Temperament Is a set of individual characteristics of a person that characterize the emotional and dynamic side of his activity (mental activity and behavior). Certain properties and characteristics of temperament can favor or counteract the formation of personality traits.

Temperament(lat. temperamentum - "the proper ratio of parts") - a stable combination of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, not content-related aspects of activity (Source: Wikipedia).

From a physiological point of view, temperament is determined by the type of higher nervous activity of a person (type of GNI).

Depend on a person's temperament

• Assessment and control of activities.
• The speed of occurrence of mental processes (speed of thinking, perception, duration of attention).
• The intensity of mental processes (willpower, the strength of emotions).
• Pace, rhythm and acceleration of activity.
• Disciplinary actions.
• The focus of mental activity on certain objects (extraversion or introversion).

Does not belong to the type of person's temperament

• Character - determines how a person acts, acquired, subject to change.
• Abilities - determine with what speed, depth, lightness and strength he masters knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Temperament is the basis for the development of a person's character, it influences the ways of communication and human behavior.

Temperament is an innate individual feature of a person, he is not subject to change. A person with any type of temperament may or may not be capable. Temperament type does not affect a person's abilities, just some life tasks are easier to solve by a person of one type of temperament, others - of another.

Adults involved in the upbringing and education of a child must take into account the type of temperament of the child so that the methods and techniques of upbringing and education used are effective and do not harm the child.

In psychology, 4 types of human temperament are distinguished: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic.

Sanguine(from Latin "sangvis" blood) - balanced, sociable, practical, sustained.
Phlegmatic person(from the Greek "phlegm" - mucus) - thoughtful, peaceful, reliable, diligent, taciturn.
Choleric(from the Greek "hole" - red-yellow bile) - impetuous, energetic, emotional, not restrained.
Melancholic(from the Greek "melain hole" - black bile) - anxious, uncommunicative, withdrawn, gloomy.

Psychological characteristics of types of temperament - advantages and disadvantages

Temperament type CHOLERIC

A type nervous system - unrestrained, strong, unbalanced, agile.

Choleric's merits:

• differs in decisiveness, initiative, straightforwardness.
• Agile and fast.
• With enthusiasm he gets down to business, works on the rise, overcoming difficulties.
• Almost always resourceful in an argument.
• Forgiving and reckless.
• Possesses expressive facial expressions.
• Speech is lively, emotional.
• Choleric is able to quickly make decisions and act.
• Tirelessly strives for new things.
• Falls asleep and wakes up quickly, sleeps soundly.
• In a critical situation, he shows determination and pressure.
• Feelings quickly arise and manifest themselves vividly.

Choleric Disadvantages:

• Choleric is too hasty.
• The choleric type of temperament is characterized by sharp, impulsive movements, restlessness, imbalance, a tendency to fervor.
• Doesn't differ in patience.
• In relationships and in communication with people, he can show sharpness and straightforwardness.
• A choleric person can provoke conflict situations.
• Stubborn, often capricious.
• A sharp rise and a rapid decline in activity are characteristic, i.e. choleric works in jerks.
• Sometimes he does not delve into the essence of the problem, glides on the surface, gets distracted.
• Prone to risky behavior.
• Choleric speech is fast, sometimes confused, passionate.
• Aggressive, very hot-tempered and unstable.
• The choleric person is prone to sudden mood swings, nervous breakdowns.
• When his energy reserves are depleted, his mood drops dramatically.
• Intolerant of the mistakes and shortcomings of others.
• Touchy.

Choleric people need to learn to restrain themselves, not to be arrogant. They might be advised to count to ten before reacting to the situation.

Temperament type SANGUINIC

Type of nervous system- strong, balanced, agile.

Advantages of the Sanguine:

• Sanguine type of temperament differs in gaiety, energy, cheerfulness, responsiveness.
• The mood of a sanguine person tends to change frequently, but generally good mood prevails.
• Feelings of affection, hostility, joy and grief arise quickly in sanguine people, but they are shallow.
• Quickly grasps everything new and interesting.
• Quickly switches from one activity to another.
• He takes his failures and troubles easily.
• Easily adapts to different life circumstances.
• Possesses good performance and endurance.
• He takes up any new business with enthusiasm.
• The sanguine person is distinguished by loud, hasty, but at the same time distinct speech, accompanied by. active gestures and expressive facial expressions.
• In communicating with new people, she does not feel fear and constraint.
• Retains composure in stressful, critical situations.
• A sanguine person is able to defend himself reasonably and at the same time tries to normalize the situation.
• Wakes up quickly and falls asleep.
• Shows persistence in achieving the set task, goal.
• Good organizer.

Disadvantages of Sanguine:

• If a sanguine person loses interest in the business he has begun, then he leaves him without completing it.
• Sanguine people do not like monotonous work.
• They tend to overestimate both themselves and their capabilities.
• The sanguine type is characterized by instability in interests and inclinations.
• For a person with a sanguine type of temperament, monotonous, everyday painstaking work is a burden.
• Haste in decisions, rash decisions, not collected.
• Unstable mood.
• It is difficult to develop volitional qualities.
• To achieve success in activities, sanguine people should not be scattered about trifles, they need to be purposeful, neat, diligent.

Temperament type FLEGMATIC

Type of nervous system- inert, strong, balanced, inactive.

Advantages of the Phlegmatic:

• Phlegmatic type of temperament it is distinguished by calmness, composure, prudence, caution, patience, perseverance, poise and endurance, both in ordinary life and in a stressful situation.
• Shows consistency and thoroughness in affairs, as a result of which the business started is brought to the end by him.
• Phlegmatic people are persistent and persistent in achieving their goals.
• Phlegmatic people have no inclination to affect.
• Speech is calm, measured with pauses, without pronounced emotions, without gestures and facial expressions.
• Phlegmatic people are not very talkative.
• They are able to perform monotonous, long-term intense work.
• Everything counts and does not waste energy.
• He adheres to a systematic approach in his work.
• Phlegmatic people tend to adhere to a developed, habitual routine of life.
• Complies with the regime with ease.
• The phlegmatic type of temperament has good endurance, which easily allows him to restrain his impulses.
• Not vindictive.
• He is condescending to the barbs expressed in his address.
• Characterized by constancy in relationships and interests, often monogamous.
• They love order and neatness in everything.
• Reason prevails among phlegmatic people over feeling.
• They have good contact with people of other temperaments.
• Has a good memory.
• Phlegmatic people are reliable people who are difficult to infuriate.
• The feelings of phlegmatic people are deep, but carefully hidden from prying eyes.

Disadvantages of Phlegmatic:

• Phlegmatic people are practically not susceptible to approval and censure in their address.
• They react poorly to external stimuli, so they cannot quickly respond to new situations.
• Phlegmatic people are stingy with emotions.
• The facial expressions and movements of the phlegmatic are inexpressive and slow.
• Comprehensive to the point of being boring.
• He starts working slowly and just as slowly switches from one case to another.
• Difficulty adapting to a new environment and slowly converging with new people.
• There are many stereotypes and patterns in life.
• They are not resourceful.

Phlegmatic people should develop the qualities that are lacking for him, such as: mobility, activity. Avoid the manifestation of such qualities as: inertia and lethargy.

Temperament type MELANCHOLIK

Type of nervous system- weak, unbalanced, inactive.

Melancholic Merits:

• Melancholic type of temperament characterized by increased sensitivity.
• Melancholic people are capable of accepting approval and censure.
• Makes high demands on himself and on the people around him.
• Feel good about other people.
• Under favorable conditions, they are restrained and tactful.
• The emotional states and feelings of people of a melancholic type of temperament are distinguished by depth, duration and great strength.
• Melancholic people are characterized by constancy and depth, acute susceptibility to external influences.
• In a familiar and calm environment, people with a melancholic type of temperament feel calm and work very productively.

Disadvantages of Melancholic:

• Melancholic people are distinguished from other types by their high emotional sensitivity.
• They can hardly bear grief and resentment, outwardly this may not manifest itself in any way.
• They keep their thoughts and experiences to themselves.
• Melancholic people experience even minor setbacks a lot.
• The melancholic is very shy, shy, vulnerable, secretive, indecisive, unsure of himself and his strength.
• Always pessimistic, rarely laughs.
• At the slightest failure, he experiences a feeling of depression and confusion.
• Lost in unfamiliar surroundings.
• The melancholic is embarrassed when dealing with new people.
• Long adapts to the new team.
• Has a small circle of close people.
• Melancholic people have a tendency to loneliness, depression, suspicion, they withdraw and withdraw into themselves.
• They get tired quickly, it is necessary to take pauses in work.
• The melancholic type of temperament is characterized by weak, quiet speech up to a whisper, impressionability to tearfulness, excessive touchiness and tearfulness.
• The slightest nuisance, a nervous environment at work can unbalance the melancholic.
• Under unfavorable conditions, melancholic people are withdrawn, fearful, anxious.
• Melancholic is the only type of temperament characterized by slight vulnerability and resentment.
• The melancholic prefers to obey rules and authorities.
• On the eve of important events, he is always overly worried and worried.
• What the choleric person sweeps away on his way, the phlegmatic person will not notice, the sanguine person will bypass - it becomes an obstacle for the melancholic. He gets lost, gives up, it is at such moments that he needs the sympathy and support of family and friends.

In terms of self-improvement and self-realization, melancholic people need to be more active, organizational activities, engage in sponsorship in order to feel their importance, confidence and increase their self-esteem. This is also facilitated by physical education and sports, gymnastics.

Temperament and profession: the influence of temperament on the choice of profession, recommendations for choosing a profession in accordance with the type of temperament, videos, types of temperaments of famous people.

Eye makeup: how to look younger, makeup mistakes that make us old.

Types of temperament and their characteristics Video - features of interpersonal relationships of people with different types of temperament

Friendship and love depending on the type of temperament

Sanguine- experiences sympathy easily, brightly and cheerfully. He starts romances easily, just as easily he can part with the object of love.

Choleric- makes friends with a few, commands his soul mate, becomes strongly attached, prone to anger and jealousy, to a break from addiction.

Phlegmatic person- not inclined to express vivid feelings, calm, even attitude towards a partner, amorous, characterized by calm affection. It is almost impossible to hear words of declaration of love, compliments from him.

Melancholic- devoted to a partner, obeys him, ashamed to open his feelings, often monogamous.

There are no good or bad temperaments. You can and must control your temperament.

Teaching about the types of temperament Pavlova I.P.

Psychologists argue that in life it is quite rare to meet bright representatives of one or another type of temperament, mainly in people traits of different types of temperament are combined, among which one predominates to a greater extent, the rest complement.

However, according to the research of I.P. Pavlova, only one specific type of higher nervous activity (HNV) corresponds to each type of temperament, which completely excludes the existence of a "mixed" type of temperament in humans.

Reliable, objective criteria for determining the type of temperament as a type of nervous system according to I.P. Pavlov.

• Metabolic rate.
• The speed of the course of nervous processes in humans.
• The power of the expression of emotion.
• Constructive features of the body structure (somatotype).

I.P. Pavlov argued that the basis human temperament- This is the ratio of the main features of mental activity and the properties of the nervous system (the speed and nature of the balance of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition).

I.P. Pavlov proved that higher nervous activity is based on three components:

• Strength - the individual maintains a high level of performance during intense and prolonged work, does not respond to weak stimuli, and quickly recovers. A person has stress resistance and endurance.
• Balance - in an exciting environment, the individual remains calm, easily suppresses his mobility and inadequate desires.
• The mobility of the processes of inhibition and excitation occurring in the nervous system - a person quickly reacts to changes in the situation, easily acquires new skills.

IP Pavlov correlated the types of nervous systems identified by him with psychological types of human temperament and discovered their complete similarity. As a result, it can be concluded that temperament is a manifestation of the type of the nervous system in human activity and behavior.

It is the type of higher nervous activity that is the physiological basis of temperament.

The ratio of types of the nervous system and temperaments according to Pavlov I.P.

Sanguine type of temperament- strong, balanced, agile ("alive").

Phlegmatic type of temperament- strong, balanced, inert (sedentary) ("calm").

Choleric type of temperament- strong, unbalanced, mobile, with a predominance of excitement ("unrestrained").

Melancholic type of temperament- weak, unbalanced, inactive ("weak").

A person with a weak type of temperament, despite the weakness of the ongoing nervous processes, is able to achieve great success in studies, work and creative activity, and career.

Characteristics of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition in various types of temperament according to I.P. Pavlov.

Hippocrates' doctrine of types of temperament

Hippocrates (ancient Greek doctor) understood temperament as anatomical, physiological and individual psychological characteristics the individual. Hippocrates, and later Galen, spoke of temperament as a feature of personality behavior, in whose body one of the four "vital juices" predominates.

• In choleric people, yellow bile ("bile, poison") predominates, which makes him impulsive and unrestrained.
• In phlegmatic people, lymph ("phlegm") predominates, which makes a person calm, calm, and slow.
• For sanguine people, blood ("blood") predominates, which makes him cheerful and mobile.
• In melancholic people, black bile ("black bile") predominates, which makes him timid, fearful, sad.

Teachings on types of temperament Scheme

To parents about children:

Raising a child based on the type of temperament has a number of important features that every parent should know about.

the interior of the children's room, designed taking into account the psychological, emotional, age and behavioral characteristics of the child.

The development of speech in children 5 - 6 years old: features, characteristics, games for the development of speech in children.

Literature on the topic "Psychological characteristics of the main types of temperament" for the course

• Ananiev B.G.Selected psychological works. B. 2t. -M., 1980.
• Ananiev B.G. Man as a subject of knowledge. -SPb., 1999.
• Andreeva G.M.Social psychology. -M., 2000.
• Asmolov A. D. Psychology of personality. -M., 2000.
• Aho A., Hopcroft J. , Ullman J. Motivational personality structure. -M., 1999.
• The Big Explanatory Psychological Dictionary: В2т., St. Petersburg, 2001.
• Breslav G. M. Emotional features of personality formation in childhood. -M., 1990.
• Verisov N. N. Psychology of management. - Library Manager-Moscow-Voronezh, 2006.
• Vygotsky L. S. Collected works: v6v. -M., 1984.
• Vygotsky L. S. Psychology. -M., 2000.
• Darabash Yu. L. The structure of activity. -M., 1993.
• Daseev V.G. Behavior motivation and personality formation. -M., 1996.
• Caprara D.Zh., Servon D. .. Personality Psychology - Peter-2003.
• Kovalev L.G. Psychology of personality. -M., 2002.
• Leontiev A. N. Selected psychological works: В2т. -M., 1983.
• Maklakov A.G. General psychology. Textbook for universities. - Moscow, St. Petersburg: ed. Peter, 2005.
• Morgun V.F .; Tkacheva N. Yu. The problem of periodization of personality development in ontogenesis. -M., 1981
• Mukhina V.F.Problems of the genesis of personality. -M., 1985.
• Nebylitsyn V.D. Temperament. // Psychology of individual differences. Texts. / Ed. Yu. B. Gippenreiter, V. Ya. Romanova. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1982.
• Nemov R.S. Psychology: in 3 books. -M., 2001.
• Ovchinnikov B. V., Vladimirova I. M., Pavlov K. V. "Types of temperament in practical psychology." - 2003.
• Petrovsky A.V. Personality in psychology. -Rostov on Don., 1996.
• Piaget J. Selected psychological works. -M., 1994.
• Pryazhnikov M.S., Pryazhnikova E. Yu. Psychology of work and human dignity.
• Psychology of personality in the works of Russian psychologists. -SPb., 2000.
• Psychology of personality in the works of foreign psychologists. / Comp. A. A. Rean. - SPb., 1998.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: in 2 volumes, -M., 1989.
• Sapogova EE Psychology of human development. -M., 2001.
• Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Psychology of human development. -M., 2000.
• Feldshtein D.I. Psychology of personality formation. M., 1994.
• Kjell L., Ziegler D. The theory of personality. Fundamentals, Research and Application. - SPb., 2001.
• Elkonin D. B. Selected psychological works. -M., 1989.
• Jung K. Psychological types... -M., 1995.
• The four temperaments in Herluf Bidstrup's comics

People with a strong and unbalanced type of higher nervous activity

Description

Higher nervous activity regulates the behavior of any person, therefore, the interaction of a person with society and the characteristics of the formation of character in a particular individual largely depend on it. Since any nervous activity consists of two opposite processes of excitation and inhibition, the final result depends on their interaction in the body.

For people with the presented type of GNI, characteristic features are unrestrained behavior, emotionality and expressiveness of their actions. Often people with an unrestrained type are capable of making harsh rash decisions that can play a cruel joke on them. The unrestrained type is characterized by irascibility, conflict, increased aggression towards people around. In the classical scheme for determining temperament, this category belongs to the group of choleric people.

An agile type with a strong and balanced psyche

Description

Such people are characterized by a more balanced influence of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the body. Moreover, both processes are equally pronounced and play an important role in the formation of temperament. In addition, excitation and inhibition in persons with the presented type of higher nervous activity has good mobility, which contributes to rapid adaptation to any conditions of life.

Usually, representatives of this category relate well to others, try to avoid conflict situations, look at life with a smile. These qualities help to make new acquaintances and quickly join the team, which is necessary with the rapid pace of modern life. In the classical definition, the presented category corresponds to the sanguine temperament model.

Strong balanced inert type (calm, sedentary)

Description

Another representative of the strong type is the category of persons with pronounced processes of inhibition and arousal. However, unlike the previous options, this type is characterized by weak plasticity and the ability to change the behavior model in emergency situations.

A distinctive feature of the presented version is the conduct of monotonous activities without switching to other activities. Usually, it is difficult for such categories of persons to readjust to a new type of activity in a changing environment, which has a very negative effect on life in modern society. In the classical sense, the presented temperament corresponds to phlegmatic people. As a result of poor mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition, a person slowly adapts to new living conditions and switches to another type of activity, but he has constancy and stability. This is an undeniable advantage in relationships and interactions with other people.

Weak type

Description

The exact opposite of the categories presented above is the weak type of higher nervous activity. This category includes those people who have weak processes of excitement and inhibition and their poor mobility. In this regard, they experience difficulties on the path of life, and also poorly establish contact with other representatives of society.

Such people belong to the melancholic in the classical scheme of the division of temperaments. The presented category of persons is characterized by poor adaptation to changing environmental conditions and weak socialization processes. Also, people with this type of higher nervous activity are prone to psycho-emotional stress and nervous breakdowns.

Classification of types of VND according to the ratio of signaling systems

Types

Initially, animals used a single signaling system that warned them about changing environmental conditions using specific images and phenomena found in nature. The formation of a conditioned and unconditioned reflex was ensured by real objects or objects affecting the body.

As a result of a long process of evolution, a second signaling system appeared in man, which allows one to create abstract images and form a certain algorithm of actions from them. Also, the appearance of conscious speech in people is associated with the action of the second signaling system. The second signaling system allows a person to create an image in thoughts, while it is not necessary to see an object or phenomenon in real life, it is enough just to hear about it or think about it.

Depending on the interaction of the signaling systems, various categories of persons are also formed, differing in their thought processes and the characteristics of higher nervous activity.

1. Artistic type. As the name of the category implies, this group includes people with a predominance of the second signaling system. It is she who is responsible for the formation of images and thoughts in consciousness. In this case, the formation can occur voluntarily under the influence of fantasy and abstract thoughts and involuntarily in the course of daily activities. Such individuals often achieve success in various areas of creative activity, they easily manage to learn art and express themselves in creativity. Artists, writers, musicians, dancers are representatives of this type.
2. Thinking type. The thinking type of people, on the contrary, retains the influence of the first signal system, in them one can feel its predominance over the second signal system. Usually people with this temperament tend to be calm and decisive, they always act confidently in any situation. For them, the most important goal is to achieve the truth, and not to pursue personal interests. A person with a similar mindset feels comfortable in the field of exact sciences, but he has no interest in creative activity. Typically, people in this category occupy positions where cold calculation and the adoption of important, balanced and deliberate decisions are necessary.
3. Medium type. Most often, it is impossible to say unequivocally to which specific type a representative of society belongs. Usually it combines several temperaments and types of higher nervous activity at once. In this regard, it was decided to single out the middle type, which combines both the first and the second signaling system. Representatives of this category do an excellent job with the exact sciences and find their application in creativity.

VND types - a set of congenital (genotype) and acquired (phenotype) properties of the nervous system, which determine the nature of the interaction of the organism with the environment and are reflected in all its functions.

The specific value of congenital and acquired - the product of the interaction of genotype and environment - may vary depending on conditions. There are three main properties of the nervous system:

2. poise;

3. the mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition.

Various combinations of these properties allowed I.P. Pavlov, distinguish the following types of nervous activity, differing in adaptive abilities and resistance to irritating factors:

1. strong type;

2.weak type.

Strong type the nervous system can be unbalanced or balanced. Unbalanced type characterized by a strong irritable process and lagging behind in strength inhibitory, therefore, a representative of this type in difficult situations is prone to violations of VND, is able to train and significantly improve insufficient inhibition. Balanced type differs in the mobility of nervous processes, in the speed of response, and in the restructuring of behavior:

a) movable type - is characterized by equally strong processes of excitation and inhibition with their good mobility, which provides good adaptive capabilities and stability in difficult life situations;

b) inert type - with strong processes of inhibition and excitement and with their poor mobility, always having difficulty switching from one type of activity to another.

Weak type characterized by weakness of excitement and inhibition, poorly adapting to environmental conditions, prone to neurotic disorders.

These types of the nervous system, identified by I.P. Pavlov, correspond to the classification of human temperaments proposed by Hippocrates for 2500 years. He divided people into:

1. choleric - unbalanced, easily excitable;

2. sanguine - balanced, with a lively, mobile nervous system - optimists;

3. phlegmatic - balanced, calm, reasonable, inert;

4. melancholic - gloomy, depressed, eternal skeptics.

The type of nervous system is inherited from the parents, but it is significantly influenced by the environment. Character traits are formed in the individual life of a person. The strong type is formed during upbringing in hothouse conditions, when adults always decide everything for the child, deprive him of the initiative. Isolation of a child from difficulties, from the influence of the external environment, even with a congenital strong type of the nervous system, can form in a person only passive-protective reactions.

Setting too difficult, overwhelming tasks can cause overstrain of the cortical processes of excitation or inhibition, which leads to nervous breakdowns of nervous activity, to neuroses. Mental functions in humans are disturbed by the action of alcohol and drugs. In this case, the mechanisms of nervous processes are seriously affected.

Rice. 16. Types of the nervous system according to I.P. Pavlov

For normal life, to recuperate, you need regular good rest. Such rest provides dream - a vital periodically advancing condition that takes about one third of a person's life. The alternation of sleep and wakefulness is a must for life. If a person is deprived of sleep, then his sensitivity increases, muscle weakness and mental disorders appear.

The need for sleep duration changes with age. In a newborn, it is 21 - 23 hours, up to 4 - 5 months. children sleep 17-18 hours a day, by the end of the first year about 14 hours. At 4 years old - 12 hours, at 8 - 10 years old - 10 hours, at 15 - 16 years old - 9 hours. Optimum activity for an adult requires 7 to 8 hours.

During sleep, a person loses connection with the external environment, consciousness turns off. The senses do not perceive ordinary external stimuli. Conditioned reflex activity is completely inhibited, muscle tone decreases, blood pressure, body temperature decrease, breathing becomes more rare.

I.P. Pavlov viewed sleep as a protective inhibition, covering the cerebral cortex and subcortex, protecting nerve cells from inhibition and exhaustion.

During sleep, its depth changes. Most deep ("quick") sleep it is usually observed in the first 1 - 2 hours and then repeats every 60 - 80 minutes during the entire sleep and lasts about half an hour. In the intervals between deep sleep, sleep is even, calm, it is called "Slow" sleep ... During deep sleep, it is difficult to wake up a person, at this time he often sees dreams, which, as I.M. Sechenov, are various combinations of experienced experiences.

Control questions

1. What is higher nervous activity?

a) the activity of the higher parts of the brain;

b) the activity of the central parts of the brain;

c) the activity of the middle and medulla oblongata.

2. In what systems I.P. Pavlov has combined reflexes?

a) the first and second signaling systems;

b) primary and secondary signaling systems;

c) main and secondary signaling systems.

3. What are the types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes?

a) external and internal;

b) internal and external;

c) extinction and delay;

4. How many types of nervous system are there?

5. What are the stages of sleep?

a) fast and slow;

b) deep and superficial;

c) long and short.

6. How often does deep sleep repeat?

a) 60 - 80 minutes;

b) 1 - 2 hours;

) the properties of the nervous system, which determine the nature of the interaction of the body with the environment and are reflected in all functions of the body. The specific value of congenital and acquired - the product of the interaction of genotype and environment - may vary depending on conditions. In unusual, extreme conditions, the innate mechanisms of higher nervous activity come to the fore. Various combinations of the three main properties of the nervous system - the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance and mobility - allowed I.P. Pavlov, distinguish four sharply outlined types, differing in adaptive abilities and resistance to neurotic agents.

T. VND strong unbalanced - characterized by a strong irritable process and lagging behind in strength inhibitory, therefore a representative of this type in difficult situations is easily susceptible to violations of VND. Able to train and greatly improve insufficient inhibition. According to the doctrine of temperaments, this is the choleric type.

T. VND balanced inert - with strong processes of excitation and inhibition and with their poor mobility, always having difficulty switching from one type of activity to another. According to the doctrine of temperaments, this is a phlegmatic type.

T VND strong balanced mobile - has equally strong processes of excitation and inhibition with their good mobility, which provides high adaptive capabilities and stability in difficult life situations. According to the doctrine of temperaments, this is a sanguine type.

T. VND weak - characterized by the weakness of both nervous processes - excitation and inhibition, poorly adapts to environmental conditions, prone to neurotic disorders. According to the classification of temperaments, it is a melancholic type.

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• Physiology of higher nervous activity. Textbook, V.V. Shulgovsky. The textbook was created in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard in the direction of training `Biology` (qualification` bachelor`). Shown are classic and modern ...
• Physiology of higher nervous activity Textbook 3rd edition revised, Shulgovsky V.

1. Congenital forms of behavior (instincts and innate reflexes), their importance in the adaptive activity of the organism.

Unconditioned reflexes- these are innate reflexes, which are carried out along constant reflex arcs from birth. An example of an unconditioned reflex is the activity of the saliva gland during the act of eating, blinking when a speck enters the eye, defensive movements during painful irritations, and many other reactions of this type. Unconditioned reflexes in humans and higher animals are carried out through the subcortical parts of the central nervous system (dorsal, oblong, midbrain, diencephalon and basal ganglia). At the same time, the center of any unconditioned reflex (BR) is connected by nerve connections with certain parts of the cortex, i.e. there is a so-called cortical representation of BR. Different BRs (food, defensive, sexual, etc.) can have different complexity. The BR, in particular, includes such complex congenital forms animal behavior as instincts.

BRs undoubtedly play a large role in the adaptation of the organism to the environment. Thus, the presence of congenital reflex sucking movements in mammals provides them with the opportunity to feed on mother's milk in the early stages of ontogenesis. The presence of innate defensive reactions (blinking, coughing, sneezing, etc.) provides the body's protection against ingress foreign bodies into the respiratory tract. Even more obvious is the exceptional importance for the life of animals of various kinds of innate instinctive reactions (building nests, burrows, shelters, caring for offspring, etc.).

It should be borne in mind that BRs are not completely constant, as some believe. Within certain limits, the nature of the innate, unconditioned reflex can change depending on the functional state of the reflex apparatus. For example, in a spinal frog, irritation of the skin of the foot can cause a completely different reflex reaction depending on the initial state of the irritated paw: when the paw is extended, this irritation causes it to bend, and when it is bent, it is extended.

Unconditioned reflexes ensure the adaptation of the organism only under relatively constant conditions. Their variability is extremely limited. Therefore, to adapt to continuously and sharply changing conditions of existence, unconditioned reflexes alone are not enough. This is convinced by the often encountered cases when instinctive behavior, so striking in its "rationality" under normal conditions, not only does not provide adaptation in a dramatically changed situation, but even becomes completely meaningless.

For a more complete and subtle adaptation of the organism to the constantly changing conditions of life in animals in the process of evolution, more perfect forms of interaction with the environment have been developed in the form of the so-called. conditioned reflexes.

2. The meaning of the teachings of I.P. Pavlova on higher nervous activity for medicine, philosophy and psychology.

1 - strong unbalanced

4 - weak type.

1. Animals with strong, unbalanced

People of this type (choleric people)

2. Dogs strong, balanced, mobile

People of this type ( sanguine

3. For dogs

People of this type (phlegmatic

4. In the behavior of dogs weak

melancholic

1. Art

2. Thinking type

3. Medium type

3. Rules for the development of conditioned reflexes. The law of power. Classification of conditioned reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes are not congenital, they are formed in the process of the individual life of animals and humans on the basis of unconditional. A conditioned reflex is formed due to the emergence of a new neural connection (a temporary connection according to Pavlov) between the center of the unconditioned reflex and the center that perceives the accompanying conditioned stimulus. In humans and higher animals, these temporary connections are formed in the cerebral cortex, and in animals without a cortex, in the corresponding higher parts of the central nervous system.

Unconditioned reflexes can be combined with a wide variety of changes in the external or internal environment of the body, and therefore, on the basis of one unconditioned reflex, many conditioned reflexes can be formed. This significantly expands the possibilities of adaptation of the animal organism to the conditions of life, since the adaptive reaction can be caused not only by those factors that directly cause changes in the functions of the organism, and sometimes threaten its very life, but also by those that only signal the former. Thanks to this, the adaptive reaction occurs in advance.

Conditioned reflexes are characterized by extreme variability depending on the situation and on the state of the nervous system.

So, in difficult conditions of interaction with the environment, the adaptive activity of the organism is carried out both unconditionally reflex, so conditionally reflex, most often in the form of complex systems of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Consequently, the higher nervous activity of humans and animals is an indissoluble unity of congenital and individually acquired forms of adaptation, it is the result of the joint activity of the cerebral cortex and subcortical formations. However, the leading role in this activity belongs to the bark.

A conditioned reflex in animals or humans can be developed on the basis of any unconditioned reflex, subject to the following basic rules (conditions). Actually, this type of reflexes was called "conditioned", since it requires certain conditions for its formation.

1. It is necessary to coincide in time (combination) of two stimuli - unconditioned and some indifferent (conditioned).

2. It is necessary that the action of the conditioned stimulus somewhat precedes the action of the unconditioned.

3. The conditioned stimulus should be physiologically weaker than the unconditioned one, and possibly more indifferent, ie. not causing a significant reaction.

4. A normal, active state of the higher parts of the central nervous system is necessary.

5. During the formation of a conditioned reflex (UR), the cerebral cortex should be free from other types of activity. In other words, during the development of UR, the animal must be protected from the action of extraneous stimuli.

6. A more or less prolonged (depending on the evolutionary advancement of the animal) repetition of such combinations of a conditioned signal and an unconditioned stimulus is necessary.

If these rules are not followed, SDs are not formed at all, or they are formed with difficulty and quickly fade away.

To develop SD in various animals and humans, various techniques have been developed (registration of salivation is the classic Pavlovian technique, registration of motor-defensive reactions, food-processing reflexes, labyrinth methods, etc.). The mechanism of formation of a conditioned reflex. A conditioned reflex is formed when BR is combined with an indifferent stimulus.

Simultaneous excitation of two points of the central nervous system ultimately leads to the emergence of a temporary connection between them, due to which an indifferent stimulus, previously never associated with a combined unconditioned reflex, acquires the ability to induce this reflex (becomes a conditioned stimulus). Thus, the physiological mechanism of UR formation is based on the process of closing a temporary connection.

The process of UR formation is a complex act characterized by certain sequential changes in the functional relationships between the cortical and subcortical nervous structures involved in this process.

At the very beginning of the combination of indifferent and unconditioned stimuli, the animal develops an orienting reaction under the influence of the novelty factor. This innate, unconditioned reaction is expressed in inhibition of general motor activity, in turning the body, head and eyes towards stimuli, in alertness of the ears, olfactory movements, as well as in changes in respiration and cardiac activity. It plays a significant role in the formation of UR, increasing the activity of cortical cells due to the tonic influences from the subcortical formations (in particular, the reticular formation). Maintaining the required level of excitability in the cortical points that perceive conditioned and unconditioned stimuli creates favorable conditions for closing the connection between these points. A gradual increase in excitability in these zones is observed from the very beginning of the development of Ur. And when it reaches a certain level, reactions to the conditioned stimulus begin to appear.

In the formation of UR, the emotional state of the animal caused by the action of stimuli is of no small importance. The emotional tone of the sensation (pain, disgust, pleasure, etc.) immediately determines the most general assessment of the acting factors - whether they are useful or harmful, and immediately activate the corresponding compensatory mechanisms, contributing to the urgent formation of an adaptive reaction.

The appearance of the first reactions to the conditioned stimulus marks only the initial stage of the formation of UR. At this time, it is still fragile (it does not appear for every application of the conditioned signal) and is of a generalized, generalized nature (the reaction is caused not only by a specific conditioned signal, but also stimuli similar to it). Simplification and specialization of SD come only after additional combinations.

In the process of developing SD, its relationship with the orienting reaction changes. Sharply expressed at the beginning of the development of the SD, as the consolidation of the SD, the orientational reaction weakens and disappears.

In relation to the ratio of the conditioned stimulus to the reaction it signals, natural and artificial conditioned reflexes are distinguished.

Natural are called conditioned reflexes, which are formed on stimuli, which are natural, necessarily accompanying signs, properties of an unconditioned stimulus, on the basis of which they are produced (for example, the smell of meat when feeding them). Natural conditioned reflexes, in comparison with artificial ones, are distinguished by greater ease of formation and greater strength.

Artificial are called conditioned reflexes, formed on stimuli that are usually not directly related to the unconditioned stimulus that reinforces them (for example, a light stimulus reinforced by food).

Depending on the nature of the receptor structures on which conditioned stimuli act, there are exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive conditioned reflexes.

Exteroceptive conditioned reflexes, formed in response to stimuli perceived by external external receptors of the body, constitute the bulk of conditioned reflex reactions that provide adaptive (adaptive) behavior of animals and humans in a changing environment.

Interoceptive conditioned reflexes, generated in response to physical and chemical stimulation of interoreceptors, provide physiological processes of homeostatic regulation of the function of internal organs.

Proprioceptive conditioned reflexes formed on the irritation of their own receptors of the striated muscles of the trunk and limbs, form the basis of all motor skills of animals and humans.

Depending on the structure of the applied conditioned stimulus, simple and complex (complex) conditioned reflexes are distinguished.

When simple conditioned reflex a simple stimulus (light, sound, etc.) is used as a conditioned stimulus. In real conditions of the functioning of the organism, as a rule, conditioned signals are not separate, single stimuli, but their temporal and spatial complexes.

In this case, either the entire environment of the animal or its parts in the form of a complex of signals acts as a conditioned stimulus.

One of the varieties of such a complex conditioned reflex is stereotyped conditioned reflex, formed on a certain temporal or spatial "pattern", a complex of stimuli.

There are also conditioned reflexes, developed for simultaneous and sequential complexes of stimuli, for a sequential chain of conditioned stimuli, separated by a certain time interval.

Trace conditioned reflexes are formed when an unconditioned reinforcing stimulus is presented only after the end of the conditioned stimulus.

Finally, a distinction is made between conditioned reflexes of the first, second, third, etc. order. If a conditioned stimulus (light) is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus (food), a conditioned reflex of the first order. Conditioned reflex of the second order is formed if a conditioned stimulus (for example, light) is reinforced not by an unconditioned, but by a conditioned stimulus, to which a conditioned reflex was previously formed. Conditioned reflexes of the second and more complex order are more difficult to form and are less durable.

To conditioned reflexes of the second and more high order include conditioned reflexes developed in response to a verbal signal (the word here represents a signal to which a conditioned reflex was previously formed when it was reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus).

4. Conditioned reflexes are a factor of the organism's adaptation to changing conditions of existence. Methodology for the formation of a conditioned reflex. Differences between conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. The principles of the theory of I.P. Pavlova.

One of the basic elementary acts of higher nervous activity is a conditioned reflex. The biological significance of conditioned reflexes lies in a sharp expansion of the number of signal stimuli that are significant for the body, which provides an incomparably higher level of adaptive (adaptive) behavior.

The conditioned reflex mechanism underlies the formation of any acquired skill, the basis of the learning process. The structural and functional bases of the conditioned reflex are the cortex and subcortical formations of the brain.

The essence of the conditioned reflex activity of the organism is reduced to the transformation of an indifferent stimulus into a signal, meaningful one, thanks to the repeated reinforcement of the stimulus by an unconditioned stimulus. Due to the reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned, the previously indifferent stimulus is associated in the life of the organism with a biologically important event and thereby signals the onset of this event. In this case, any innervated organ can act as an effector link of the reflex arc of the conditioned reflex. In humans and animals there is no organ whose work could not change under the influence of a conditioned reflex. Any function of the organism as a whole or of its individual physiological systems can be modified (strengthened or suppressed) as a result of the formation of a corresponding conditioned reflex.

In the zone of cortical representation of a conditioned stimulus and cortical (or subcortical) representation of an unconditioned stimulus, two foci of excitation are formed. The focus of excitement, caused by an unconditioned stimulus from the external or internal environment of the body, as a stronger (dominant) one, attracts excitement from the focus of weaker excitation caused by a conditioned stimulus. After several repeated presentations of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli between these two zones, a stable path of excitation movement is "beaten": from the focus caused by the conditioned stimulus to the focus caused by the unconditioned stimulus. As a result, the isolated presentation of only the conditioned stimulus now leads to the response evoked by the previously unconditioned stimulus.

Intercalary and associative neurons of the cerebral cortex act as the main cellular elements of the central mechanism for the formation of a conditioned reflex.

For the formation of a conditioned reflex, the following rules must be observed: 1) an indifferent stimulus (which must become a conditioned, signal) must have sufficient strength to excite certain receptors; 2) it is necessary that the indifferent stimulus be reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, and the indifferent stimulus must either precede it somewhat, or be presented simultaneously with the unconditioned one; 3) it is necessary that the stimulus used as a conditioned one be weaker than the unconditioned one. To develop a conditioned reflex, it is also necessary to have a normal physiological state of the cortical and subcortical structures that form the central representation of the corresponding conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, the absence of strong extraneous stimuli, and the absence of significant pathological processes in the body.

If these conditions are met, a conditioned reflex can be developed to practically any stimulus.

I.P. Pavlov, the author of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes as the basis of higher nervous activity, initially assumed that a conditioned reflex is formed at the level of the cortex - subcortical formations (a temporary connection is closed between cortical neurons in the zone of representation of an indifferent conditioned stimulus and subcortical nerve cells that make up the central representation unconditioned stimulus). In later works, I.P. Pavlov explained the formation of a conditioned reflex connection by the formation of a connection at the level of cortical zones of representation of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Subsequent neurophysiological studies led to the development, experimental and theoretical substantiation of several different hypotheses about the formation of a conditioned reflex. The data of modern neurophysiology indicate the possibility of different levels of closure, the formation of a conditioned reflex connection (cortex - cortex, cortex - subcortical formations, subcortical formations - subcortical formations) with a dominant role in this process of cortical structures. Obviously, the physiological mechanism of the formation of a conditioned reflex is a complex dynamic organization of the cortical and subcortical structures of the brain (L. G. Voronin, E. A. Asratyan, P. K. Anokhin, A. B. Kogan).

Despite certain individual differences, conditioned reflexes are characterized by the following general properties (signs):

1. All conditioned reflexes are one of the forms of the organism's adaptive reactions to changing environmental conditions.

2. Conditioned reflexes belong to the category of reflex reactions acquired in the course of individual life and are distinguished by individual specificity.

3. All types of conditioned reflex activity are of a signaling and preventive nature.

4. Conditioned reflex reactions are formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes; without reinforcement, conditioned reflexes are weakened and suppressed over time.

5. Active forms learning. Instrumental reflexes.

6. Stages of formation of conditioned reflexes (generalization, directed irradiation and concentration).

In the formation, strengthening of the conditioned reflex, two stages are distinguished: the initial (generalization of conditioned excitement) and the final - the stage of the strengthened conditioned reflex (concentration of conditioned excitement).

The initial stage of generalized conditioned arousal in essence, it is a continuation of a more general universal reaction of the organism to any stimulus new to it, represented by an unconditioned orienting reflex. The orienting reflex is a generalized multicomponent complex reaction of the body to a sufficiently strong external stimulus, covering many of its physiological systems, including vegetative ones. The biological significance of the orienting reflex lies in the mobilization of the functional systems of the body for a better perception of the stimulus, that is, the orienting reflex is of an adaptive (adaptive) nature. An outwardly orienting reaction, called by IP Pavlov the reflex "what is it?", Is manifested in an animal in alertness, listening, sniffing, turning the eyes and head towards the stimulus. Such a reaction is the result of a wide spread of the excitatory process from the focus of initial excitation, caused by the active agent, to the surrounding central nervous structures. The orienting reflex, in contrast to other unconditioned reflexes, is quickly suppressed, suppressed with repeated applications of the stimulus.

The initial stage of the formation of a conditioned reflex consists in the formation of a temporary connection not only to a given specific conditioned stimulus, but also to all stimuli related to it in character. The neurophysiological mechanism consists in irradiation of excitement from the center of the projection of the conditioned stimulus onto the nerve cells of the surrounding projection zones, which are functionally close to the cells of the central representation of the conditioned stimulus, to which the conditioned reflex is formed. The further from the initial initial focus, caused by the main stimulus, reinforced by the unconditioned stimulus, is the zone covered by the irradiation of excitation, the less is the probability of activation of this zone. Therefore, at the initial stages of generalization of conditioned excitement, characterized by a generalized generalized reaction, a conditioned reflex response is observed to similar stimuli that are close in meaning as a result of the propagation of excitation from the projection zone of the main conditioned stimulus.

As the conditioned reflex strengthens, the processes of irradiation of excitation are replaced concentration processes, limiting the focus of excitation only by the zone of representation of the main stimulus. The result is a refinement, specialization of the conditioned reflex. At the final stage of the strengthened conditioned reflex, concentration of conditioned excitement: A conditioned reflex reaction is observed only to a given stimulus, to side stimuli that are close in meaning - it stops. At the stage of concentration of conditioned excitation, the excitatory process is localized only in the zone of central representation of the conditioned stimulus (the reaction is realized only to the main stimulus), accompanied by inhibition of the reaction to side stimuli. The external manifestation of this stage is the differentiation of the parameters of the acting conditioned stimulus - the specialization of the conditioned reflex.

7. Inhibition in the cerebral cortex. Types of inhibition: unconditional (external) and conditional (internal).

The formation of a conditioned reflex is based on the processes of interaction of excitations in the cerebral cortex. However, for the successful completion of the process of closing a temporary connection, it is necessary not only to activate the neurons involved in this process, but also to suppress the activity of those cortical and subcortical formations that impede this process. Such oppression is carried out due to the participation of the inhibition process.

In its external manifestation, inhibition is the opposite of arousal. With it, a weakening or cessation of neuronal activity is observed, or possible excitation is prevented.

Cortical inhibition is usually subdivided into unconditional and conditional acquired. The unconditional forms of inhibition include external arising in the center as a result of its interaction with other active centers of the cortex or subcortex, and transcendent, which occurs in cortical cells with excessively strong irritation. These types (forms) of inhibition are congenital and are already manifested in newborns.

8. Unconditional (external) braking. Fading and permanent brake.

External unconditional braking manifests itself in the weakening or termination of conditioned reflex reactions under the action of any extraneous stimuli. If a dog calls UR to a call, and then acts with a strong extraneous stimulus (pain, smell), then the salivation that has begun will stop. Unconditioned reflexes are also inhibited (Türk's reflex in a frog when pinching the second paw).

Cases of external inhibition of conditioned reflex activity are encountered at every step and in the conditions of the natural life of animals and humans. This includes the constantly observed decrease in activity and indecision in actions in a new, unusual environment, a decrease in the effect or even a complete impossibility of activity in the presence of extraneous stimuli (noise, pain, hunger, etc.).

External inhibition of conditioned reflex activity is associated with the appearance of a reaction to an extraneous stimulus. It comes the easier, and is the stronger, the stronger the extraneous stimulus and the less strong the conditioned reflex. External inhibition of the conditioned reflex occurs immediately upon the first application of an extraneous stimulus. Consequently, the ability of cortical cells to fall into a state of external inhibition is an innate property of the nervous system. This is one of the manifestations of the so-called. negative induction.

9. Conditional (internal) inhibition, its meaning (limitation of conditioned reflex activity, differentiation, timing, protective). Types of conditioned inhibition, especially in children.

Conditioned (internal) inhibition develops in cortical cells under certain conditions under the influence of the same stimuli that previously caused conditioned reflex reactions. In this case, inhibition does not occur immediately, but after more or less prolonged development. Internal inhibition, like a conditioned reflex, arises after a series of combinations of a conditioned stimulus with the action of a certain inhibitory factor. Such a factor is the cancellation of unconditional reinforcement, a change in its character, etc. Depending on the condition of occurrence, the following types of conditioned inhibition are distinguished: extinguishing, retarded, differentiating and signal ("conditional brake").

Decaying inhibition develops when the conditioned stimulus is not reinforced. It is not associated with fatigue of the cortical cells, since an equally prolonged repetition of the conditioned reflex with reinforcement does not lead to a weakening of the conditioned reaction. The less strong the conditioned reflex and the weaker the unconditioned on the basis of which it is developed, the easier and faster the extinguishing inhibition develops. Fading inhibition develops the faster, the smaller the interval between repeated conditioned stimuli without reinforcement. Extraneous stimuli cause temporary weakening and even complete cessation of extinguishing inhibition, i.e. temporary restoration of the extinguished reflex (disinhibition). The developed extinguishing inhibition causes inhibition of other conditioned reflexes, weak and those whose centers are located close to the center of the initially extinguished reflexes (this phenomenon is called secondary extinction).

The extinguished conditioned reflex is restored by itself after a while, i.e. the fading inhibition disappears. This proves that extinction is associated precisely with temporary inhibition, not with the breaking of a temporary connection. The extinguished conditioned reflex is restored the faster, the stronger it is and the weaker it was inhibited. The repeated suppression of the conditioned reflex occurs faster.

The development of extinguishing inhibition is of great biological importance, since it helps animals and humans to free themselves from previously acquired conditioned reflexes that have become useless in new, changed conditions.

Retarded braking develops in cortical cells when the reinforcement lags behind in time from the onset of the conditioned stimulus. Outwardly, this inhibition is expressed in the absence of a conditioned reflex reaction at the beginning of the action of the conditioned stimulus and its appearance after a certain delay (delay), and the time of this delay corresponds to the duration of the isolated action of the conditioned stimulus. The retarded inhibition develops the faster, the less the delay of reinforcement from the onset of the conditioned signal. With the continuous action of the conditioned stimulus, it develops faster than with an intermittent one.

Extraneous stimuli cause a temporary release of delayed inhibition. Thanks to its development, the conditioned reflex becomes more accurate, being confined to the right moment at a distant conditioned signal. This is its great biological significance.

Differential inhibition develops in cortical cells with the intermittent action of a constantly reinforced conditioned stimulus and non-reinforced stimuli similar to it.

The newly formed SD usually has a generalized, generalized character, i.e. is caused not only by a specific conditioned stimulus (for example, a tone of 50 Hz), but by numerous similar stimuli addressed to the same analyzer (tones of 10-100 Hz). However, if in the future only sounds with a frequency of 50 Hz are reinforced, and others are left without reinforcement, then after a while the reaction to similar stimuli will disappear. In other words, out of the mass of similar stimuli, the nervous system will respond only to the one being reinforced, i.e. biologically significant, and the reaction to other stimuli is inhibited. This inhibition provides the specialization of the conditioned reflex, vital discrimination, differentiation of stimuli according to their signal value.

Differentiation is worked out the easier, the greater the difference between conditioned stimuli. With the help of this inhibition, it is possible to investigate the ability of animals to distinguish sounds, shapes, colors, etc. So, according to Gubergritz, a dog can distinguish a circle from an ellipse with a semiaxis ratio of 8: 9.

Extraneous stimuli cause disinhibition of differential inhibition. Starvation, pregnancy, neurotic conditions, fatigue, etc. can also lead to disinhibition and perversion of previously developed differentiations.

Signal braking ("conditional brake"). Inhibition of the "conditioned brake" type develops in the cortex when the conditioned stimulus is not reinforced in combination with some additional stimulus, and the conditioned stimulus is reinforced only when it is applied in isolation. Under these conditions, the conditioned stimulus in combination with an outsider becomes, as a result of the development of differentiation, inhibitory, and the outside stimulus itself acquires the property of an inhibitory signal (conditioned brake), it becomes capable of inhibiting any other conditioned reflex if it is attached to the conditioned signal.

The conditioned brake easily develops when the conditioned and the surplus stimulus act simultaneously. In a dog, it is not produced if this interval is more than 10 seconds. Extraneous stimuli cause disinhibition of signal inhibition. Its biological significance lies in the fact that it clarifies the conditioned reflex.

10. Concept of the limit of performance of cells of the cerebral cortex. Outrageous braking.

Outrageous braking develops in cortical cells under the action of a conditioned stimulus, when its intensity begins to exceed a certain limit. Extreme inhibition also develops with the simultaneous action of several separately weak stimuli, when the total effect of stimuli begins to exceed the limit of the efficiency of cortical cells. An increase in the frequency of the conditioned stimulus also leads to the development of inhibition. The development of transcendental inhibition depends not only on the strength and nature of the action of the conditioned stimulus, but also on the state of the cortical cells, on their performance. With a low level of performance of cortical cells, for example, in animals with a weak nervous system, in old and sick animals, a rapid development of transcendental inhibition is observed even with relatively weak stimuli. The same is observed in animals brought to significant nervous exhaustion by prolonged exposure to stimuli of moderate strength.

Transcendental inhibition has a protective meaning for the cells of the cortex. This is a parabiotic type phenomenon. During its development, similar phases are noted: equalizing, when both strong and moderate in strength conditioned stimuli cause a response of the same intensity; paradoxical, when weak stimuli produce a stronger effect than strong stimuli; the ultra-paradoxical phase, when inhibitory conditioned stimuli produce an effect, but positive ones do not; and, finally, the inhibitory phase, when no stimuli cause a conditioned reaction.

11. The movement of nervous processes in the cerebral cortex: irradiation and concentration of nervous processes. Phenomena of mutual induction.

Movement and interaction of excitation and inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex. Higher nervous activity is determined by a complex relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition that arise in cortical cells under the influence of various influences from the external and internal environment. This interaction is not limited only to the framework of the corresponding reflex arcs, but is played out far beyond them. The fact is that with any effect on the body, not only the corresponding cortical foci of excitation and inhibition arise, but also various changes in the most diverse areas of the cortex. These changes are caused, firstly, by the fact that nervous processes can spread (radiate) from the place of their origin to the surrounding nerve cells, and the irradiation is replaced after a while by the reverse movement of the nervous processes and their concentration at the starting point (concentration). Secondly, changes are caused by the fact that nervous processes, when they are concentrated in a certain place of the cortex, can cause (induce) the appearance of an opposite nervous process in the surrounding neighboring points of the cortex (spatial induction), and after the termination of the nervous process, induce the opposite nervous process in the same paragraph (temporary, sequential induction).

The irradiation of nervous processes depends on their strength. At low or high intensity, the tendency to irradiation is clearly expressed. With medium strength - to concentration. According to Kogan's data, the excitation process radiates along the cortex at a speed of 2-5 m / s, the inhibitory process - much slower (several millimeters per second).

Strengthening or the emergence of the process of excitation under the influence of the focus of inhibition is called positive induction... The emergence or intensification of the inhibitory process around (or after) excitation is called negativeinduction. Positive induction is manifested, for example, in an increase in the conditioned reflex reaction after the application of a differentiating stimulus or excitation before bedtime. With weak or excessively strong stimuli, there is no induction.

It can be assumed that the induction phenomena are based on processes similar to electrotonic changes.

Irradiation, concentration and induction of nervous processes are closely related to each other, mutually limiting, balancing and strengthening each other, and thus conditioning the exact adaptation of the body's activity to environmental conditions.

12. An Alysis and synthesis in the cerebral cortex. The concept of a dynamic stereotype, especially in childhood. The role of a dynamic stereotype in the work of a doctor.

Analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex... The ability to form SD, temporary connections shows that the cerebral cortex, firstly, can isolate its individual elements from the environment, distinguish them from each other, i.e. has the ability to analyze. Secondly, it has the ability to combine, merge elements into a single whole, i.e. the ability to synthesize. In the process of conditioned reflex activity, a constant analysis and synthesis of stimuli of the external and internal environment of the body is carried out.

The ability to analyze and synthesize stimuli is inherent in the simplest form already in the peripheral parts of the analyzers - receptors. Due to their specialization, a qualitative separation is possible, i.e. analysis of the environment. Along with this, the joint action of various stimuli, their complex perception creates the conditions for their fusion, synthesis into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis, due to the properties and activity of receptors, are called elementary.

The analysis and synthesis carried out by the cortex are called higher analysis and synthesis. The main difference is that the cortex analyzes not so much the quality and quantity of information as its signal value.

One of the striking manifestations of the complex analytical and synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex is the formation of the so-called. dynamic stereotype... A dynamic stereotype is a fixed system of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, united into a single functional complex, which is formed under the influence of stereotypically repeated changes or influences from the external or internal environment of the body, and in which each previous act is a signal of the next one.

The formation of a dynamic stereotype is of great importance in conditioned reflex activity. It facilitates the activity of cortical cells when performing a stereotypically repetitive system of reflexes, makes it more economical, and at the same time automatic and precise. In the natural life of animals and humans, stereotypes of reflexes are developed very often. We can say that the basis of the individual form of behavior characteristic of each animal and human is a dynamic stereotype. Dynamic stereotypy underlies the development of various habits in a person, automatic actions in the labor process, a certain system of behavior in connection with the established daily routine, etc.

The dynamic stereotype (DS) is developed with difficulty, but, once formed, it acquires a certain inertia and, given the invariability of external conditions, it becomes stronger and stronger. However, when the external stereotype of stimuli changes, the previously recorded system of reflexes begins to change: the old one is destroyed and a new one is formed. Thanks to this ability, the stereotype is called dynamic. However, the alteration of a durable DS presents a great difficulty for the nervous system. It is known how difficult it is to change a habit. Alteration of a very strong stereotype can even cause a breakdown of higher nervous activity (neurosis).

Complex analytical and synthetic processes underlie such a form of integral brain activity as conditioned reflex switching when the same conditioned stimulus changes its signal value with a change in the situation. In other words, the animal reacts to the same stimulus in different ways: for example, in the morning a call is a signal to write, and in the evening - pain. Conditioned-reflex switching is manifested everywhere in a person's natural life in different reactions and different forms of behavior for the same reason in different settings (at home, at work, etc.) and has a great adaptive value.

13. The doctrine of I.P. Pavlova on the types of higher nervous activity. Classification of types and principles underlying it (strength of nervous processes, balance and mobility).

The higher nervous activity of man and animals sometimes reveals rather pronounced individual differences. Individual features of GNI are manifested in different rates of formation and strengthening of conditioned reflexes, in different rates of development of internal inhibition, in different difficulties in altering the signal value of conditioned stimuli, in different performance of cortical cells, etc. Each individual is characterized by a certain combination of the basic properties of cortical activity. She received the name of the VND type.

Features of VND are determined by the nature of the interaction, the ratio of the main cortical processes - excitation and inhibition. Therefore, the classification of types of GNI is based on the differences in the basic properties of these nervous processes. These properties are:

1.Power nervous processes. Depending on the efficiency of the cortical cells, nervous processes can be strong and weak.

2. Equilibrium nervous processes. Depending on the ratio of excitation and inhibition, they can be balanced or unbalanced.

3. Mobility nervous processes, i.e. the speed of their occurrence and termination, the ease of transition from one process to another. Depending on this, the nervous processes can be mobile or inert.

Theoretically, 36 combinations of these three properties of nervous processes are conceivable, i.e. a wide variety of types of GNI. I.P. Pavlov, however, identified only 4 of the most striking types of IRR in dogs:

1 - strong unbalanced(with a sharp predominance of excitement);

2 - strong unbalanced agile;

3 - strong balanced inert;

4 - weak type.

The distinguished types Pavlov considered common for both humans and animals. He showed that the four established types coincide with the Hippocratic description of the four human temperaments - choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic.

Along with genetic factors (genotype), the external environment and upbringing (phenotype) take an active part in the formation of the type of GNI. In the course of further individual development of a person, on the basis of congenital typological characteristics of the nervous system under the influence of the external environment, a certain set of properties of GNI is formed, which manifests itself in a stable direction of behavior, i.e. what we call character. The type of GNI contributes to the formation of certain character traits.

1. Animals with strong, unbalanced type are, as a rule, bold and aggressive, extremely excitable, difficult to train, cannot stand restrictions in their activities.

People of this type (choleric people) characterized by incontinence, mild excitability. These are energetic, enthusiastic people, courageous in judgments, prone to decisive actions, not knowing measures in work, often reckless in their actions. Children of this type are often capable of learning, but are hot-tempered and unbalanced.

2. Dogs strong, balanced, mobile type in most cases are sociable, mobile, react quickly to each new stimulus, but at the same time they easily restrain themselves. They quickly and easily adapt to changes in their environment.

People of this type ( sanguine) are distinguished by restraint of character, great self-control, and at the same time ebullient energy and exceptional efficiency. Sanguine people are lively, inquisitive people who are interested in everyone and are quite versatile in their activities, in their interests. On the contrary, one-sided, monotonous activity is not in their nature. They are persistent in overcoming difficulties and easily adapt to any changes in life, quickly rebuilding their habits. Children of this type are distinguished by liveliness, mobility, curiosity, discipline.

3. For dogs strong, balanced, inert type of characteristic feature is slowness, calmness. They are uncommunicative and do not show excessive aggression, reacting poorly to new stimuli. They are characterized by the stability of habits and developed stereotypes in behavior.

People of this type (phlegmatic) are distinguished by their slowness, exceptional poise, calmness and evenness in behavior. With their slowness, phlegmatic people are very energetic and persistent. They are distinguished by the constancy of habits (sometimes to pedantry and stubbornness), the constancy of attachments. Children of this type are distinguished by good behavior and hard work. They are characterized by a certain slowness of movements, slow calm speech.

4. In the behavior of dogs weak type, cowardice, a tendency to passive-defensive reactions are noted as a characteristic feature.

A distinctive feature in the behavior of people of this type ( melancholic) is shyness, isolation, weak will. Melancholic people often tend to exaggerate the difficulties they face in life. They are highly sensitive. Their feelings are often painted in dark colors. Children of the melancholic type outwardly look quiet, timid.

It should be noted that there are few representatives of such pure types, no more than 10% of the human population. The rest of the people have numerous transitional types, combining in their character the features of neighboring types.

The type of GNI largely determines the nature of the course of the disease, so it must be taken into account in the clinic. The type should be taken into account at school, when educating an athlete, a warrior, when determining aptitude, etc. To determine the type of GNI in a person, special techniques have been developed, including studies of conditioned reflex activity, excitation and conditioned inhibition processes.

After Pavlov, his students carried out numerous studies of the types of GNI in humans. It turned out that the Pavlovian classification requires substantial additions and changes. Thus, studies have shown that a person has numerous variations within each Pavlovian type due to the gradation of three basic properties of nervous processes. Especially the weak type has a lot of variations. Some new combinations of the basic properties of the nervous system have also been established, which do not fit the characteristics of any Pavlovian type. These include - a strong unbalanced type with a predominance of inhibition, an unbalanced type with a predominance of excitement, but unlike a strong type with a very weak inhibitory process, unbalanced in mobility (with labile excitation, but inert inhibition), etc. Therefore, work is now underway to clarify and supplement the classification of types of IRR.

Besides common types VND, in humans, private types are also distinguished, characterized by a different ratio between the first and second signaling systems. On this basis, there are three types of GNI:

1. Art, in which the activity of the first signaling system is especially pronounced;

2. Thinking type, in which the second signaling system is noticeably predominant.

3. Medium type, in which 1 and 2 signaling systems are balanced.

The overwhelming majority of people are of the average type. This type is characterized by a harmonious combination of figurative-emotional and abstract-verbal thinking. The art type supplies artists, writers, musicians. Thinking - mathematicians, philosophers, scientists, etc.

14. Features of human higher nervous activity. The first and second signaling systems (I.P. Pavlov).

General patterns of conditioned reflex activity, established in animals, inherent in human GNI. However, human GNI in comparison with animals is characterized by the highest degree of development of analytical and synthetic processes. This is due not only to the further development and improvement in the course of evolution of those mechanisms of cortical activity that are inherent in all animals, but also to the emergence of new mechanisms of this activity.

Such a specific feature of human GNI is the presence in him, in contrast to animals, of two systems of signal stimuli: one system, the first, consists, as in animals, of direct effects of factors of the external and internal environment organism; the other consists from words indicating the impact of these factors. I.P. Pavlov named her second signaling system since the word is " signal signal"Thanks to the second human signaling system, analysis and synthesis of the surrounding world, its adequate reflection in the cortex, can be carried out not only by operating with direct sensations and impressions, but also by operating only with words. Opportunities are created for distraction from reality, for abstract thinking.

This greatly expands the possibilities of human adaptation to the environment. He can get a more or less correct idea of ​​the phenomena and objects of the external world without direct contact with reality itself, but from the words of other people or from books. Abstract thinking makes it possible to develop appropriate adaptive reactions also outside of contact with those specific living conditions in which these adaptive reactions are appropriate. In other words, a person is determined in advance, a line of behavior is developed in a new environment that he has never seen. So, going on a journey to new unfamiliar places, a person nevertheless prepares appropriately for unusual climatic conditions, for specific conditions of communication with people, etc.

It goes without saying that the perfection of a person's adaptive activity with the help of verbal signals will depend on how accurately and fully the surrounding reality is reflected in the cerebral cortex with the help of a word. Therefore, the only correct way to check the correctness of our ideas about reality is practice, i.e. direct interaction with the objective material world.

The second signaling system is socially conditioned. A person is not born with it, he is born only with the ability to form it in the process of communicating with his own kind. Mowgli's children do not have a human second signaling system.

15. The concept of the highest mental functions of a person (sensation, perception, thinking).

The basis of the mental world is consciousness, thinking, human intellectual activity, which are the highest form of adaptive behavior. Mental activity is a qualitatively new, higher than conditioned reflex behavior, level of higher nervous activity inherent in humans. In the world of higher animals, this level is presented only in its rudimentary form.

In the development of the human mental world as an evolving form of reflection, the following 2 stages can be distinguished: 1) the stage of the elementary sensory psyche - the reflection of individual properties of objects, phenomena of the surrounding world in the form sensations. Unlike the sensations perception - the result of the reflection of the object as a whole and at the same time something still more or less dismembered (this is the beginning of the construction of one's “I” as a subject of consciousness). A more perfect form of concrete-sensory reflection of reality, formed in the process of individual development of the organism, is representation. Representation - a figurative reflection of an object or phenomenon, manifested in the spatio-temporal connection of its constituent features and properties. The neurophysiological basis of representations is based on chains of associations, complex temporal connections; 2) stage of formation intelligence and consciousness, which is realized on the basis of the emergence of holistic meaningful images, an integral perception of the world with an understanding of one's "I" in this world, one's cognitive and creative creative activities. Human mental activity, which most fully realizes this highest level of the psyche, is determined not only by the quantity and quality of impressions, meaningful images and concepts, but also by a significantly higher level of needs that go beyond purely biological needs. A person already desires not only "bread", but also "circuses" and accordingly builds his behavior. His actions, behavior become both a consequence of the impressions received and the thoughts generated by them, and a means of actively obtaining them. Correspondingly changes in evolution and the ratio of the volumes of the cortical zones, providing sensory, gnostic and logical functions in favor of the latter.

Human mental activity consists not only in the construction of more complex nervous models of the surrounding world (based on the cognition process), but also in the production of new information, various forms of creativity. Despite the fact that many manifestations of the human mental world turn out to be divorced from immediate stimuli, events of the external world and seem to have no real objective reasons, there is no doubt that the initial, triggering factors are completely deterministic phenomena and objects reflected in the structures of the brain based on universal neurophysiological mechanism - reflex activity. This idea, expressed by I. M. Sechenov in the form of the thesis "All acts of conscious and unconscious human activity according to the mode of origin are the essence of reflexes", remains generally recognized.

The subjectivity of mental nervous processes lies in the fact that they are a property of the individual organism, do not exist and cannot exist outside a specific individual brain with its peripheral nerve endings and nerve centers, and are not an absolutely exact mirror copy of the real world around us.

The simplest, or basic, mental element in the work of the brain is feeling. It serves as that elementary act that, on the one hand, connects our psyche directly with external influence, and on the other hand, it is an element in more complex mental processes. Sensation is a conscious reception, that is, a certain element of consciousness and self-awareness is present in the act of sensation.

Sensation arises as a result of a certain spatio-temporal distribution of the excitation pattern, however, for researchers, the transition from knowledge of the spatio-temporal picture of excited and inhibited neurons to the sensation itself as a neurophysiological basis of the psyche seems to be insurmountable. According to L.M. Chailakhyan, the transition from a neurophysiological process, amenable to a complete physicochemical analysis, to sensation is the main phenomenon of an elementary mental act, a phenomenon of consciousness.

In this regard, the concept of "mental" is presented as a conscious perception of reality, a unique mechanism for the development of the process of natural evolution, a mechanism for the transformation of neurophysiological mechanisms in the category of psyche, consciousness of the subject. Human mental activity is largely due to the ability to be distracted from reality and make the transition from direct sensory perceptions to imaginary reality ("virtual" reality). The human ability to imagine the possible consequences of one's actions - higher form abstraction, which is inaccessible to the animal. A striking example is the behavior of a monkey in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov: each time the animal extinguished the fire on the raft with water, which it brought in a mug from a tank on the shore, although the raft was in the lake and was surrounded by water on all sides.

The high level of abstraction in the phenomena of the human mental world determines the difficulties in solving the cardinal problem of psychophysiology - finding the neurophysiological correlates of the mental, the mechanisms for transforming the material neurophysiological process into a subjective image. The main difficulty in explaining the specific features of mental processes on the basis of the physiological mechanisms of the nervous system is the inaccessibility of mental processes to direct sensory observation and study. Mental processes are closely related to physiological ones, but they are not reducible to them.

Thinking is the highest step human cognition, the process of reflection in the brain of the surrounding real world, based on two fundamentally different psychophysiological mechanisms: the formation and continuous replenishment of concepts, ideas and the conclusion of new judgments and conclusions. Thinking allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the surrounding world that cannot be directly perceived using the first signaling system. The forms and laws of thinking are the subject of consideration of logic, and psychophysiological mechanisms - respectively - of psychology and physiology.

Human thought activity is inextricably linked with the second signaling system. At the heart of thinking, two processes are distinguished: the transformation of thought into speech (written or oral) and the extraction of thought, content from a certain verbal form of the message. Thought is a form of the most complex generalized abstracted reflection of reality, conditioned by some motives, a specific process of integration of certain ideas, concepts in specific conditions social development... Therefore, thought as an element of higher nervous activity is the result of the socio-historical development of the individual with the advancement of the linguistic form of information processing to the fore.

Human creative thinking is associated with the formation of more and more new concepts. A word as a signal of signals denotes a dynamic complex of specific stimuli, generalized in a concept expressed by a given word and having a wide context with other words, with other concepts. Throughout life, a person continuously replenishes the content of concepts that are being formed in him by expanding the contextual connections of the words and phrases he uses. Any learning process, as a rule, is associated with the expansion of the meaning of old and the formation of new concepts.

The verbal basis of mental activity largely determines the nature of development, the formation of thinking processes in a child, manifests itself in the formation and improvement of the nervous mechanism for providing the conceptual apparatus of a person based on the use of logical laws of inference, reasoning (inductive and deductive thinking). The first speech-motor temporary connections appear by the end of the first year of a child's life; at the age of 9-10 months, the word becomes one of the significant elements, components of a complex stimulus, but does not yet act as an independent stimulus. The combination of words into sequential complexes, into separate semantic phrases is observed in the second year of a child's life.

The depth of mental activity, which determines mental characteristics and forms the basis of human intelligence, is largely due to the development of the generalizing function of the word. In the formation of the generalizing function of a word in a person, the following stages, or stages, of the integrative function of the brain are distinguished. At the first stage of integration, the word replaces the sensory perception of a certain object (phenomenon, event) designated by it. At this stage, each word acts as a conventional sign of one specific object; the word does not express its generalizing function, which unites all unambiguous objects of this class. For example, the word “doll” for a child means specifically that doll that he has, but not a doll in a shop window, in a manger, etc. This stage occurs at the end of the 1st - the beginning of the 2nd year of life.

At the second stage, the word replaces several sensory images that unite homogeneous objects. The word "doll" for the child becomes a general designation of the various dolls that he sees. This understanding and use of the word occurs by the end of the 2nd year of life. At the third stage, the word replaces a series of sensory images of dissimilar objects. The child develops an understanding of the generalized meaning of words: for example, the word “toy” for a child means a doll, a ball, and a cube, etc. This level of word manipulation is achieved in the third year of life. Finally, the fourth stage of the integrative function of the word, characterized by verbal generalizations of the second or third order, is formed in the 5th year of a child's life (he understands that the word "thing" denotes integrating words of the previous level of generalization, such as "toy", "food", "Book", "clothes", etc.).

The stages of the development of the integrative generalizing function of the word as a constituent element of mental operations are closely related to the stages, periods of the development of cognitive abilities. The first initial period falls on the stage of development of sensorimotor coordination (a child aged 1.5-2 years). The next - the period of preoperative thinking (age 2-7 years) is determined by the development of language: the child begins to actively use sensorimotor thinking schemes. The third period is characterized by the development of coherent operations: the child develops the ability for logical reasoning using specific concepts (age 7-11). By the beginning of this period, verbal thinking begins to predominate in the child's behavior, the activation of the child's inner speech. Finally, the last, final stage of the development of cognitive abilities is the period of the formation and implementation of logical operations based on the development of elements of abstract thinking, logic of reasoning and inferences (11-16 years). At the age of 15-17, the formation of neuro- and psychophysiological mechanisms of mental activity is basically completed. Further development of the mind, intelligence is achieved through quantitative changes, all the basic mechanisms that determine the essence of human intelligence have already been formed.

To determine the level of human intelligence as a general property of the mind, talents, IQ 1 is widely used - IQ, calculated based on the results of psychological testing.

The search for unambiguous, sufficiently substantiated correlations between the level of a person's mental abilities, the depth of mental processes and the corresponding structures of the brain are still unsuccessful.

16. Fatnktsiand speech, localization of their sensory and motor zones in the cortex of the human cerebral hemispheres. Development of speech function in children.

The function of speech includes the ability not only to encode, but also to decode a given message using the appropriate conventional signs, while maintaining its meaningful semantic meaning. In the absence of such informational modeling isomorphism, it becomes impossible to use this form of communication in interpersonal communication. So, people stop understanding each other if they use different code elements ( different languages, inaccessible to all persons involved in communication). The same mutual misunderstanding also occurs if different semantic content is embedded in the same speech signals.

The system of symbols used by a person reflects the most important perceptual and symbolic structures in the communication system. It should be noted that language mastery substantially complements its ability to perceive the world around it on the basis of the first signaling system, thereby constituting that "extraordinary increase" that IP Pavlov spoke about, noting the fundamentally important difference in the content of human higher nervous activity compared to animals.

Words as a form of thought transmission form the only really observable basis of speech activity. While the words that make up the structure of a particular language can be seen and heard, their meaning and content remain outside the means of direct sensory perception. The meaning of words is determined by the structure and volume of memory, the informational thesaurus of the individual. The semantic (semantic) structure of the language is contained in the subject's information thesaurus in the form of a certain semantic code that converts the corresponding physical parameters of the verbal signal into its semantic code equivalent. At the same time, oral speech serves as a means of direct direct communication, written language allows you to accumulate knowledge, information and acts as a means of communication mediated in time and space.

In neurophysiological studies of speech activity, it has been shown that when perceiving words, syllables and their combinations, specific patterns with a certain spatial and temporal characteristic are formed in the impulse activity of neural populations of the human brain. The use of different words and parts of words (syllables) in special experiments makes it possible to differentiate in electrical reactions (impulse flows) of central neurons both physical (acoustic) and semantic (semantic) components of the brain codes of mental activity (N.P. Bekhtereva).

The presence of an individual's information thesaurus and its active influence on the processes of perception and processing of sensory information are an essential factor explaining the ambiguous interpretation of input information at different times and in different functional states of a person. To express any semantic structure, there are many different forms of representation, such as sentences. The well-known phrase: “He met her in a meadow with flowers,” admits three different semantic concepts (flowers in his hands, in her hands, flowers in the meadow). The same words, phrases can also mean different phenomena, objects (boron, weasel, scythe, etc.).

The linguistic form of communication as the leading form of information exchange between people, the daily use of the language, where only a few words have an exact unambiguous meaning, greatly contributes to the development of a person intuitive ability think and operate with imprecise vague concepts (which are words and phrases - linguistic variables). During the development of its second signaling system, the human brain, the elements of which allow ambiguous relationships between a phenomenon, an object and its designation (a sign - a word), has acquired a remarkable property that allows a person to act rationally and sufficiently rationally in a probabilistic, "blurred" environment, significant information uncertainty. This property is based on the ability to manipulate, operate with inaccurate quantitative data, "fuzzy" logic, as opposed to formal logic and classical mathematics, dealing only with precise, unambiguously defined cause-and-effect relationships. Thus, the development of the higher parts of the brain leads not only to the emergence and development of a fundamentally new form of perception, transmission and processing of information in the form of a second signaling system, but the functioning of the latter, in turn, results in the emergence and development of a fundamentally new form of mental activity, building inferences based on the use of multi-valued (probabilistic, "fuzzy") logic, the Human brain operates with "fuzzy", imprecise terms, concepts, qualitative assessments more easily than quantitative categories, numbers. Apparently, the constant practice of using language with its probabilistic relationship between a sign and its denotation (the phenomenon or object it denotes) served as an excellent training for the human mind in manipulating fuzzy concepts. It is the "fuzzy" logic of a person's mental activity, based on the function of the second signaling system, that provides him with the opportunity heuristic solution many complex problems that cannot be solved by conventional algorithmic methods.

The function of speech is carried out by certain structures of the cerebral cortex. The motor center of speech, which provides oral speech, known as Broca's center, is located at the base of the inferior frontal gyrus (Fig. 15.8). When this part of the brain is damaged, there are disorders of motor reactions that provide oral speech.

The acoustic center of speech (Wernicke's center) is located in the region of the posterior third of the superior temporal gyrus and in the adjacent part - the supramarginal gyrus (gyrus supramarginalis). Damage to these areas leads to a loss of the ability to understand the meaning of the words heard. The optical center of speech is located in the angular gyrus (gyrus angularis), the defeat of this part of the brain makes it impossible to recognize the written.

The left hemisphere is responsible for the development of abstract logical thinking associated with the predominant processing of information at the level of the second signal system. The right hemisphere provides the perception and processing of information, mainly at the level of the first signaling system.

Despite the indicated certain left-hemisphere localization of speech centers in the structures of the cerebral cortex (and, as a result, corresponding violations of oral and written speech when they are damaged), it should be noted that dysfunctions of the second signaling system are usually observed when many other structures of the cortex and subcortical formations are affected. The functioning of the second signaling system is determined by the work of the whole brain.

Among the most common dysfunctions of the second signaling system, there are agnosia - loss of the ability to recognize words (visual agnosia occurs with damage to the occipital zone, auditory agnosia - with damage to the temporal zones of the cerebral cortex), aphasia - speech impairment, agraphia - violation of the letter, amnesia - forgetting words.

The word as the main element of the second signaling system turns into a signal of signals as a result of the process of learning and communication between the child and adults. The word as a signal of signals, with the help of which generalization and abstraction, which characterize human thinking, are carried out, has become that exceptional feature of higher nervous activity that provides the necessary conditions for the progressive development of the human individual. The ability to pronounce and understand words develops in a child as a result of the association of certain sounds - the words of spoken speech. Using language, the child changes the way of cognition: the sensory (sensory and motor) experience is replaced by the operation of symbols, signs. Learning no longer requires your own compulsory sensory experience, it can occur indirectly with the help of language; feelings and actions give way to words.

As a complex signal stimulus, the word begins to form in the second half of the first year of a child's life. As the child grows and develops, his life experience is replenished, the content of the words he uses expands and deepens. The main trend in the development of the word is that it generalizes a large number of primary signals and, abstracting from their specific variety, makes the concept contained in it more and more abstract.

The highest forms of abstraction in the signaling systems of the brain are usually associated with the act of artistic, creative human activity, in the world of art, where the product of creativity acts as one of the varieties of information encoding and decoding. Even Aristotle emphasized the ambiguous probabilistic nature of the information contained in a work of art. Like any other sign signaling system, art has its own specific code (conditioned by historical and national factors), a system of conventions .. In terms of communication, the information function of art allows people to exchange thoughts and experiences, enables a person to join the historical and national experience of others, far people who are distant (both temporally and spatially) from him. Significant or figurative thinking underlying creativity is carried out through associations, intuitive anticipations, through a "gap" in information (P.V. Simonov). Apparently, this is related to the fact that many authors of works of art, artists and writers usually begin to create a work of art in the absence of preliminary clear plans, when the final form of the product of creativity, perceived by other people, is not clear to them (especially if it is a work of abstract art). The source of the versatility and ambiguity of such a work of art is understatement, a lack of information, especially for the reader, viewer in terms of understanding and interpreting the work of art. Hemingway spoke about this, comparing a work of art with an iceberg: only a small part of it is visible on the surface (and can be perceived by everyone more or less unambiguously), a large and significant part is hidden under water, which provides the viewer and reader with a wide field for imagination.

17. The biological role of emotions, behavioral and vegetative components. Negative emotions (sthenic and asthenic).

Emotion is a specific state of the mental sphere, one of the forms of a holistic behavioral reaction that involves many physiological systems and is conditioned by both certain motives, the needs of the body, and the level of their possible satisfaction. The subjectivity of the category of emotion is manifested in a person's experience of his relationship to the surrounding reality. Emotions are the reflex reactions of the body to external and internal stimuli, characterized by a pronounced subjective color and including almost all types of sensitivity.

Emotions have no biological and physiological value if the body has sufficient information to satisfy its desires, its basic needs. The breadth of needs, and hence the variety of situations when an individual forms, manifests an emotional reaction, vary significantly. A person with limited needs is less likely to give emotional reactions in comparison with people with high and varied needs, for example, needs related to his social status in society.

Emotional arousal as a result of a certain motivational activity is closely related to the satisfaction of three basic human needs: food, protective and sexual. Emotion as an active state of specialized brain structures determines changes in the behavior of the organism in the direction of either minimizing or maximizing this state. Motivational arousal associated with different emotional states (thirst, hunger, fear) mobilizes the body to quickly and optimally satisfy the need. A satisfied need is realized in a positive emotion, which acts as a reinforcing factor. Emotions arise in evolution in the form of subjective sensations that allow an animal and a person to quickly assess both the needs of the organism themselves and the actions of various factors of the external and internal environment on it. A satisfied need causes an emotional experience of a positive nature and determines the direction of behavioral activity. Positive emotions, being fixed in memory, play an important role in the mechanisms of the formation of the purposeful activity of the organism.

Emotions, realized by a special nervous apparatus, are manifested when there is a lack of accurate information and ways to achieve vital needs. Such an idea of ​​the nature of emotion allows us to form its informational nature in the following form (P.V. Simonov): E = P (N-S), where E - emotion (certain quantitative characteristic the emotional state of the body, usually expressed by important functional parameters of the physiological systems of the body, for example, heart rate, blood pressure, adrenaline level in the body, etc.); P- a vital need of the body (food, defensive, sexual reflexes), aimed at the survival of the individual and the continuation of the race, in a person is additionally determined by social motives; N - information necessary to achieve the goal, to meet this need; WITH- information owned by the body and which can be used to organize targeted actions.

This concept was further developed in the works of G.I.

CH = C (I n ∙ V n ∙ E n - I s ∙ V s ∙ E s),

where CH - voltage state, C- purpose, Ying, Vn, En - the necessary information, time and energy, I s, D s, E s - information, time and energy existing in the organism.

The first stage of tension (CHI) is a state of attention, mobilization of activity, increased efficiency. This stage has a training value, increasing the functional capabilities of the body.

The second stage of tension (CHII) is characterized by a maximum increase in the body's energy resources, an increase in blood pressure, an increase in heart rate and respiration. A sthenic negative emotional reaction arises, which has an external expression in the form of rage, anger.

The third stage (SNS) is an asthenic negative reaction, characterized by the depletion of the body's resources and finding its psychological expression in a state of horror, fear, melancholy.

The fourth stage (CHIV) is the stage of neurosis.

Emotions should be considered as an additional mechanism of active adaptation, adaptation of the body to the environment with a lack of accurate information about how to achieve its goals. The adaptability of emotional reactions is confirmed by the fact that they involve in intensified activity only those organs and systems that ensure the best interaction between the organism and the environment. The same circumstance is indicated by a sharp activation during emotional reactions of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, which provides adaptive trophic functions of the body. In an emotional state, there is a significant increase in the intensity of oxidative and energy processes in the body.

Emotional response is the total result of both the magnitude of a certain need and the possibility of satisfying this need in this moment... Ignorance of the means and ways to achieve the goal seems to be a source of strong emotional reactions, while the feeling of anxiety grows, obsessive thoughts become irresistible. This is true for all emotions. So, an emotional feeling of fear is characteristic of a person if he does not have the means of possible protection from danger. The feeling of rage arises in a person when he wants to crush an opponent, this or that obstacle, but does not have the appropriate strength (rage as a manifestation of powerlessness). A person experiences grief (a corresponding emotional reaction) when they are unable to make up for the loss.

The sign of the emotional reaction can be determined by the formula of P.V. Simonov. Negative emotion occurs when H> C and, on the contrary, positive emotion is expected when H < C. So, a person experiences joy when he has an excess of information necessary to achieve a goal, when the goal is closer than we thought (the source of emotion is an unexpected pleasant message, unexpected joy).

In PK Anokhin's theory of the functional system, the neurophysiological nature of emotions is associated with the concept of the functional organization of adaptive actions of animals and humans on the basis of the concept of an "acceptor of action." The signal for the organization and functioning of the nervous apparatus of negative emotions is the fact of the mismatch of the "action acceptor" - the afferent model of expected results with afferentation about the real results of the adaptive act.

Emotions have a significant impact on the subjective state of a person: in a state of emotional uplift, the intellectual sphere of the body works more actively, a person is visited by inspiration, and creative activity increases. Emotions, especially positive ones, play an important role as powerful life stimuli for maintaining high performance and health of a person. All this gives reason to believe that emotion is a state of the highest ascent of the spiritual and physical forces of a person.

18. Memory. Short-term and long-term memory. The significance of the consolidation (stabilization) of memory traces.

19. Types of memory. Memory processes.

20. Nervous structures of memory. Molecular theory of memory.

(combined for convenience)

In the formation and implementation of higher brain functions, the general biological property of fixing, storing and reproducing information, united by the concept of memory, is very important. Memory as the basis of learning and thinking processes includes four closely related processes: memorization, storage, recognition, reproduction. Throughout a person's life, his memory becomes a repository of a huge amount of information: during 60 years of active creative activity, a person is able to perceive 10 13-10 bits of information, of which no more than 5-10% is actually used. This indicates a significant redundancy in memory and the importance not only of memory processes, but also of the forgetting process. Not everything that is perceived, experienced or done by a person is retained in memory, a significant part of the perceived information is forgotten over time. Forgetting is manifested in the impossibility of knowing, remembering something, or in the form of erroneous recognition, recollection. Forgetting can be caused by various factors associated both with the material itself, its perception, and with the negative influences of other stimuli acting immediately after memorization (the phenomenon of retroactive inhibition, memory suppression). The forgetting process is highly dependent on biological significance perceived information, type and nature of memory. Forgetting in some cases can wear positive character, for example, memory for negative signals, unpleasant events. This is the truth of the wise oriental saying: "Memory is joy with happiness, friend is burning for oblivion."

As a result of the learning process, physical, chemical and morphological changes occur in the nervous structures, which persist for some time and have a significant effect on the reflex reactions carried out by the body. The set of such structural and functional changes in nerve formations, known as "Engram" (trace) of acting stimuli becomes an important factor determining the whole variety of adaptive adaptive behavior of the organism.

Types of memory are classified according to the form of manifestation (figurative, emotional, logical, or verbal-logical), according to the temporal characteristic, or duration (instantaneous, short-term, long-term).

Figurative memory manifests itself in the formation, storage and reproduction of a previously perceived image of a real signal, its nervous model. Under emotional memory understand the reproduction of some previously experienced emotional state upon repeated presentation of the signal that caused the primary occurrence of such an emotional state. Emotional memory is characterized by high speed and durability. This, obviously, is the main reason for the easier and more stable memorization of emotionally colored signals and stimuli by a person. On the contrary, gray, boring information is memorized much more difficult and is quickly erased in memory. Logical (verbal-logical, semantic) memory - memory for verbal signals, designating both external objects and events, and the sensations and representations caused by them.

Instant (iconic) memory consists in the formation of an instant imprint, a trace of the acting stimulus in the receptor structure. This imprint, or the corresponding physicochemical engram of an external stimulus, is distinguished by high information content, completeness of signs, properties (hence the name "iconic memory", that is, a reflection clearly worked out in detail) of the active signal, but also by a high rate of extinction (not stored more than 100-150 ms, if not reinforced, not reinforced by repeated or continued stimulus).

The neurophysiological mechanism of iconic memory, obviously, consists in the processes of reception of the active stimulus and the immediate aftereffect (when the real stimulus no longer acts), expressed in trace potentials formed on the basis of the receptor electric potential. The duration and severity of these trace potentials is determined both by the strength of the acting stimulus and by the functional state, sensitivity and lability of the receptive membranes of receptor structures. Erasing a memory trace occurs in 100-150 ms.

The biological significance of iconic memory lies in providing the analyzer structures of the brain with the ability to isolate individual signs and properties of the sensory signal, and to recognize the image. Iconic memory stores not only the information necessary for a clear understanding of sensory signals arriving within fractions of a second, but also contains an incomparably larger amount of information than can be used and is actually used at the subsequent stages of perception, fixation and reproduction of signals.

With sufficient strength of the acting stimulus, iconic memory goes into the category of short-term (short-term) memory. Short-term memory - working memory, which ensures the performance of current behavioral and mental operations. Short-term memory is based on repeated multiple circulation of impulse discharges along circular closed circuits of nerve cells (Fig. 15.3) (Lorente de No, I. S. Beritov). Ring structures can be formed within the same neuron by return signals formed by the terminal (or lateral, lateral) branches of the axonal process on the dendrites of the same neuron (I.S.Beritov). As a result of the repeated passage of impulses along these ring structures, persistent changes are gradually formed in the latter, laying the foundation for the subsequent formation of long-term memory. In these ring structures, not only excitatory, but also inhibitory neurons can participate. The duration of short-term memory is seconds, minutes after the direct action of the corresponding message, phenomenon, object. The reverberation hypothesis of the nature of short-term memory admits the presence of closed circles of circulation of impulse excitation both inside the cerebral cortex and between the cortex and subcortical formations (in particular, the thalamocortical nerve circles) containing both sensory and gnostic (learning, recognizing) nerve cells. Intracortical and thalamocortical reverberation circles as the structural basis of the neurophysiological mechanism of short-term memory are formed by cortical pyramidal cells of layers V-VI, mainly of the frontal and parietal regions of the cerebral cortex.

The participation of the structures of the hippocampus and the limbic system of the brain in short-term memory is associated with the implementation by these neural formations of the function of discriminating the novelty of signals and reading incoming afferent information at the input of the waking brain (OS Vinogradova). The implementation of the phenomenon of short-term memory practically does not require and is not really associated with significant chemical and structural changes in neurons and synapses, since the corresponding changes in the synthesis of matrix (informational) RNAs require more time.

Despite the differences in hypotheses and theories about the nature of short-term memory, their initial prerequisite is the emergence of short-term reversible changes in the physicochemical properties of the membrane, as well as the dynamics of mediators in synapses. Ionic currents across the membrane, combined with short-term metabolic shifts during synapse activation, can lead to changes in the efficiency of synaptic transmission lasting several seconds.

Converting short-term memory to long-term memory (memory consolidation) in general view due to the onset of persistent changes in synaptic conduction as a result of repeated excitation of nerve cells (learning populations, Hebb ensembles of neurons). The transition from short-term memory to long-term memory (memory consolidation) is caused by chemical and structural changes in the corresponding nerve formations. According to modern neurophysiology and neurochemistry, long-term (long-term) memory is based on complex chemical processes of the synthesis of protein molecules in brain cells. At the heart of memory consolidation are many factors that lead to facilitating the transmission of impulses through synaptic structures (enhanced functioning of certain synapses, an increase in their conductivity for adequate impulse flows). One of these factors is the well-known post-tetanic potentiation phenomenon (see Chapter 4), supported by reverberant streams of impulses: stimulation of afferent nerve structures leads to a sufficiently long (tens of minutes) increase in the conduction of spinal motoneurons. This means that the physicochemical changes in postsynaptic membranes that occur during a persistent shift of the membrane potential are likely to serve as the basis for the formation of memory traces, which are reflected in the change in the protein substrate of the nerve cell.

The changes observed in the mediator mechanisms that provide the process of chemical transfer of excitation from one nerve cell to another are also of some importance in the mechanisms of long-term memory. The basis of plastic chemical changes in synaptic structures is the interaction of mediators, for example, acetylcholine with receptor proteins of the postsynaptic membrane and ions (Na +, K +, Ca 2+). The dynamics of the transmembrane currents of these ions makes the membrane more sensitive to the action of mediators. It was found that the learning process is accompanied by an increase in the activity of the enzyme cholinesterase, which destroys acetylcholine, and substances that suppress the effect of cholinesterase cause significant memory impairments.

One of the most widespread chemical theories of memory is Hyden's hypothesis about the protein nature of memory. According to the author, the information underlying long-term memory is encoded and recorded in the structure of the polynucleotide chain of the molecule. The different structure of impulse potentials, in which certain sensory information is encoded in the afferent nerve conductors, leads to different rearrangements of the RNA molecule, to the movements of nucleotides in their chains that are specific for each signal. Thus, each signal is fixed in the form of a specific imprint in the structure of the RNA molecule. Based on Hyden's hypothesis, it can be assumed that glial cells involved in the trophic support of neuron functions are included in the metabolic cycle of encoding incoming signals by changing the nucleotide composition of synthesizing RNAs. The entire set of probable rearrangements and combinations of nucleotide elements makes it possible to fix a huge amount of information in the structure of the RNA molecule: the theoretically calculated amount of this information is 10–10 20 bits, which significantly exceeds the real volume of human memory. The process of recording information in nerve cell is reflected in protein synthesis, into the molecule of which the corresponding trace imprint of changes in the RNA molecule is introduced. In this case, the protein molecule becomes sensitive to a specific pattern of the impulse flow, thereby, as it were, it recognizes the afferent signal that is encoded in this impulse pattern. As a result, the mediator is released in the corresponding synapse, leading to the transfer of information from one nerve cell to another in the system of neurons responsible for fixing, storing and reproducing information.

Some hormonal peptides, simple protein substances, and a specific S-100 protein are possible substrates for long-term memory. Some hormones (ACTH, growth hormone, vasopressin, etc.) belong to such peptides that stimulate, for example, the conditioned-reflex learning mechanism.

An interesting hypothesis about the immunochemical mechanism of memory formation was proposed by I.P. Ashmarin. The hypothesis is based on the recognition of the important role of an active immune response in consolidation and the formation of long-term memory. The essence of this concept is as follows: as a result of metabolic processes on synaptic membranes during excitation reverberation at the stage of short-term memory formation, substances are formed that play the role of an antigen for antibodies produced in glial cells. Binding of an antibody to an antigen occurs with the participation of stimulators of the formation of mediators or an inhibitor of enzymes that destroy and break down these stimulating substances (Fig. 15.4).

A significant place in providing neurophysiological mechanisms of long-term memory is given to glial cells (Galambus, A. I. Roitbak), the number of which in the central nervous formations is an order of magnitude greater than the number of nerve cells. The following mechanism of the participation of glial cells in the implementation of the conditioned reflex mechanism of learning is proposed. At the stage of formation and strengthening of the conditioned reflex in the glial cells adjacent to the nerve cell, the synthesis of myelin is enhanced, which envelops the terminal thin branches of the axonal process and thereby facilitates the conduction of nerve impulses along them, as a result of which the efficiency of synaptic transmission of excitation increases. In turn, the stimulation of the formation of myelin occurs as a result of depolarization of the membrane of the oligodendrocyte (glial cell) under the influence of the incoming nerve impulse. Thus, long-term memory may be based on conjugate changes in the neuroglial complex of the central nervous formations.

The ability to selectively turn off short-term memory without impairing long-term and selective effects on long-term memory in the absence of any impairment of short-term memory is usually considered as evidence of the different nature of the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms. Indirect evidence of the presence of certain differences in the mechanisms of short-term and long-term memory are the features of memory disorders with damage to brain structures. So, with some focal lesions of the brain (lesions of the temporal zones of the cortex, structures of the hippocampus), when it is shaken, memory disorders occur, expressed in the loss of the ability to remember current events or events of the recent past (that occurred shortly before the impact that caused this pathology) while preserving memory for the previous ones, events that happened long ago. However, a number of other influences have the same effect on both short-term and long-term memory. Apparently, despite some noticeable differences in physiological and biochemical mechanisms responsible for the formation and manifestation of short-term and long-term memory, their nature has much more in common than different; they can be considered as successive stages of a single mechanism of fixation and strengthening of trace processes occurring in nerve structures under the influence of repetitive or constantly acting signals.

21. Concept of functional systems (PK Anokhin). A systematic approach to cognition.

The concept of self-regulation of physiological functions has found its fullest reflection in the theory of functional systems, developed by Academician P.K. Anokhin. According to this theory, the balancing of the organism with the environment is carried out by self-organizing functional systems.

Functional systems (FS) are a dynamically folding self-regulating complex of central and peripheral formations, ensuring the achievement of useful adaptive results.

The result of the action of any PS is a vital adaptive indicator necessary for the normal functioning of the organism in the biological and socially... This implies the system-forming role of the result of action. It is to achieve a certain adaptive result that FS are formed, the complexity of the organization of which is determined by the nature of this result.

The variety of adaptive results useful for the body can be reduced to several groups: 1) metabolic results resulting from metabolic processes at the molecular (biochemical) level that create substrates or end products necessary for life; 2) homeopathic results, which are the leading indicators of body fluids: blood, lymph, interstitial fluid (osmotic pressure, pH, content of nutrients, oxygen, hormones, etc.), providing various aspects of normal metabolism; 3) the results of the behavioral activity of animals and humans, satisfying the basic metabolic, biological needs: food, drinking, sexual, etc.; 4) the results of a person's social activity that satisfy social (creation of a social product of labor, environmental protection, protection of the fatherland, arrangement of everyday life) and spiritual (acquisition of knowledge, creativity) needs.

Each FS includes various organs and tissues. The unification of the latter in the FS is carried out by the result, for the sake of which the FS is created. This principle of organizing the FS was called the principle of selective mobilization of the activity of organs and tissues into an integral system. For example, in order to provide an optimal blood gas composition for metabolism, selective mobilization of the activity of the lungs, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, hematopoietic organs, and blood occurs in the respiratory system.

The inclusion of individual organs and tissues in the FS is carried out according to the principle of interaction, which provides for the active participation of each element of the system in achieving a useful adaptive result.

In the given example, each element actively contributes to the maintenance of the gas composition of the blood: the lungs provide gas exchange, the blood binds and transports O 2 and CO 2, the heart and blood vessels provide the required blood flow rate and value.

To achieve results at various levels, multilevel FS are also formed. FS at any level of the organization has a fundamentally similar structure, which includes 5 main components: 1) useful adaptive result; 2) acceptors of the result (control devices); 3) reverse afferentation, supplying information from receptors to the central link of the FS; 4) central architectonics - selective unification of nerve elements of various levels into special nodal mechanisms (control devices); 5) executive components (reaction apparatus) - somatic, vegetative, endocrine, behavioral.

22. Central mechanisms of functional systems that form behavioral acts: motivation, stage of afferent synthesis (contextual afferentation, triggering afferentation, memory), stage of decision-making. Formation of an acceptor of action results, reverse afferentation.

The state of the internal environment is constantly monitored by the corresponding receptors. The source of changes in the parameters of the internal environment of the body is the metabolic process (metabolism) continuously flowing in the cells, accompanied by the consumption of the initial and the formation of final products. Any deviation of the parameters from the parameters optimal for metabolism, as well as changes in the results of a different level, is perceived by the receptors. From the latter, information is transmitted by a feedback link to the corresponding nerve centers. On the basis of the incoming information, the structures of various levels of the central nervous system are selectively involved in this FS in order to mobilize the executive organs and systems (reaction apparatus). The activity of the latter leads to the restoration of the result necessary for metabolism or social adaptation.

The organization of various FS in the body is fundamentally the same. This is isomorphism principle FS.

At the same time, there are differences in their organization, which are due to the nature of the result. FS, which determine various indicators of the internal environment of the organism, are genetically determined, often include only internal (vegetative, humoral) mechanisms of self-regulation. These include PS, which determine the optimal level for tissue metabolism, the level of blood mass, corpuscular elements, the reaction of the medium (pH), and blood pressure. Other FS of the homeostatic level also include an external link of self-regulation, which provides for the interaction of the organism with the external environment. In the work of some FS, the external link plays a relatively passive role as a source of necessary substrates (for example, oxygen for the FS of respiration), in others, the external link of self-regulation is active and includes purposeful human behavior in the environment, aimed at transforming it. These include PS, which provides an optimal level of nutrients for the body, osmotic pressure, and body temperature.

FS of the behavioral and social level are extremely dynamic in their organization and are formed as the corresponding needs arise. In such FS, the external link of self-regulation plays a leading role. At the same time, human behavior is determined and corrected genetically, individually acquired experience, as well as numerous disturbing influences. An example of such FS is the production activity of a person to achieve a socially significant result for society and the individual: the work of scientists, artists, writers.

FS control devices. The central architectonics (control apparatus) of the FS, which consists of several stages, is also built on the principle of isomorphism (see Fig. 3.1). The initial stage is the stage of afferent synthesis. It is based on dominant motivation, arising on the basis of the body's most significant needs at the moment. Arousal generated by dominant motivation mobilizes genetic and individually acquired experience (memory) to meet this need. Information about the state of the habitat supplied by situational afferentation, allows in a specific situation to assess the possibility and, if necessary, adjust the past experience of satisfying the need. The interaction of excitations created by the dominant motivation, memory mechanisms and environmental afferentation creates a state of readiness (prestarting integration) necessary to obtain an adaptive result. Start-up afferentation transfers the system from a state of readiness to a state of activity. At the stage of afferent synthesis, the dominant motivation determines what to do, memory - how to do it, situational and triggering afferentation - when to do it in order to achieve the desired result.

The stage of afferent synthesis ends with the adoption of a decision. At this stage, out of many possible, the only way is chosen to satisfy the leading needs of the organism. There is a limitation of the degrees of freedom of the FS activity.

Following the decision, the acceptor of the result of the action and the program of action are formed. V the acceptor of the results of action all the main features of the future result of the action are programmed. This programming is based on the dominant motivation, which extracts from the memory mechanisms the necessary information about the characteristics of the result and the ways to achieve it. Thus, the acceptor of action results is an apparatus for foresight, forecasting, modeling of the results of the FS activity, where the parameters of the result are modeled and compared with the afferent model. Information about the parameters of the result is supplied using reverse afferentation.

The program of action (efferent synthesis) is a coordinated interaction of somatic, vegetative and humoral components in order to successfully achieve a useful adaptive result. The program of action forms a necessary adaptive act in the form of a certain complex of excitations in the central nervous system before its implementation in the form of specific actions. This program determines the inclusion of efferent structures necessary to obtain a useful result.

A necessary link in the work of the FS is reverse afferentation. With its help, individual stages and the final result of the systems' activity are assessed. Information from the receptors goes through the afferent nerves and humoral communication channels to the structures that make up the acceptor of the result of the action. The coincidence of the parameters of the real result and the properties of the model prepared in the acceptor means the satisfaction of the initial needs of the body. FS activity ends here. Its components can be used in other filesystems. If the parameters of the result and the properties of the model, prepared on the basis of afferent synthesis in the acceptor of the results of action, do not coincide, an orientation-research reaction arises. It leads to a restructuring of afferent synthesis, the adoption of a new decision, the refinement of the characteristics of the model in the acceptor of the results of the action and the program for their achievement. The activities of the FS are carried out in a new direction, necessary to meet the leading needs.

Principles of FS interaction. Several functional systems work simultaneously in the body, which provides for their interaction, which is based on certain principles.

The principle of systems genesis presupposes selective maturation and involution of functional systems. Thus, PSs of blood circulation, respiration, nutrition and their individual components in the process of ontogenesis mature and develop earlier than other PSs.

The principle of multiparameter (multiply connected) interactions defines the generalized activity of various FS aimed at achieving a multicomponent result. For example, homeostasis parameters (osmotic pressure, CBS, etc.) are provided by independent FS, which are combined into a single generalized FS of homeostasis. It determines the unity of the internal environment of the organism, as well as its changes due to metabolic processes and the active activity of the organism in the external environment. In this case, the deviation of one indicator of the internal environment causes a redistribution in certain ratios of other parameters of the result of the generalized FS of homeostasis.

Hierarchy principle assumes that the FS of the organism are arranged in a certain series in accordance with the biological or social significance. For example, in biological terms, the dominant position is occupied by the FS, which ensures the preservation of the integrity of tissues, then - the FS of nutrition, reproduction, etc. The activity of the organism in each time period is determined by the dominant FS in terms of survival or adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence. After the satisfaction of one leading need, the dominant position is occupied by another need, which is most important in terms of social or biological significance.

The principle of sequential dynamic interaction provides for a clear sequence of changes in the activities of several interrelated FS. The factor that determines the beginning of the activity of each subsequent FS is the result of the activity of the previous system. Another principle of organizing the interaction of the FS is the principle of systemic quantization of life. For example, in the process of breathing, the following systemic "quanta" with their final results can be distinguished: inhalation and the flow of a certain amount of air into the alveoli; diffusion of О 2 from the alveoli to the pulmonary capillaries and the binding of O 2 to hemoglobin; transport of O 2 to tissues; diffusion of O 2 from blood into tissues and CO 2 into reverse direction; transport of СО 2 to the lungs; diffusion of CO 2 from the blood into the alveolar air; exhalation. The principle of systemic quantization applies to human behavior.

Thus, the management of the body's vital activity by organizing the FS of homeostatic and behavioral levels has a number of properties that allow the body to adequately adapt to the changing external environment. FS allows you to react to the disturbing influences of the external environment and, on the basis of reverse affectation, to rebuild the activity of the organism when the parameters of the internal environment are deviated. In addition, in the central mechanisms of the FS, an apparatus for predicting future results is formed - an acceptor of the result of an action, on the basis of which adaptive acts are organized and initiated ahead of actual events, which significantly expands the adaptive capabilities of the organism. Comparison of the parameters of the achieved result with the afferent model in the acceptor of the results of action serves as the basis for correcting the body's activity in terms of obtaining exactly those results that best ensure the adaptation process.

23. The physiological nature of sleep. Sleep theories.

Sleep is a vital, periodically advancing special functional state characterized by specific electrophysiological, somatic and vegetative manifestations.

It is known that the periodic alternation of natural sleep and wakefulness refers to the so-called circadian rhythms and is largely determined by the daily change in illumination. A person spends about a third of his life in a dream, which has led to a long-standing and keen interest among researchers in this state.

Theories of sleep mechanisms. According to concepts of 3. Freud, sleep is a state in which a person interrupts conscious interaction with the external world in the name of deepening into the internal world, while external irritations are blocked. According to 3. Freud, the biological purpose of sleep is rest.

Humoral concept The main reason for the onset of sleep is explained by the accumulation of metabolic products during the waking period. According to current data, specific peptides, for example, the "delta sleep" peptide, play an important role in inducing sleep.

Information deficit theory The main reason for the onset of sleep is believed to be the limitation of sensory influx. Indeed, in observations on volunteers in preparation for a space flight, it was found that sensory deprivation (a sharp restriction or cessation of the flow of sensory information) leads to the onset of sleep.

According to I.P. Pavlov and many of his followers, natural sleep is a diffuse inhibition of cortical and subcortical structures, termination of contact with the outside world, extinction of afferent and efferent activity, disconnection of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes during sleep, as well as the development of general and private relaxation. Modern physiological studies have not confirmed the presence of diffuse inhibition. Thus, microelectrode studies revealed a high degree of neuronal activity during sleep in almost all parts of the cerebral cortex. From the analysis of the pattern of these discharges, it was concluded that the state of natural sleep represents a different organization of brain activity, which differs from the activity of the brain in the waking state.

24. Phases of sleep: "slow" and "fast" (paradoxical) according to EEG indicators. Brain structures involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness.

The most interesting results were obtained during polygraphic research during a night's sleep. During such studies throughout the night, electrical activity of the brain is continuously recorded on a multichannel recorder - an electroencephalogram (EEG) at various points (most often in the frontal, occipital and parietal lobes) synchronously with the registration of rapid (REM) and slow (MDG) eye movements and electromyograms of skeletal muscles, as well as a number of vegetative indicators - the activity of the heart, digestive tract, respiration, temperature, etc.

EEG during sleep. The discovery by E. Azerinsky and N. Kleitman of the phenomenon of "rapid", or "paradoxical" sleep, during which rapid eye movements (REM) with closed eyelids and general complete muscle relaxation were discovered, served as the basis for modern studies of the physiology of sleep. It turned out that sleep is a combination of two alternating phases: "slow" or "orthodox" sleep and "fast" or "paradoxical" sleep. The name of these sleep phases is due to the characteristic features of the EEG: during "slow" sleep, mainly slow waves are recorded, and during "REM" sleep - a fast beta rhythm characteristic of a person's wakefulness, which gave reason to call this phase of sleep "paradoxical" sleep. On the basis of the electroencephalographic picture, the phase of "slow" sleep, in turn, is divided into several stages. There are the following main stages of sleep:

stage I - drowsiness, the process of falling asleep. This stage is characterized by a polymorphic EEG, the disappearance of the alpha rhythm. During a night's sleep, this stage is usually short (1-7 minutes). Sometimes you can observe slow movements of the eyeballs (MDG), while their rapid movements (REM) are completely absent;

stage II is characterized by the appearance on the EEG of the so-called sleep spindles (12-18 per second) and vertex potentials, two-phase waves with an amplitude of about 200 μV against a general background of electrical activity with an amplitude of 50-75 μV, as well as K-complexes (vertex potential with the subsequent "sleepy spindle"). This stage is the longest of all; it can take about 50 % the entire night's sleep. No eye movements are observed;

stage III is characterized by the presence of K-complexes and rhythmic activity (5-9 per second) and the appearance of slow, or delta-waves (0.5-4 per second) with an amplitude above 75 µV. The total duration of delta waves in this stage takes from 20 to 50% of the entire III stage. There is no eye movement. Quite often, this stage of sleep is called delta sleep.

Stage IV - the stage of "fast" or "paradoxical" sleep is characterized by the presence of desynchronized mixed activity on the EEG: fast low-amplitude rhythms (in these manifestations it resembles stage I and active wakefulness - beta rhythm), which can alternate with low-amplitude slow and short flashes of alpha rhythm, sawtooth discharges, REM with closed eyelids.

Night sleep usually consists of 4-5 cycles, each of which begins with the first stages of "slow" sleep and ends with "REM" sleep. The cycle duration in a healthy adult is relatively stable and amounts to 90-100 minutes. In the first two cycles, "slow" sleep predominates, in the last - "fast", and the "delta" -sleep is sharply reduced and may even be absent.

The duration of "slow" sleep is 75-85%, and "paradoxical" - 15-25 % from the total duration of a night's sleep.

Muscle tone during sleep. Throughout all stages of NREM sleep, the tone of skeletal muscles progressively decreases; in REM sleep, muscle tone is absent.

Vegetative shifts during sleep. During "slow" sleep, the work of the heart slows down, the respiratory rate decreases, the occurrence of Cheyne-Stokes breathing is possible, as the "slow" sleep deepens, there may be partial obstruction of the upper respiratory tract and the appearance of snoring. The secretory and motor functions of the digestive tract decrease with the deepening of NREM sleep. The body temperature before falling asleep decreases and as the "slow" sleep deepens, this decrease progresses. It is believed that a decrease in body temperature may be one of the reasons for the onset of sleep. Awakening is accompanied by an increase in body temperature.

In REM sleep, the heart rate may exceed the heart rate while awake, different forms arrhythmias and a significant change in blood pressure. It is believed that a combination of these factors can lead to sudden death during sleep.

Breathing is irregular, often prolonged apnea occurs. Thermoregulation is impaired. The secretory and motor activity of the digestive tract is practically absent.

The stage of "REM" sleep is very characteristic of the presence of an erection of the penis and clitoris, which is observed from the moment of birth.

It is believed that the lack of an erection in adults indicates organic brain damage, and in children it will lead to a violation of normal sexual behavior in adulthood.

The functional significance of the individual stages of sleep is different. At present, sleep is generally considered as an active state, as a phase of the daily (circadian) biorhythm that performs an adaptive function. In a dream, the volume of short-term memory, emotional balance, and a disturbed system of psychological defenses are restored.

During delta sleep, the information received during the waking period is organized, taking into account the degree of its significance. It is assumed that during delta sleep, physical and mental performance is restored, which is accompanied by muscle relaxation and pleasant experiences; an important component of this compensatory function is the synthesis of protein macromolecules during delta sleep, including in the central nervous system, which are further used during REM sleep.

In early studies of REM sleep, it was found that significant mental changes occur with prolonged REM sleep deprivation. Emotional and behavioral disinhibition appears, hallucinations, paranoid ideas and other psychotic phenomena appear. Later, these data were not confirmed, but the effect of REM sleep deprivation on emotional status, resistance to stress, and mechanisms of psychological defense was proven. Moreover, analysis of many studies shows that REM sleep deprivation has a beneficial therapeutic effect in the case of endogenous depression. REM sleep plays a large role in reducing unproductive anxiety stress.

Sleep and mental activity, dreams. When falling asleep, volitional control over thoughts is lost, contact with reality is broken, and so-called regressive thinking is formed. It occurs with a decrease in sensory influx and is characterized by the presence of fantastic representations, dissociation of thoughts and images, fragmentary scenes. Hypnagogic hallucinations appear, which are a series of frozen visual images (such as slides), while subjectively time flows much faster than in the real world. In "delta" -sleep, conversations in a dream are possible. Tense creative activity dramatically increases the duration of "REM" sleep.

It was initially found that dreams occur in REM sleep. Later it was shown that dreams are also characteristic of "slow" sleep, especially for the stage of "delta" -sleep. The causes of occurrence, the nature of the content, the physiological significance of dreams have long attracted the attention of researchers. Among the ancient peoples, dreams were surrounded by mystical ideas about the afterlife and were identified with communication with the dead. The content of dreams was attributed to the function of interpretations, predictions or prescriptions for subsequent actions or events. Many historical monuments testify to the significant influence of the content of dreams on the everyday and socio-political life of people of almost all ancient cultures.

In the ancient era of human history, dreams were also interpreted in their connection with active wakefulness and emotional needs. Sleep, as Aristotle defined, is a continuation of the mental life that a person lives in a waking state. Long before the psychoanalysis of 3. Freud, Aristotle believed that the sensory function is reduced in sleep, yielding to the sensitivity of dreams to emotional subjective distortions.

I.M.Sechenov called dreams an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions.

All people see dreams, but many do not remember them. It is believed that in some cases this is due to the peculiarities of memory mechanisms in a particular person, while in other cases it is a kind of psychological defense mechanism. There is, as it were, a repression of dreams that are unacceptable in content, that is, we "try to forget."

Physiological significance of dreams. It lies in the fact that dreams use the mechanism of figurative thinking to solve problems that could not be solved in wakefulness with the help of logical thinking. A striking example is the well-known case of D. I. Mendeleev, who "saw" the structure of his famous periodic system elements in a dream.

Dreams are a kind of psychological defense mechanism - reconciliation of unresolved conflicts in wakefulness, relieving tension and anxiety. Suffice it to recall the proverb "the morning is wiser than the evening." When a conflict is resolved during sleep, dreams are remembered, otherwise dreams are displaced or dreams of a frightening nature arise - "only nightmares are dreamed."

Dreams differ between men and women. As a rule, in dreams, men are more aggressive, while in women, sexual components occupy a large place in the content of dreams.

Sleep and emotional stress. Studies have shown that emotional stress significantly affects night sleep, changing the duration of its stages, that is, disrupting the structure of night sleep, and altering the content of dreams. Most often, during emotional stress, a decrease in the period of "REM" sleep and an increase in the latency of falling asleep are noted. Before the exam, the subjects had a reduction in the total duration of sleep and its individual stages. For parachutists, before difficult jumps, the period of falling asleep and the first stage of "slow" sleep increase.