde on the culture of Russia. In his book, some views of the "Eurasians" can be traced, who saw only positive aspects in the conquest of the Horde of Russia, but even if we deduce the result from the positions of the above authors with the expectation that they relate to the position of the positive influence of the Horde on Russia, we will note that they see both positive and negative features, which is historically more believable than the views of the "Eurasians".

It can be concluded that many authors of the first point of view, with the exception of the "Eurasians", believe that even with the negative influence of the Horde on Russia, the enslavement of one state by another, oppression and raids, Igo also left positive "fruits" for Russia: unity states, an end to civil strife, raising the spirit of the people, the clergy, strengthening autocracy and imprint in the cultural heritage.

2) The insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Russia. Yes, most authors are inclined to believe that the Horde left an indelible imprint on Russia, good or bad. But there are historians and authors who believe that, despite the existence of the Horde invasion of the Russian state, on its further formation and change in the policy of both internal and external

this phenomenon had little impact and practically did not give any impetus for this or that change. Russia went to everything by itself, and whether Igo or not, civil strife would have ceased to become obsolete, and the state from a scattered and divided state would be transformed into a single and cohesive state that could stand on a par with the European ones.

Let's single out three main representatives: S. M. Soloviev, K. D. Kavelin and V. O. Klyuchevsky. Let us examine their points of view, united under one concept about the insignificant influence of the Horde on Russia.

SM Soloviev in his book "History of Russia from Ancient Times" concludes that the rule of the Tatars came to an end "as a result of the concentration and strengthening of the European state that began here" (by "here" is meant Russia). Consequently, Soloviev argues that the formation united state carried out without the influence of the Horde, it only accelerated this process. But due to the fact that Soloviev paid little attention to the study of this issue, most historians criticize his position.

KD Kavelin in his article "A Look at the Legal Life of Ancient Rus" asserts that "never did foreign conquerors settle between us and therefore could not give our history their own national character» .

“The influence of their [Tatars] on our domestic life was limited to sending tax collectors to Russia.<...>And the Mongol influence was limited to a few words included in

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our dictionary; maybe, and even probably, by several customs, which are not entirely flattering for us. " Kavelin, like Soloviev, does not see the great role of the Horde in the formation of a single state, traditions and order in Russia. Only a small imprint was left by raids, tributes and other things that were during the Tatar invasion.

V.O. Klyuchevsky in his work "Russian history" also believes that the Horde was not even interested in interfering in the affairs of Russia, therefore, its contribution to the development of Russia is practically zero. He writes: “The Horde khans did not impose any of their orders on Russia, being content with tribute, they even poorly delved into the order that operated there. Yes, and it was difficult to delve into it, because in the relations between the local princes it was impossible to discern any order. " Klyuchevsky is categorical in relation to Russia itself, considering the relations in the state of that time to be a semblance of chaos, so the Tatars did not make sense to interfere in such relations of the princes.

As can be seen from the conclusions of these authors, the position about the insignificant influence of being, and there are arguments for this. But even with the insignificant influence of the Horde on Russia, historians of this point of view still do not deny the invasion of the Horde itself and admit small, but still existing imprints in the history of Russia, left by Yog.

3) The negative influence of the Golden Horde on the Russian state.

Let's move on to the most common point of view among historians. Let us single out how

and before, the main representatives: A. Richter, M. S. Gastev and B. D. Grekov together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky. It should be understood that the list does not end with these authors.

A. Richter, as a successor of Karamzin's ideas, brought up by his books, in his work "Studies on the influence of the Mongol-ta-tar on Russia", transmitted through the materials "Otechestvennye zapiski", asserts that "under the rule of the Mongols and Tatars, Russians were almost reborn into Asians, and although they hated their oppressors, nevertheless they imitated them in everything and entered into kinship with them when they converted to Christianity. " From this excerpt it is clear that Igo had a detrimental effect on Russia, on the orders, traditions, and faith of the people.

MS Gastev also believes that the influence of the Yoke on Russia was pernicious and negative for the entire Russian people and for the development of the state as a whole. He writes that the time of the invasion of the Tatars is "the time of the greatest disorder, the greatest misfortune for our fatherland, one of those times which gravitate over a person, strangle him." As you can see, both authors are unanimous in their opinion about the influence of the Horde on Russia.

BD Grekov together with Yakubovsky A. Yu in the work "The Golden Horde and its Fall" condemn many authors of both the first and second points of view for their assessment of the influence of the Horde on Russia and their lack of understanding of the true reasons for the cessation of civil strife and other reasons " inhibition "of the development of Russia. “Not with the assistance of the Tatars, but in the process of the hard struggle of the Russian people with the Golden Horde

The Russian state with Moscow at its head was created by the yoke of oppression, ”the authors conclude, stressing the grave and irreparable consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Russia.

Most of the authors of this point of view are inclined to believe that the Tatar-Mongol Ygo stopped Russia in development, having thrown it back several hundred years ago, it united not because of assistance with the Horde, but in the struggle against it, in defending the sovereignty of the state. This point of view is directly opposite to the first, although it has its own disagreements in assessing the severity of the consequences for Russia of the Tatar Yoke, which allows us to notice the controversy of each point of view.

So, we can summarize all of the above. The question of the nature of the influence of the Golden Horde on Russia remains controversial and controversial to this day. Each group of historians presents their arguments to support their conclusions and positions. This makes this issue relevant and unresolved both in the past and in the present, and, possibly, in the future. It should be noted that one of the reasons for the disagreement is a large temporal difference between generations, as well as a small number of reliable sources of that time, capable of giving a complete picture of the events of those centuries. Therefore, persistent study and search for answers to it will give more diverse information both about the state of Rus and about neighboring tribes and states.

Notes (edit)

1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian state. SPb., 1616-1829.

2. Kostomarov NI The beginning of autocracy in Ancient Rus. SPb., 1872.

3. Gumilev L. N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe. M., 1997. Part 4. Chapter XX.

4. Soloviev SM History of Russia since ancient times. SPb., 1851-1879.

5. Kavelin KD A Look at the Legal Being of Ancient Rus. M., 1989.

6. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. M., 1993. Lecture XXII.

7. Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia // Otechestvennye zapiski. 1825. T. XXII. N 62.

8. Gastev MS Reasoning about the reasons that slowed down civil education in the Russian state before Peter the Great. M., 1832.

9. Grekov BD, Yakubovsky A. Yu. The Golden Horde and its fall. M., 1950. Part 2. Chapter 7.

The Mongol-Tatar conquest dramatically changed the nature of contacts and the direction of cultural ties in Russia. It should be noted that the development of culture is organic component the history of society, therefore, the determination of the movement of culture should be sought outside of it, first of all, in the development of all spheres of social life - social, socio-political, economic. Culture is, first of all, a reflection of the ongoing changes in society. It is from these positions that we consider it necessary to consider the influence of the Mongol-Tatar conquest on the development of Russian culture.

Let us briefly consider the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The impact on the economy was expressed, firstly, in the direct devastation of territories during the Horde campaigns and raids, which were especially frequent in the second half of the 13th century. The hardest blow was dealt to the cities. Secondly, the conquest led to the systematic siphoning of significant material resources in the form of the Horde "exit" and other extortions, which drained the country.

The Horde sought to actively influence the political life Rus. The efforts of the conquerors were aimed at preventing the consolidation of the Russian lands by opposing some principalities to others and their mutual weakening. Sometimes the khans went for these purposes to change the territorial and political structure of Rus: on the initiative of the Horde, new principalities were formed (Nizhny Novgorod) or the territories of the old ones (Vladimirskoe) were divided. The consequence of the invasion of the XIII century. was the strengthening of the isolation of the Russian lands, the weakening of the southern and western principalities. As a result, they were included in the structure that arose in the XIII century. the early feudal state - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the Polotsk and Turovo-Pinsk princedoms - by the beginning of the XIV century, Volyn - in the middle of the XIV century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s of the XIV century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the XV century. As a result, Russian statehood was preserved only in North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal land), in Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands. It is North-Eastern Russia from about the second half of the XIV century. became the nucleus of the formation of the Russian state. At the same time, the fate of the western and southern lands was finally determined.

Thus, in the XIV century. the old political structure ceased to exist, for which independent princedoms-lands were characteristic, ruled by different branches of the princely family of Rurikovich, within which there were smaller vassal principalities. The disappearance of this political structure also marked the subsequent disintegration of the one that took shape in the 9th-10th centuries. old Russian people- the ancestor of three currently existing East Slavic peoples. In the territories of North-Eastern and North-Western Russia, the Russian (Great Russian) nationality begins to gradually take shape, on the lands that became part of Lithuania and Poland, the Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities.

In addition to these "visible" consequences of the conquest, significant structural changes can be traced in the socio-economic and political spheres of ancient Russian society. In the pre-Mongol period, feudal relations in Russia developed in general according to the scheme common to all European countries: from predominance state forms feudalism at an early stage to a gradual strengthening of patrimonial forms, albeit slower than in Western Europe. After the invasion, this process slows down, there is a conservation of state forms of exploitation. This was largely due to the need to find funds to pay the "exit".

Thus, the dispersal of Russian artisans in the Mongolian world temporarily depleted the source of the experience of Rus proper and could not but interrupt the development of industrial traditions. So, slate spinning wheels ceased to be produced; the production of glass bracelets and beads dropped sharply and then disappeared; the manufacture of ceramic amphorae was discontinued; Cloisonne enamel art experienced a sharp decline; the sophisticated technique of mob and grain in jewelry was revived only in the 16th century; the art of white stone carvers was lost, whose creations we admire when examining the pre-Mongol Dmitrov Cathedral in Yuryev Polsky; the multicolored building ceramics disappeared for several centuries. Filament production stopped for almost a century, after which it resumed under the influence of Central Asian designs. Construction crafts in Eastern Russia have undergone significant regression. In the first century of Mongol rule, fewer stone buildings were erected than in the previous century, and the quality of work has noticeably deteriorated.

The influence of the Mongol-Tatars is more pronounced in the elements of Russian everyday culture, bringing changes to everyday life, clothing, jewelry, and the sphere of trade relations. Clothing changed: along with long white Slavic shirts and long trousers, gold caftans, colored bloomers and morocco boots, women's jewelry such as beads, beads, shells, etc. came into use. The Mongols brought abacus, felt boots, and dumplings to Russian culture. The comparison reveals the identity of the Russian and Asian carpentry and joinery tools, which can also be considered as a result of the interpenetration of the two cultures. Some studies indicate the similarity of the walls of the Kremlin in Beijing (Khan-Balyk) and Moscow and other cities.

Living next door and constant interaction Russians with the Tatar-Mongols could not help but influence the language. So, a lot of Turkic words came to the Russian language, which by contemporaries (except for specialists in the field of linguistics) are not regarded as borrowed. Many Mongolian words have survived that refer to the state (Cossack, guard, label) and economic structure (treasury, tamga (where customs is from), goods). Other borrowings relate to such areas as construction (tin, brick, shack), jewelry (turquoise, pearls, earring), vegetable garden (watermelon, rhubarb), fabrics (calico, felt, calico, braid), clothing and footwear (shoe, caftan , sash, veil, stocking, pants). TO lexical borrowing This period also includes such well-known words as badger, damask, pencil, dagger, target, elephant, cockroach, prison.

The long period of interaction between Russia and the Golden Horde could not but leave its mark in the folklore of the Russian people. According to some reports, the most significant block of proverbs concerning the stay of foreigners in Kievan Rus is dedicated to the Mongol-Tatars. In proverbs and sayings, people complain about hardships Mongol yoke... As the main source we used the monograph "Proverbs of the Russian people. Collection of V. Dahl in two volumes" (M. Fiction... 1984). Here are a number of Russian proverbs reflecting the Mongol period in the history of Russia:

"Beat the flash, the Tatar is coming" (Raise the alarm, disturb, agitate).

"This is sheer Tatarism" (Recollection of the Tatar government; violence, arbitrariness).

"It's too early for the Tatars to go to Russia"

"Captively, only the Tatars take"

"I will not wish it on an evil Tatar either" (So bad).

"Tatar honor is more evil than evil" (In the sense that the price of the enemy's mercy is too high, exorbitant for a noble, decent person)

"An uninvited guest is worse than a Tatar" (It is usually said with annoyance about a person who came to visit without an invitation or at the wrong time; as a rule, behind the eyes)

"Angrier than an evil Tatar" (Very angry)

"They did a lot of trouble to us - the Crimean Khan, and the Pope"

"Elders are honored in the Horde"

"Do not teach the white swan to swim and the boyar's son to fight the Tatars"

"Empty, as if Mamai passed" (Option: It was as if Mamai fought here)

"The real mama slaughter"

"Oster sword, but there is no one to whip: the Tatars are in the Crimea, and the Pope is in Lithuania"

"It's time for the Tatars (enemies) to go to Russia"

"And the sitting Tatars take" (dishonesty)

The close intertwining of the two cultures is also evidenced by the enrichment of the history of the genealogies of Russian families interspersed with Mongol-Tatar roots. Thus, famous scientists S. B. Veselovsky and N.A. Baskakov believe that the influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated, people from this environment even became the sovereigns of all Russia. In their works, they cite the genealogies of famous Russian surnames, originating from Tatar-Mongolian roots. Here are a number of names:

• 1. Bunins ( Russian writer, poet - Bunin I.A.) From Bunin Prokuda Mikhailovich (died in 1595), whose grandfather, who left the Horde to the Ryazan princes, received land in the Ryazhsky district
• 2. Karamzins ( writer, poet, historian N.M. Karamzin) The official genealogy notes the origin of the surname from the Tatar Murza named Kara Murza. The etymology of the nickname of the surname Karamza - Karamurza is quite transparent: kara "black", murza ~ mirza "lord, prince".
• 3. Rachmaninovs(Russian composer S.V. Rachmaninov). From Rahman (from the Arab-Muslim. Rahman "merciful") from the Horde.
• 4. Scriabin ( Russian composer and pianist - A.N. Skryambin) From Sokur Bey from the Horde. The etymology of Sokur bey is "blind beat".
• 5. Turgenevs ( Russian writer I.S. Turgenev) From the Murza Turgen Lev (Arslan), who came out about 1440 from the Horde to Vel. book Vasily Ivanovich. The surname Turgenev may have a Mongolian stem - quality adjective turgen Mongolian "fast", "fast", "hasty", "quick-tempered".
• 6. Languages ​​( famous poet, friend of Pushkin N.M. Languages) From the Engulai Language from the Golden Horde. The time of release, obviously, should be attributed to the turn of the XIV-XV centuries, since in the 15th century the Yazykovs, as Russian nobles, are already well known

Thus, the Mongol-Tatar conquest had a generally significant impact on the ancient Russian civilization. In addition to the direct consequences of the Horde policy, structural deformations are observed here, which ultimately led to a change in the type feudal development country. The Moscow monarchy was not directly created by the Mongol-Tatars, rather the opposite: it took shape in spite of the Horde and in the struggle against it. However, indirectly, it was the consequences of the influence of the conquerors that determined many of the essential features of this state and its social system, which manifested itself in the culture of this period and developed in a multicomponent manner at the subsequent stages of the development of Russian culture.

As you can see, the problem of Mongolian influence on Russia is multidimensional; in general, the development of culture can be distinguished as:

Immediate effect Mongol invasion - destruction cities and destruction population... The traditional ties with Byzantium, Western Europe, the Muslim East were broken, many centers of culture were destroyed or ruined. All this led to cultural isolation .

Most researchers of the researchers of ancient Russian life note suspension cultural development countries due to the Mongol invasion. A general decline in the cultural level, a general coarsening of mores were the direct results of the invasion.

The question of the influence of the Mongols on becoming future Russian statehood, which was brought to the fore in the XX century by representatives of the Eurasian current of public thought. The Eurasians believed that on the territory of Russia, thanks to the introduction of the Turanian (Turkic) element into Russian culture formed new ethnotype, laid down basics psychology Russian person. Many positions of the Eurasianists are highly controversial, but they greatly stimulated further research.

There was no direct impact of the Mongolian law on the Russian, but v sphere criminal rights tighten punishments: the death penalty, whip punishment, torture are introduced.

Borrowing from the Mongols affected military business, primarily on the device of the cavalry. According to the Eurasians, Russia borrowed such features of the military valor of the Mongol conquerors as bravery and endurance in overcoming obstacles.

V Russian language many Mongolian words have survived related to money and taxation, this was associated with the collection of tribute and various taxes. The Mongols did not have any cultural tax policy, they always wanted to sculpt as much as possible with the most rude methods and means.

Moscow tsars took over from the Mongols etiquette diplomatic negotiations... Their acquaintance with the Mongolian way of conducting diplomacy helped a lot in relations with the Eastern powers, especially with those who became the successors of the Golden Horde, but there were misunderstandings in relations with the Western countries due to the discrepancy in the norms of etiquette.

Feudal fragmentation of Russia (XII-XIII centuries). civilizational methods of development.

Feudal fragmentation- a period in the history of feudalism, when the state was divided into separate independent feudal possessions, and the power of the supreme rulers was sharply weakened.

From the middle of XII around 1132 (the death of Mstislav the Great), the state gradually disintegrated into separate principalities, subsequently the unity of Russia began to weaken.

Kievan Rus did not develop any definite order in the distribution of volosts among the princes.

Prerequisites for fragmentation

Instability of hereditary ties

Local growth of feudal aristocracy

The need for troops and suppression apparatus

The decline of Kiev and the growth of other cities

Reasons for fragmentation

The main force in the fragmentation was the boyars. Relying on his power, local princes managed to establish their power in every land. However, subsequently, between the struggling boyars and local princes, contradictions and a struggle for power arose.

Legacy staircase - instability

Princely strife

The political fragmentation of Kievan Rus led to the formation of about 12-15 separate principalities:

Kievskaya, Chernigovskaya, Pereyaslavskaya, Muromskaya Galitskaya, Vladimir-Volynskaya, Polotskaya, Novgorodskaya, Pskovskaya, Turovo-Pinskaya, Tmutarakanskaya, Ryazanskaya, Rostov-Suzdalskaya, Smolenskaya.

Each land is ruled by a branch of Rurik. The local estates are ruled by the sons of the prince and the boyars. Civil strife both on the "land" and on the "specific" plots.

The consequences of fragmentation

The consequences of fragmentation are ambiguous on the one hand, it is a negative process that carries with it:

Internecine wars

A clear weakening of the general military potential, enclosing foreign conquest

Increasing fragmentation of princely possessions

Small principalities weakened, which gave rise to ironic sayings among contemporaries: "In Rostov Land - a prince in every village." On the other hand, the beginning of fragmentation is characterized by the growth of cities, the flourishing of Russian culture in all its manifestations.

Tatar-Mongol campaigns of conquest and the establishment of the yoke in Russia.

In 1206, the Mongol Empire was formed, headed by Temuchin (Genghis Khan). Mongols defeated Primorye, North China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, attacked the Polovtsians. The Russian princes (Kiev, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.) came to the aid of the Polovtsy, but in 1223 on Kalka they were defeated due to inconsistency of actions.

In 1236. Mongols conquered the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237, led by Batu, invaded Russia. They ravaged the Ryazan and Vladimir lands, in 1238 they broke on the river. Sit Yuri Vladimirsky, he himself died. In 1239, the second wave of the invasion began. Pali Chernigov, Kiev, Galich. Batu left for Europe, from where he returned in 1242.

The reasons for the defeat of Russia were its fragmentation, the numerical superiority of the united and mobile army of the Mongols, its skillful tactics, and the absence of stone fortresses in Russia.

The yoke of the Golden Horde was established - the state of invaders in the Volga region.

Russia paid her a tribute (tithe), from which only the church was exempted, and supplied soldiers. The collection of tribute was controlled by the Khan Baskaks, and later by the princes themselves. They received from the khan a letter to reign - a label. The prince of Vladimir was recognized as the eldest among the princes. The Horde intervened in the feuds of the princes and ravaged Russia many times. The invasion caused great damage to the military and economic might of Russia, its international prestige and culture. The southern and western lands of Russia (Galich, Smolensk, Polotsk, etc.) later passed to Lithuania and Poland.

In the 1220s. Russians took part in Estonia in the struggle against the German crusaders - the order of the sword-bearers, which in 1237 was transformed into the Livonian Order, a vassal of the Teutonic. In 1240, the Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva, trying to cut off Novgorod from the Baltic. Prince Alexander defeated them in the Battle of the Neva. In the same year, the Livonian knights launched an offensive, taking Pskov. In 1242 Alexander Nevsky defeated them on Lake Peipsi, stopping the raids of the Livonians for 10 years.

The influence of the Golden Horde on Russia.

Bearing in mind the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke for Russia, it should be noted that it led to a long decline in the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, marked the beginning of their lag behind the advanced Western European countries. The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were deserted and fell into decay. The boundaries of agriculture have moved to the north. Russian cities were subjected to massive devastation and destruction, their role in the political and economic life of the country fell, disappeared forever or revived only after 150-300 years such crafts as filigree, rabble, cloisonné enamel, polychrome glazed ceramics, stone carving, etc. stone construction, fine and applied arts fell into decay. The link between urban handicrafts and the market has weakened, and the development of commodity production has slowed down. Tribute "silver" led to its leakage to the Horde and the almost complete cessation of money circulation within the Russian lands. Finally, tens of thousands of people died in battles or were driven into slavery as a result of the incessant raids of the Mongol Tatars on the Russian lands. Only in the last quarter of the thirteenth century. there were 14 major invasions of Russia, not counting many smaller raids whiter. Many cities, for example, Pereslavl-Zalessky, Murom. Suzdal and Ryazan were destroyed again and again.

Russia turned into a dependent state, and it depended on the Golden Horde thanks to the successful intervention in 1237. to 1240 the invasion of the Mongols. At this time, every Russian prince had to take the power of the Mongolian people by itself because of the great defeats in the war of our Russian troops. At this time, most of the cities of Russia fell and such cities as Suzdal, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir, Chernigov, Rostov and Yaroslavl were also among them. To begin with, all the changes took place only in politics. The dependence of the Golden Horde began to take its toll. At such a moment, the self-government of Russian cities was still preserved, but nevertheless the princes had to visit the Horde so that they would give a label, so that the princes could reign. This label was issued by the Mongol ruler. But then a tribute was imposed on all of Russia.

Today it is this kind of dependence that is more often called the Mongol-Tatars yoke. But this expression should be treated with caution. All due to the fact that the appearance of this expression should be attributed to 1479, but it spread only in 16 century, it was the Poles who invented it, and, no matter how we are not Russians. And if we judge that tribute was imposed on Russia, and all the princes had to depend on the khans from Mongolia, it must be admitted that the dependence for the Russian people was not so humiliating, on the Mongols. After all, they, as you know, did not try to take away our faith from us. And you know that for the people, faith was like self-awareness. After all, only relying on this fact, Nevsky chose the defense of Batu, and not a call to help the Western forces. After all, it was the West that made a demand for Russia. We had to make a renunciation of our Orthodox faith, and accept their faith, Catholic. Another factor was also the fact that the Russian princes could themselves take care and control of our Russian lands, so that it was possible to receive tribute from us completely to the Mongols. Not one of our princes tried to take advantage of the Golden Horde's connections because of our conflicts that took place between their cities.

And only in this way was Kalita able to arrange the policy of our state. Only he was able to equip the Moscow principality in Russia and make it the main one. This was the impetus for all the Russian lands to unite. At our border, the Mongols mostly tried not to set up an army, but when they invaded, only grief was brought with them. Although all their raids were only because the princes did not obey, the punishment from the khan was by no means loyal, but very cruel.

The dependence on the Mongols begins to weaken a little only with 14 century. And this happened because the Russians were often able to “show their teeth” to the Mongols. But Dmitry Donskoy was able to become for 140 years, the first of the princes to defeat Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo. The power of the reign from Donskoy subsequently passed to Vasily, his son, who did not need these khan's labels. Then, when the dependence of Russia weakened, the weakening came from the Mongols. They began to feud against each other, and the Horde was split into a couple of parts. This was reflected in their military and political strength.

Historians give different assessments of the dependence of Russia. Many of them believe that the development of the Russian people was hampered by the yoke. They believe that because of this, we are lagging behind Europe in various indicators. Only with the help of the forces of Peter 1 the lag was smoothed out a little.

But there is also an opinion that addiction was a blessing for us than a misfortune. It is believed that the yoke has played for us important role and prevented civil strife and fratricide in Russia.