Jean-Paul Marat, a journalist and member of the Convention, became one of the most famous and charismatic figures of the French Revolution. His newspaper "Friend of the People" was the most important publication of his era. Marat was undoubtedly the master of minds and made himself many opponents. A turbulent era engulfed the famous publicist - he was stabbed to death by a fanatical supporter of the enemy party.

Physician career

The future revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat was born on May 24, 1743 in the Swiss town of Boudry. His father was a renowned physician, which determined the boy's future career. Jean Paul was left without parents quite early, and from his youth he had to lead a completely independent life. He constantly changed his place of residence and the way of earning money.

For ten years Jean Paul Marat was torn between Holland and England. He was a medical practitioner and publicist. In 1775, the specialist became a doctor of medicine in In addition, Marat worked for eight years as a doctor at the court of Count d'Artois - the future King of France Charles X.

Beginning of journalistic activity

By the age of 30, the writer had become quite famous in the philosophical field and had already openly argued with Voltaire. He published not only scientific works on physiology and medicine, but also became interested in social topics. In 1774, from the pen of Marat appeared "The Chains of Slavery" - one of the loudest and most popular brochures of his time. The writer corresponded to the spirit of the times - in Western Europe, and especially in France, anti-monarchist sentiments were growing. Against this background, the publicist with his loud proclamations over and over again fell into the sore nerve of society and gradually became more and more famous.

Jean Paul Marat established himself as a principled critic of absolutism. He considered bone European regimes to be despotic and hindering the development of society. Marat not only scolded the monarchy, he examined in detail the historical evolution of absolutism and its forms. In "Chains of Slavery", he proposed a new construction of a society with equal economic and political rights as an alternative to the outdated regime. His idea of ​​egalitarianism was the opposite of the then widespread elitism.

Critic of the old order

In his views, Jean-Paul Marat was recognized by many as a loyal supporter of Rousseau. At the same time, the student was able to develop some of the ideas of his teacher. A prominent place in the work of the thinker was occupied by the study of the struggle between the old feudal nobility and the bourgeoisie, which was a supporter of liberal ideas. Noting the importance of this rivalry, Marat emphasized that the more serious danger to peace in Europe is the antagonism between the rich and the poor. It was in social inequality that the writer saw the reasons for the growing crisis.

Marat was generally a consistent defender of the interests of the poor, peasantry and workers. It is for this reason that his figure has become so iconic among leftist parties. Many years later, this revolutionary will be extolled in the USSR - the streets will be named after him, and his biography will become the subject of many monographs.

"Friend of the people"

In 1789, when the revolution began in France, Marat took up the publication of his own newspaper "Friend of the People". The publicist was popular before, and in the turbulent days of civic activism, he became a truly enormous figure. Marat himself began to be called "the friend of the people." In his newspaper, he criticized any authorities for their oversights and crimes. The publication was constantly under state pressure. But whenever it came to court, Marat (the only editor) managed to get out of the water. His newspaper was wildly popular among the workers and petty bourgeoisie of Paris.

From the publication equally got both the monarchy with the royal family, and all kinds of ministers with members of the National Assembly. "Friend of the people" became one of the most important reasons for the widespread spread of radical revolutionary sentiments in the French capital. The newspaper was so popular that fake publications even appeared that tried to defame it or take advantage of the attention of its public.

Emigration and homecoming

With each month of active journalistic activity, Jean Paul Marat has acquired an increasing number of ill-wishers. A short biography of this revolutionary is an example of a constantly hiding and hiding person. He avoided not only representatives of the authorities, but also various fanatics who attempted on his life. At the height of the revolution, at the end of 1791, Marat even emigrated to England.

However, in London, the journalist was uncomfortable - he was used to being in the thick of things. After a short absence, the popular publicist returned to Paris. It was April 1792. The ferment continued, but after several years of civil unrest, the changes failed to improve the situation of the disaffected sections of the population.

Evolution of views

Many participants in the Great French Revolution constantly changed their views. Jean Paul Marat was no exception. A brief description of the evolution of his beliefs is as follows. At the first stage of the revolution, Marat advocated the preservation of the monarchy in a limited form and the dispersal of the National Assembly. In addition, he disdained the idea of ​​a republican system. In July 1791, the king tried to escape, another unrest broke out, and one of the demonstrations was even shot. After this episode, the editor of "Friend of the People" joined the supporters of the overthrow of the Bourbons.

When Louis was arrested for yet another attempt to flee the country, Marat resisted the desire of the masses to deal with the monarch without trial or investigation. The master of minds tried to defend the idea of ​​the need to comply with all legal formalities when assessing the guilt of the king. Marat was able to influence the Convention and force him to bring the issue of punishment to a roll-call vote. 387 out of 721 deputies supported the execution of Louis.

Fighting the Girondins

Since its inception, the Convention has needed such brilliant speakers as Jean Paul Marat. There was no photo at that time, but only pictures and newspaper clippings clearly demonstrate how he knew how to capture the attention of the public. Another case demonstrated the politician's charisma. Among all the revolutionary parties, Marat chose and supported the Montagnards, from whom he was elected to the Convention. Their opponents, the Girondins, subjected the journalist to daily criticism.

Marat's enemies even managed to put him on trial for saying that the Convention had become the abode of counter-revolution. However, the deputy was able to use the public process as a tribune and proved his own innocence. The Girondins believed that the star of Marat was about to finally set. However, in April 1793, after the court won, he, on the contrary, returned to the Convention in triumph. Unsinkable and omnipresent for his contemporaries was Jean-Paul Marat. In short, if not for the premature death, his fate would have been completely different.

Leader of the Jacobins

In June 1793, at the request of the angry Parisians, the deputies of the Convention expelled the Girondins from it. Power for some time passed to the Jacobins, or rather, to their three leaders - Danton, Marat and Robespierre. They headed a political club that was distinguished by its radical commitment to breaking the old feudal and monarchical order.

The Jacobins were supporters of terror, which they saw as a necessary means to achieve their political goals. In Paris, they were also known as the Society of the Friends of the Constitution. At the peak of its popularity, the Jacobin movement included up to 500 thousand supporters throughout France. Marat was not the founder of this movement, however, having joined him, he quickly became one of its leaders.

Murder

After the triumphant victory over the Girondins, Marat was greatly weakened in health. He was struck by a severe skin ailment. Medicines did not help, and in order to somehow ease his suffering, the journalist constantly took baths. In this position, he not only wrote, but even received visitors.

It was in such circumstances that on July 13, 1793, Charlotte Corday came to Marat. Unfortunately for her victim, she was an ardent supporter of the Girondins. The woman stabbed the weakened and helpless revolutionary. The bath, where Jean Paul Marat was killed, was depicted in his famous painting by Jacques Louis David (his painting "The Death of Marat" became one of the most famous works of art dedicated to that turbulent era). First, the journalist's body was buried in the Pantheon. After another change of power in 1795, it was moved to an ordinary cemetery. One way or another, but the assassination of Jean Paul Marat became one of the loudest in the entire French Revolution.

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✪ People's friend Jean-Paul Marat.

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Medical and scientific activities

Having lost his parents, Jean-Paul earned a living from lessons and medical practice, moving from city to city. For more than 10 years he lived in England and Holland and spoke here with a number of books and brochures, which immediately created numerous enemies for him with a passionate tone and harsh attacks on authorities. There is evidence that he was going to take British citizenship in order to marry Anna-Letizia Aikin.

In 1773 he published the book "On Man, or Principles and Laws of the Influence of the Soul on the Body and the Body on the Soul" (fr. "De l'homme ou des principes et des lois de l'influence de l" âme sur le corps et du corps sur l "âme") (Amsterdam), which involved him in polemics with Voltaire; it was followed by the revolutionary pamphlet The Chains of Slavery London, 1774; French edition Les chaînes de l'esclavage, Paris, 1792 et seq.).

His works on natural sciences date back to the same time, the most significant drawback of which is the incredible arrogance in the reviews of such scientists as Newton, d'Alembert, Lavoisier. Marat also attacked those researchers who were ready to pay attention to his experiments, such as A. Volta. Among the admirers of Marat's scientific talents was his future political opponent J.P. Brissot. Brissot attacked the French Academy, which did not recognize Marat. Of interest are Jean-Paul's thoughts on the use of electricity in medicine. In 1775, the University of Edinburgh awarded him a Doctor of Medicine degree. From 1779 to 1787 Marat was a physician in the court staff of the Count d'Artois.

On September 21, 1794, his body was transferred to the Pantheon, but 8 vantose III (February 26, 1795) was removed from it and reburied in the cemetery near the Church of Saint-Etienne-du-Mont.

Perpetuation of the name and memory of Marat in the USSR

In 1921, the flagship of the Red Banner Baltic Fleet, the former battleship Petropavlovsk, was named after Marat. (In 1943, the battleship was returned to its former name).

In the USSR, apologetic biographies of Marat were published (for example, in the ZhZL series and the PR series), and some of his works were also published.

Film incarnations

Notes (edit)

1. BNF ID: 2011 Open Data Platform.
2. Sycomore / Assemblée nationale
3. SNAC - 2010.
4. LIBRIS - 2012.
5. Chereisky L.A. Pushkin and his entourage / Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Dept. lit. and lang. Pushkin. commission. Resp. ed. V. E. Vatsuro. - 2nd ed., Add. and revised - L .: Science. Leningrad. department, 1989. - S. 50-51.
6. Rodgers, Betsy. Georgian Chronicle: Mrs Barbauld & her Family. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd. (1958), 44.
7. Françoise Thelamon, Olivier Dumoulin, Jean Pierre Vernant, Olivier Dumoulin, Françoise Thelamon. Autour des morts. - Univ Rouen Havre. - S. 255.- 449 p. - ISBN 9782877756082.
8. vulica.by/marata.html
9. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kramatorsk_Streets

Literature

• Marat J.P. Pamphlets. / Ed. co will enter. article and comment. Ts. Friedland. - M.-L .: Academia, 1934 .-- 856 p.
• Marat J.P. Pamphlets. / Under total. ed. F. Kon. - M.: Sotsekgiz, 1937 .-- 135 p.
• Marat J.P. Selected works: In 3 volumes / [Otv. ed. acad. V.P. Volgin]. Comp .: Acad. V.P. Volgin and A.Z. Manfred. Per. S. B. Kahn. Entry. article by A.Z. Manfred. Comment. V. M. Dalina. - M .: Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1956.
  • T. 1: Before the revolution. - 360 p.: P.
  • T. 2: From the beginning of the revolution to the Varenna crisis. - 316 p .: p.
  • Vol. 3: From the flight of the king to the fall of the monarchy. / Per. with comment. V. M. Dalina. - 420 p .: p.
• A.P. Levandovsky Heart of my Marat: The Story of Jean Paul Marat .. - M.: Politizdat, 1975. - 478 p. - (Ardent revolutionaries).
• Valovoy D., Valovaya M., Lapshina G. Boldness. - M.: Young Guard, 1989 .-- S. 60-78. - 314 p.
• Dumas A. Collected Works. T. 48. Engineer. Per. from French L. Tokareva. Comments by T. Gioeva, F. Ryabov. Illustrations by E. Ganeshin. - M .: Art-Business Center, 2000 .-- 640 p.
• Vagman I. Ya., Vukina N. V., Miroshnikova V. V. 100 famous tyrants. - Kharkov: Folio, 2003 .-- S. 322-326. - 510 p. - (100 famous).

Foreign literature

• Excerpts from the works of M. published Vermorel ("resuvres de Marat", 1869),
• a detailed biography was written by Alfred Bougeart ("Marat", 1865; in the appendix a complete bibliography of M.'s works).
• See also Ch. Brunet, "Marat, dit l'Ami du peuple" (1862);
• Louis Combes, Episodes et curiosités révolutionnaires (1872);
• Aulard, "L" éloquence parlementaire pendant la révolution française. Les orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention "(P., 1885).
• Jean-Paul-Marat - Œuvres Politiques 1789-1793 (10 vol.), Textes et guide de lecture établis par Jacques De Cock et Charlotte Goëtz, Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, 1989-1995.
• Marat corrigé par lui-même, Chantier Marat 1, Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, 1990.
• Marat en entier et plus que Marat, Vrais et faux journaux de Marat à la Bibliothèque de Lunel (Chantier Marat 5), Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, Montpellier: Center d'Etude du XVIIIe siècle, 1995.
• Marat: Sur le Jugement du chef de l'Exécutif, Chantier Marat 6, Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, 1998.
• Marat en famille: la saga des Mara (t) (2 vol. Chantiers Marat 7-8), Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, 2001
• Plume de Marat - Plumes sur Marat, pour une bibliographie générale, Chantiers Marat 9-10), Pôle Nord, Bruxelles, 2 vol., 2006.

A source

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - SPb. , 1890-1907.

Links

	Marat, Jean-Paul in Wikiquote
	in Wikisource
	Marat, Jean-Paul at Wikimedia Commons

The full name of this woman is Marie Anna Charlotte Corday d'Armont (1768-1793), but she went down in history as Charlotte Corday. This young lady became famous for the fact that on July 13, 1793, she murdered Marat, an ardent enemy of the Girondins. Jean-Paul Marat was a man of great organizational skills and great energy. He fought for terror, for the destruction of a few for the happiness of the majority.

This position of his caused a sharp rejection from Charlotte Corday, who at first adhered to royalist views, and then became a supporter of revolutionary ideas, but only in the form preached by the Girondins. The girl categorically denied any terror, as he disgusted her. However, here we see a paradox. By killing Marat, she thereby herself became a bearer of terror and nullified all her beliefs about the denial of violence.

Charlotte Corday

This women came from a noble family. He had ancient roots, but his father was the third son in the family. In accordance with the order of inheritance of property (by prerogative), the elder brother received everything. And the third son was forced to serve in the army, and after retirement to engage in agriculture. He had his own farm, where Charlotte was born.

The girl's primary education was given by her father's brother, who was a Catholic parish priest (curé). At the age of 14, the girl, along with her younger sister Eleanor, was assigned to the Abbey of the Holy Trinity in the city of Cana. The girls were taken there as boarders, that is, women living in a boarding house on state support.

This Benedictine monastery had a rich library, and access to it was open to everyone, and the books on the shelves had more than spiritual content. Charlotte got acquainted with the works of such prominent French writers and philosophers as Charles de Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Guillaume Tom Reinal.

These works made a very big impression on the young and inexperienced girl. Gradually, certain political views began to form in her. She was for the royal dynasty with all her heart, but she considered Louis XVI a weak and weak-willed person. She dreamed of a strong and strong-willed monarch who could make France a rich and powerful country.

In 1789 the Great French Revolution began, and at the end of 1790 the monastery was closed. The sisters had to first return to their father, and in June 1791 Charlotte Corday again left for the city of Caen and settled in the house of her second cousin de Betville. It should be noted that the young girl was not at all interested in men. She spent all her time reading newspapers and various political brochures. She, like a sponge, absorbed all the information, but at the same time remained a person who was selflessly devoted to the monarchy.

The execution of King Louis XVI, which took place on December 11, 1792, shocked our heroine to the core. She sincerely mourned the death of the monarch, and she saw the future as a nightmare filled with horrors. The young woman cursed the people who had done this, and mentally called them executioners.

Meanwhile, the revolution was under way. On June 2, 1793, the Girondins were expelled from the Convention. Power was concentrated in the hands of a member of the Jacobin Club, Robespierre, as well as Marat and Danton, who were leaders of the Montagnards. And the Girondins, saving their lives, were forced to flee. Many of them ended up in Caen in June 1793. In this city, they created the center of the opposition.

It is quite understandable that Charlotte reacted with great interest to all these events. She also met some of the Girondins, among whom the greatest impression on her was made by Jean Charles Marie Barbara. It should be noted that this man, during the trial of Louis XVI, voted for the death of the monarch, but with an appeal to the people. After the execution, the monarch entered into confrontation with Robespierre and Marat, accusing them of striving for dictatorship. On May 31, 1793, he was declared an enemy of the Republic. He fled to Caen, where he met Charlotte Corday.

Jean-Paul Marat

It is not known what role Barbara played in Corday's decision to assassinate one of the leaders of the French Revolution. But he managed to captivate the young woman with the ideas of the Girondins. She became a Republican because she began to trust these people, and then she had a desire to go to Paris.

What for? Well, certainly not to admire the beauty of the French capital. At the same time, the Girondins had already left the city, and the girl herself did not know anyone there. From this we can conclude that the original purpose of her trip was not to help the Girondins, but to kill Marat or Robespierre.

But it was necessary to arrive in the capital under a plausible pretext. I found this one. Charlotte Corday told everyone that she was going to work for a pension for her good friend from the Abbey of the Holy Trinity. She left France and was very poor. Our heroine asked Barbara to write her a letter of recommendation. And he scribbled a few words to the deputy of the Convention Claude Romain Loz-Duperre. For some time he was close with the Girondins, but was a member of the Jacobin Club, and therefore, after June 2, he retained his parliamentary powers.

Murder of Marat

Before leaving for Paris, Corday destroyed all her papers and wrote a letter to her father. In it, she announced that she was leaving the country for England and intends to settle in London. She left the next morning and arrived in Paris on 11 July. After settling in the hotel, Charlotte immediately went to Claude Romain. He listened to the visitor and said that he could do nothing, since he was registered as a supporter of the Girondins and was deprived of all powers.

But Kordet was not only bothering about her friend's pension. She had not yet decided who to kill for the good of France, and therefore tried to find out everything about Robespierre and Marat. The first was among people all the time, and it was extremely difficult to carry out an act of retribution against him. But Jean-Paul Marat was constantly at home, suffering from eczema. Suffering from severe itching, he spent most of his time in a bath of warm water. And even, sitting in the bath, he received visitors.

Therefore, in the evening, returning to the hotel, the young woman made a choice in favor of the second bloody revolutionary and wrote an appeal to the people of France. In it, she, in particular, said that by killing Marat, she would not break the law, since this man himself put himself outside the law. She will lay down her head for her beloved homeland so that her death will become the banner under which the French people will unite.

In the early morning of July 13, Charlotte drove to Marat's house in a city carriage, but did not get beyond the waiting room. Simone Evrard led the flow of visitors, and she did not let the visitor from Caen to one of the main leaders of the Great French Revolution. But this did not discourage our heroine. Toward evening, she reappeared at the reception and asked to give Marat a note. It spoke of the Caen conspiracy and the list of conspirators.

Murder of Marat

Jean-Paul, having read the note, became interested in the information and ordered to invite Charlotte Corday to him. He took it while sitting in the bath. The visitor handed him a pre-prepared list of conspirators. Marat began to read it, then raised his eyes, looked at the woman and said that all of them would soon be on the guillotine. After that, he again went deep into reading, and the visitor took out a dagger hidden in the folds of her clothes and stabbed Marat 2 times in the chest.

The last thing that Jean-Paul managed to do was to call out loud to Simone Evrard. After that, he gave up his ghost, and Charlotte managed to run out into the hallway, but she was detained there.

Subsequent events

Justice over the murderer of Marat was done quickly. On the morning of July 17, 1793, the Revolutionary Tribunal sentenced Corday to the guillotine. And on the same day in the evening the sentence was carried out. Going to the execution, the woman held herself proudly and with dignity. From prison to Revolution Square she was transported in a cart, and Charlotte stood on her feet all the time, refusing to sit down. She peered into the eyes of the Parisians, apparently trying to make sure that it was not in vain that she was going to her death.

Climbing the platform, she asked the executioner to step aside in order to get a better look at the guillotine. Her head was cut off at 19 hours and 30 minutes. After that, the body was subjected to a medical examination and made sure that the executed was a virgin. The remains were buried in the Madeleine cemetery in one of the dug ditches. When the Bourbons returned to France, the cemetery was liquidated. And now it is impossible to find the remains of this woman.

Subsequently, Charlotte Corday received the status of an ardent opponent of the Great French Revolution. During the restoration of the Bourbons, she began to be revered as a national heroine. Alexander Pushkin compared this woman to the goddess of vengeance. The French in the 21st century made the film Charlotte Corday. But the main role in it was played not by the French, but by the Belgian actress Emilie Deckienne. The opponent of terror immortalized her name, but not with calls for mercy and forgiveness, but again through terror, which once again proved the amazing paradox of human actions.

The name of one of the radical leaders of the Great French Revolution Jean-Paul Marat well known in Russia. During the Soviet era, the Jacobin Marat was considered the forerunner of the communist movement. Streets in many cities of the country were named after him. Hero of Songs Alexandra Rosenbaum"I was once happy on Marat Street."

Revolutionary as a court physician

We meet the name of Marat at a very young age: from poetry Sergei Mikhalkov about Uncle Stepa it is known that the giant hero served during the war on the battleship "Marat". Incidentally, such a warship was indeed part of the USSR Navy.

Moreover, the surname "Marat" itself became a popular international name in the Soviet Union.

A native of Switzerland, Jean-Paul Marat was born on May 24, 1743 in the family of a famous doctor. Having received a good education, Marat also became a doctor. The young physician could not sit in one place - he traveled to various cities, earning a living as a medical practice.

In addition to his medical ability, Jean-Paul Marat was a born orator and publicist who questioned all the social foundations of the time. Radical and harsh judgments, on the one hand, brought him popularity, and on the other, allowed Marat to make many opponents, including among influential people.

Marat did not recognize authority - he entered into sharp polemics with Voltaire, was critical of scientific work Newton and Lavoisier... Opponents, recognizing the undoubted talent of Marat, noted his extreme conceit.

From 1779 to 1787, the future tribune of the revolution, Jean-Paul Marat, was a court physician at Count d'Artois- in 1824, this representative of the royal house of Bourbons will ascend the throne under the name Charles X... However, his reign will also end in revolution - in 1830 he will be overthrown from the throne.

However, these events will take place much later than the story we are talking about today.

Jean-Paul Marat's career underwent dramatic changes with the outbreak of the French Revolution. A physician who successfully combined work under the royal family with writing radical works on the restructuring of society, in 1789 he plunged headlong into revolutionary events.

Exposer of "enemies of the people"

Marat created his own project for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and began to publish the newspaper "Friend of the People", which was destined to become the main ideological mouthpiece of the revolution.

From the pages of his publication, the bright publicist exposed the crimes of the regime, branded the royal family, corrupt ministers, and unscrupulous deputies. Marat's influence on the masses grew day by day - no one except him could so successfully incite revolutionary fanaticism among the masses.

Of course, Marat had more than enough opponents. Monarchists and moderate revolutionaries hated him, believing that the "Friend of the People" was calling the masses to terror.

Actually, it was so. In 1791, Marat had to hide from persecution in London, but on his return he continued his activities.

Jean-Paul Marat wrote that the fight against counter-revolution must be fierce, and if the renewal of society needs to decapitate hundreds and thousands of "enemies of the people", these heads must be immediately cut off.

The very term "enemy of the people" was not born in the Soviet Union at all, but in revolutionary France - Marat began to publish lists of "enemies of the people" in his newspaper, and the fate of those who fell into them was extremely sad.

Marat was one of the most ardent supporters of the execution of the deposed King Louis XVI of France and greeted her.

In 1793, during a period of fierce struggle between the radical Jacobins, whose leaders were Robespierre both Marat, and the more moderate Girondins, the latter succeeded in obtaining a trial against the publisher of the Friend of the People, accusing him of inciting murder. However, the Revolutionary Tribunal on April 24, 1793 fully acquitted Marat.

Jean-Paul Marat was at the height of his fame, but less than three months remained before his death.

An ancient rebel

Charlotte Corday, whose full name is Marie Anna Charlotte Corday d'Armont, was born on July 27, 1768 in Normandy. She came from an ancient noble family, and her great-grandfather was Pierre Corneille- the founder of the genre of French tragedy.

The girl received her primary education at home, and then, in the tradition of the time, was placed in the guesthouse of the Benedictine Abbey of the Holy Trinity in Cana. By that time, the wind of change was blowing in France with might and main - in the abbey, young pupils were allowed to read not only religious literature, but also works Montesquieu and Russo.

In 1790, in the spirit of revolutionary transformations, the monastery was closed, and Charlotte Corday returned home.

Contemporaries recalled that 22-year-old Charlotte was a "man of a new era" - she did not think about marriage, she preferred newspapers and revolutionary literature to romance novels. Once at a dinner with relatives, a young noblewoman indulged in unheard-of insolence, refusing to drink for the king. Charlotte said that Louis XVI is a weak monarch, and weak monarchs bring only misfortune to their people.

Charlotte Corday was a Republican, but she strongly opposed terror and was shocked by the execution of the king. “The people who promised us freedom killed her, they are just executioners,” Charlotte wrote to a friend.

The 24-year-old girl believed that she had to do something in order to influence the historical process. Caen, where she lived, had by then become the center of the Girondist opposition against the Jacobins.

Charlotte Corday decided that terror could be stopped if the ideologue of terror, Jean-Paul Marat, was destroyed.

Kitchen knife as a tool of history

To implement her plan, she met with the Girondins who had arrived in Caen and received a letter of recommendation from them to their associates - the deputies of the Convention in Paris. Charlotte did not disclose her real goal - she said that she allegedly wanted to plead about her friend at the boarding house, who was left without a livelihood.

Arriving in Paris on July 11, 1793, Charlotte Corday began to look for a meeting with Marat. The girl realized that she herself would not be able to survive the assassination attempt, so she wrote several farewell letters, as well as “An Appeal to the French, Friends of Laws and the World,” in which she explained the motives of her act. “Oh, France! Your peace depends on the observance of the laws; killing Marat, I do not break the laws; condemned by the universe, he stands outside the law ... I want my last breath to benefit my fellow citizens, so that my head, folded in Paris, would serve as the banner of uniting all the friends of the law! " - wrote Charlotte Corday.

The girl tried to meet with Marat, ostensibly in order to give him a new list of "enemies of the people" who settled in Cana.

By that time, Jean-Paul Marat almost did not appear at the Convention - he suffered from a skin disease, and his suffering was relieved only by the bath, in which he was at home and received visitors.

After several appeals, on July 13, 1793, Charlotte Corday achieved an audience with Marat. She brought with her a kitchen knife from a Parisian store.

When they met, Charlotte told him about the traitors who had gathered in Cana, and Marat noticed that they would soon go to the guillotine. At that moment, the girl stabbed Marat, who was in the bathroom, with a knife, killing him on the spot.

Korde was captured immediately. By some miracle, she was saved from the wrath of the crowd, who wanted to deal with her right at the corpse of the defeated idol.

Posthumous slap in the face

After interrogation, she was sent to prison. The investigation and trial were swift, and the verdict was obvious. Charlotte Corday did not ask for leniency, but insisted that she had committed the murder alone. This did not help - in Paris, the arrests of her alleged accomplices had already begun, who were also facing a death sentence.

In those days there was no photography, but the artist Goyer on the day of the trial and a few hours before the execution, he made a sketch of the portrait of the murderer Marat.

A jury on the morning of July 17 unanimously sentenced Charlotte Corday to death. The girl was put on a red dress - according to tradition, murderers and poisoners were executed in it.

According to the executioner, Charlotte Corday behaved courageously. She stood all the way to the place of execution in Republic Square. When the guillotine appeared in the distance, the executioner wanted to close her view from the condemned, but Charlotte herself asked him to move away - she said that she had never seen this instrument of death, and she was very curious.

Charlotte Corday refused to confess. At half past seven in the evening, she ascended the scaffold and was executed in the presence of a large crowd of people. The carpenter helping set up the platform grabbed the girl's severed head and expressed his contempt at her by slapping her face. This act pleased the radical supporters of Marat, but was condemned by the official authorities.

The personality of Charlotte Corday caused a lot of controversy after the execution. For example, the corpse was examined by doctors who confirmed that the 24-year-old girl was a virgin.

Her body was buried in the Madeleine cemetery in Paris. Subsequently, after the Napoleonic era, the cemetery was demolished.

Marat and his best student

Jean-Paul Marat was buried the day before the execution of Charlotte Corday, on July 16, 1793 in the garden of the Cordelier Club. In honor of Marat, Montmartre and the city of Le Havre were renamed for some time. The ambiguous attitude towards his personality led to the fact that in France, and much later in the Soviet Union, the objects named in his honor were then given historical names again. Marat's body in 1794, after the overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship, was transferred to the Pantheon, but then, with the next revision of the assessment of the politician's personality, it was removed from it and reburied in the Saint-Etienne-du-Mont cemetery.

However, the share of Charlotte Corday is even less enviable. First, despite her assurances that she acted alone, the death of Marat became the reason for the intensification of mass repressions against the "enemies of the people." The family of Charlotte Corday had to go into exile, and her uncle and brother, who participated in the armed uprising of the Royalists, were shot.

Secondly, the Republican Charlotte Corday was declared a royalist by Jacobin propaganda and became the idol of the monarchists. Worse, the girl who went on self-sacrifice, unwillingly, gave the name to the fashion accessory - “Charlotte” was called a hat, consisting of a bavolette - a cap with a frill at the back of the head - and a mantoniere - a ribbon that holds the hat. This headdress became extremely popular among the supporters of the monarchy, and a century later - among the opponents of the Paris Commune of 1871.

One of the theorists of socialism Louis Blanc wrote later that Charlotte Corday actually turned out to be the most ardent follower of the principles of Jean-Paul Marat, perfecting his logical principle, according to which the lives of a few can be sacrificed for the well-being of an entire nation.

Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov

Report on the topic:

Jean-Paul Marat and revolutionary terror

Prepared by:

3rd year student, Faculty of History, IMO-1

Timoshkov Nikita Pavlovich

Checked:

Candidate of Historical Sciences,

Associate Professor Dmitry Bovykin

Moscow 2013

Introduction

Review of sources

Literature review

Chapter 1. Formation of Marat's personality

Chapter 2. Marat in the initial period of the revolution

Chapter 3. New views of Marat. Montagnards against the Girondins

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

Introduction

The end of the 18th century is one of the most dramatic periods in the history of France. The outdated royal regime is no longer able to keep up with the emerging bourgeois society. The growing contradictions lead to a revolution that forever changed the image of France. The Great French Revolution is the largest transformation of the socio-political system of France, which gave rise to many outstanding personalities (from Necker and Babeuf to Robespierre and Napoleon). But there was one man, the glorious son of the revolution, who left a special mark. His name is Jean-Paul Marat. The "Iron Chancellor" of Germany, Otto von Bismarck, said: Revolutions are planned by geniuses, carried out by romantics, and the fruits are used by villains. " All these epithets to one degree or another apply to our hero.

Being a doctor by education, finding his vocation in politics, Jean-Paul Marat made significant changes not only in the history of France, but also determined the development of legislation “... Neither the weak-minded, nor the insane, nor the old people who fell into childhood should be punished, for they themselves do not realize when they are doing evil, and generally hardly know what they are doing ... "

As one of the founders of the Jacobin Club, Marat relied on the "popular masses". Possessing countless talents, including perfect oratory, Jean-Paul Marat captured the minds of the people, infecting them with his passion and desire for “Freedom. Equality. Brotherhood. " The famous newspaper "Friend of the People" became the method of influence. Simplicity, clarity, passion, brilliant and at the same time natural, not at all contrived turns of speech - all this made Marat an exceptional stylist of newspaper political prose. The publication became famous for the scandalous revelations of everyone and everything. Calls to violence, apocalyptic predictions earned Marat popularity in the lower ranks of society, as well as the hatred of numerous enemies.

The purpose of this work is to study the phenomenon of Jean-Paul Marat, as well as the emergence of the concept of "revolutionary terror".

To achieve the goal, it is necessary to resolve the following tasks:

A) Consider the personality of Marat, the formation of political views.

B) Understand the motives of Marat's views.

C) Study the evolution of the concept of "terror" in the framework of the change in political views of Marat during the stages of the Great French Revolution.

Review of sources

The newspaper "Friend of the People" is undoubtedly a literary reflection of the Great French Revolution. A newspaper called "Parisian Publicist" was published in Paris from September 12, 1789, later renamed "Friend of the People", and until the last day of Marat's life. Jean-Paul Marat, being the sole editor of this newspaper, exposed the crimes of the authorities with his articles, inspiring the people to repress the ranks of officials. The main readers were representatives of the petty bourgeoisie and the working class. Repeated attempts to stop the publication of the newspaper, in my opinion, only strengthened the ideas of the people, invested by Marat.

Jean-Paul Marat's literary works were appreciated, in the XX century his articles became the basis for numerous books and publications. The most profound, in my opinion, are the works “Marat Jean-Paul. Selected Works ”and“ Marat Jean-Paul. Pamphlets ". They contain Marat's "living speech", articles from "Friend of the People" translated into Russian.

1. Marat Jean-Paul. Selected works.

Undoubtedly, the main source of my report is “Selected Works” by J.P. Marat. This work was written by Volgin and Manfred, leading scholars in the study of the French Revolution, and published by the Moscow publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1956. Selected works are a textbook, which contains a huge amount of facts, reasoning and a description of the actions of our hero. Colossal work, published in three volumes.

Volume 1 "Before the Revolution", consisting of 360 pages, contains pre-revolutionary works of Zh-P. Marat. Volume 2. "From the beginning of the revolution to the Varennes crisis" (316 pages) is devoted to the articles and speeches of Marat of the corresponding historical period. Volume 3. "From the flight of the king to the fall of the monarchy", consisting of 420 pages, contains the works of Marat from the Varenna crisis until July 13, 1793 until his death. The construction of this work in strict accordance with history allows the reader to see the dynamics of the development of political thoughts of Jean-Paul Marat, to feel the growing passion, to define the principles and understand the concept of Marat's works.

From the first lines, the insane, passionate love for their homeland is obvious: “Fair heaven! Why can't he transmit to the souls of his fellow citizens the fire that devours him, why can't he leave the tyrants of the whole world with a terrible example of popular reprisal? Oh, my fatherland! Accept the expression of my grief and despair! "

As the flip side of Marat's personality, there is an equally passionate and insane vision of the revolution. Methods of combating inequality and the political system are cruel and bloody: "... citizens, we will erect 800 gallows and hang on them all these traitors to the fatherland, headed by Ricketti, and at the same time set up a big fire in the middle of the pool to roast ministers and henchmen on it."

The bright emotional coloring of the works, nevertheless, allows the reader not to be distracted from the essence of Marat's judgments, building a logical chain from them. Literary work allows not only to see the psychological portrait of the hero, to understand his worldview and to consider his literary talent, but also, thanks to biographical digressions, to connect together with the events of that time.

It is no coincidence that this work belongs to the series "Literary Monuments", it clearly shows the ideological foundations of revolutions in general, using the example of Marat's judgments, allows one to feel the people's mood, to feel the "taste" of the struggle for justice.

2. Marat Jean-Paul. Pamphlets.

A pamphlet (English, from palme-feuillet - a leaf that is held in hand) in literature is called a publicistic work of a certain orientation, namely, a specific, civil, mainly socio-political exposure. This is exactly what Jean-Paul Marat's articles published in the “Friend of the People” newspaper are all about. Initially, this work was published in 1934 under the editorship and commentary of Ts.Fridland by the Moscow-Leningrad publishing house Academia, and contained more than 850 pages. However, in 1937 a book of the same name was published by the Moscow publishing house Sotsekgiz, edited by F. Cohn, containing 136 pages.

The pamphlets represent the first Russian-language edition of articles, brochures and posters of the Friend of the People for 1770-1793. Until now, Marat has been portrayed as a monster in historical literature; at best, his behavior was justified by the circumstances and conditions of the war; the task of the collection is to give its true image.

Marat was a master of this kind of creativity, vehemently denouncing his enemies. Reading the Pamphlets, one can clearly trace how the rhetoric of his statements changed over time, the transformation of his views. It is appropriate in this case to give a small example that emphasizes the extreme radicalism of the author at a certain stage of his life: Each time, the number of heads that Marat considered necessary to demolish increased. In the beginning, 500-600 was enough to keep the people at the opened abyss. Already after 6 months, during which they foolishly allowed the irreconcilable authorities to "weave conspiracies", their number increased to 5-6 thousand. But if even 20 thousand heads have to be cut down, wrote Marat, this will only be a necessary measure to prevent much more terrible misfortunes. Finally, in 1793. He was convinced that "freedom will never triumph until the criminal heads of 200 thousand villains are taken down" Marat's pamphlets are a direct reflection of reality as he saw. Yes, it is slightly embellished by what Marat wrote, namely, the denunciation of "enemies of the people and the revolution." Unlike the Selected Works, there is more of an emotional component, more of everyday life. Here Jean-Paul's temperament is more vividly presented.

Literature review

Most of the literary works, historical essays and textbooks dedicated to the Great French Revolution, in one way or another, refer to the statements of Marat. This is not surprising, because a comprehensive idea of ​​revolutionary action cannot be obtained without studying the socio-psychological aspect, which is fully reflected in the works of Jean-Paul Marat.

1. Tarle E.V. "Jean-Paul Marat, Friend of the People"

Evgeny Viktorovich Tarle became one of the representatives of Soviet historical science studying the works of Marata. Published in 1957-1962 (Moscow, USSR Academy of Sciences Publishing House) works in 12 volumes by E.V. Tarle was a fundamental work on foreign history. The article "Jean-Paul Marat, Friend of the People" was written in 1936 and published in volume VI of these works (pages 263-290).

In this article, E. Tarle gives a professional assessment of Marat's activities, bringing together his autobiography and political work. Analyzing the activities and “political preaching” of Marat, Tarle does not hide his admiration: “Marat succeeded in something that no one of the foremost leaders of the French Revolution, even the most sincerely democratic minded, was able to do so much:“ the people ”, the same“ kind Parisian people ", For which Marat wrote, recognized him as his ...", recognizes the revolutionary's literary talent: "The colossal success of Marat's newspaper was based, among other things, on the fact that he did not try to achieve this success, never faked or grimaced about anything. The sincerity of his writing style had a direct and powerful effect on his readers. "

However, as an objective historian, Tarlet also shows the other side of Jean-Paul Marat: his cruelty, rage, and insane passion of struggle: “with an internal ulcer, exterminate counter-revolutionaries, no matter what nicknames they hide behind, execute traitors, in whatever outfit they are. appeared. "

Undoubtedly, the objective view of the figure of historical science has provided invaluable assistance in writing this work.

2. A.Z. Manfred "Marat"

No less famous Soviet historian Albert Zakharovich Manfred, being a narrow specialist in the history of France, also could not ignore the personality of Jean-Paul Marat. In 1962, the Moscow publishing house of the Komsomol Central Committee "Young Guard" published the book by A. Manfred "Marat". All 352 pages of the book are devoted to the biography of Marat. Albert Zakharovich does not hide his admiration for the events of the late 18th century in France, praising the revolution. The image of Marat as a harbinger and ideologue of terror is presented exclusively positively, as a fighter for people's freedom and justice. Manfred, like Tarle, admires the revolutionary's journalistic talent, but does not consider him cruel. “Marat was a great humanist. He lived a difficult life - wandering, full of hardships, unsettled. " The author admires literally everything in Marat: his patriotism, independence from material values, his “great and bright literary talent”.

This book is valuable for a detailed description of the events of that time, the author spares no words, describing other revolutionary leaders, their actions and the political situation surrounding them.

In addition to "Marat", the author has written a number of books in which the personality of Jean-Paul Marat is presented no less admiringly. These are "Three Portraits of the Epoch of the Great French Revolution", published by the Moscow publishing house "Mysl" in 1979, and "The Great French Revolution", published by the Moscow publishing house "Science" in 1983.

3. A.P. Levandovsky “The heart of my Marat. The Tale of the Great French Revolutionary "

Anatoly Petrovich Lewandovsky, Soviet and Russian historian and writer, has published many works devoted to famous personalities in history. Published in 1975 by the Moscow publishing house "Politizdat", the book "Heart of my Marat. The Tale of the Great Revolutionary ”is written as if the author was present next to Marat. “I saw the heart of Marat. I held this heart in my hands and thought that, in fact, I had already seen it hundreds of times. It was no different from many others, from those that were shown to us once in the lessons of anatomy, from those with which I later fiddled with during autopsies. "

This book can be classified as fiction rather than scientific. However, it gives a very complete picture of the character of Marat. Through the prism of the author's attitude to this character, Marat seems to be more of a victim of the revolution. "... A friend of the people protects all the unfortunate." The death of Jean-Paul is presented in a very dramatic way.

This work of Lewandowski is good in that it clearly reveals the interaction of Marat with his associates, their relationship, contradictions and mutual assistance.

In addition to her, Lewandowski has a very interesting work within the framework of this report - "Triumvirs of the Revolution" about the three leaders of the Great French bourgeois revolution - Marat, Danton and Robespierre. In it, the reasons for certain actions of the revolutionaries are explained in artistic language, and their motives are assessed.

4. Fiction, reference and contemporary literature

From fiction I would like to highlight the historical novel by Alexandre Dumas "Ingene". It describes a love drama played out against the background of the events of the pre-revolutionary period. Collected Works.

Peter Weiss's play “The Persecution and Murder of Jean-Paul Marat presented by the artistic troupe of the Charenton psychiatric hospital under the direction of Monsieur De Sade” in three acts is a very striking piece of fiction. The author scolds the people "they killed your friend, and you stood and allowed this weight, out of inertness, out of ignorance, out of laziness of thought! .."

Valovoy D., Valovaya M., Lapshina G. Daring. The book is dedicated to famous public figures to whom, according to Lenin's decree, it was supposed to erect monuments throughout the USSR. Including there is a story about our hero.

From modern literature, one can single out the book by I.Ya. Vagman, N.V. Vukina, V.V. Miroshnikova. "100 Famous Tyrants". Jean-Paul is presented in the book as the founder of revolutionary terror.

Mark Aldanov's essay "Marat's Bath" is a historical excursion into the day of the murder of Jean-Paul Marat, as well as a description of the cultural heritage after Marat: museum exhibits "In the basement of the Grevin wax museum, a life-size scene of Marat's murder is depicted." depicting the death of Marat, David was promised 24 thousand livres, but he was paid only 12 thousand. " The death of Marat is described in detail by the author, which allows you to deeply immerse yourself in the tragedy and restore the full picture of the events of that day.

It should be noted the numerous articles and essays dedicated to Jean-Paul Marat, both in Russian, for example, articles by Kropotkin, Zilber, and in French - Marat's letters, publications of his associates, essays by Geniffe, Paul Nord, etc. Marat's personality is nobody left indifferent. Not only literary monuments are dedicated to him, in many cities there are streets named in his honor, several paintings have been written, for example, J.L. David. 1793 "Death of Marat", created several exhibitions in museums.

Jean-Paul Marat left behind a great cultural heritage, himself becoming a monument to the Great French Revolution.

In addition to literature dedicated to the personality of Jean-Paul Marat, I also used a number of reference books (Ozhegov's dictionary, Soviet encyclopedic dictionary), textbooks on the history of foreign countries (E.V. Tomchak, T.B. Isaeva), works dedicated to the Great French Revolution , publications and monographs of scientists from various industries who study the concept of "terror" and "terrorism" (A. Garmasha, V. Lakiora., Antonyana Yu.M., Valeeva A.S., etc.)

Chapter 1. Formation of Marat's personality

The first chapter of the report is devoted to the biographical data of the hero.

Jean Paul Marat - the son of an artist father and a doctor mother, was born on May 24, 1743 in the small town of Budri in the principality of Neuchâtel (Switzerland). Switzerland at that time was the country of the most democratic order in Europe. This is largely due to the policy of neutrality in the Peace of Westphalia in 1649, as well as the doctrine of Calvinism, in contrast to Catholicism, encouraging the development of science and philosophy. Naturally, this situation could not but affect the young Marat. The boy's amazing abilities were manifested from childhood: in addition to an obvious passion for German philosophy, Marat is also engaged in volunteering - he helps beggars and vagabonds to recover from diseases. It was then that Marat developed the disease now known as psoriasis. To relieve itching and peeling of the skin, Jean-Paul often took a bath, this place in the future will become fatal for him.

Marat's family was numerous - 6 more children, so he could not count on an inheritance. After the death of his mother, as a 16-year-old teenager, Marat goes to Europe.

Following in the footsteps of his mother, Marat received his medical education in Toulouse, Bordeaux, Paris, then in Holland and England. His childhood hobbies allow him to earn "a piece of bread" - he teaches foreign languages ​​and is engaged in medical activities. Marat's humanism is obvious, his desire to help people, so why would he later be called a "tyrant"?

Initially, Jean-Paul Marat envisioned a trip to England as an opportunity to improve in medicine. During those eleven years that our hero spent in Great Britain, he received excellent medical practice, Marat was promoted to the people and held the honorary position of the city doctor of Newcastle, and after a while, for special services in the fight against infectious diseases, Jean-Paul received the title honorary citizen of the port city. Simultaneously with medicine, Marat was passionate about physics, especially considering that England was the most advanced in this science, there were plenty of sources of information. It was knowledge in this discipline that helped Jean-Paul to develop a number of new methods in the treatment of eyes. Subsequently, Marat will record his experiments in the work "Philosophical Experience about Man". In it, Marat tells how to properly treat eyes, using the example of his experiences. By the way, all of his patients eventually recovered. This fact confirms not only the medical talent of Jean-Paul, but also a distinctive imagination and innovation. “I was brooding at fifteen, observant at eighteen, a thinker at twenty-one. From the age of ten I acquired the habit of mental pursuits; mental work has become for me a real need even during illness; I found the sweetest pleasure in meditation, in those serene moments when the soul contemplates in amazement all the greatness of nature, when, concentrating, it seems to silently listen to itself, weighs the vanity of human vanity on the scales of happiness, penetrates into a dark future, follows a person on the other side of the grave, shows a restless curiosity about their destinies in eternity. "

Here is how Marat himself speaks about his life: “At five years old I wanted to become a school teacher, at fifteen - a professor, a writer - at eighteen, a creative genius - at twenty, as now I yearn for fame - to sacrifice myself to my fatherland. This is what nature and the lessons of my childhood made of me; circumstances and my reflections did the rest. "

Love for natural sciences, knowledge of natural processes left an imprint on the thinking of Marat, the natural-scientific approach, subsequently, will form the basis of the Jacobin theory. "The civil rights of each individual person are, in essence, only his natural rights, balanced by the rights of other people and introduced into certain boundaries in the event of a collision with these latter."

Being an ardent admirer of Rousseau, Marat admires the English model, although, of course, he sees flaws that are undeniable from his point of view. In general, in England, Jean-Paul, closely observing the institution of constitutional monarchy, made a number of conclusions:

First, Marat rightly believes that in parliamentary monarchies, there is still no equivalent division of power. The monarch receives honor money, and parliament acts as an obedient instrument. Jean-Paul wrote in our account: “I have already said: all kings are arrogant hypocrites, tormented by ambition and devoured by a passion for domination; the king is a patriot, as much a chimerical creature as virtue is a villain. "

Secondly, the National Assembly cannot fully reflect the interests of all strata of citizens, be the power of the people. The king may well usurp his power there. "We will not tire of repeating: the only legitimate goal of any government is the happiness of the people subject to it, and the goal could be achieved if it were not for the lack of the ability of honesty and disinterestedness among those who are in charge."

Thirdly, the exceptional power of public opinion, the huge role of the media, posters, secret political circles.

Fourth, decisiveness and reasonable cruelty. The need to eliminate the "enemies of freedom". Marat can be safely considered an ideologue of terror.

Fifth, Jean-Paul believed that even the most liberal democratic system could not bring happiness to the poor. Sharp class contradictions will remain, it is only necessary to reduce the difference as much as possible.

An important point is that Marat personally witnessed the industrial revolution in England during its heyday. Here, the discontent of the third estate begins to be actively observed, trade unions are being created, but they cannot solve the problem of poverty.

In 1773 in London, he published "A Philosophical Experience about Man", and in 1774 he published a political treatise "Chains of Slavery" in which he argued that monarchs lead peoples to slavery, corrupting them and eradicating the very idea of ​​freedom: "To save the fatherland, he would go at their head to rip out the heart of the criminal Mautier in the midst of his many battalions of slaves, he would burn the monarch and his henchmen in the palace, he would impale you in your places and bury you under the burning ruins of your lair. " At the same time, Marat does not build universal hypotheses about a joyful future: the poor will not become richer, sharp social contradictions will remain. The overthrow of the monarchy is not a path to new ideals, but it is necessary to get out of stagnation, to try to reform society mentally. "Chains of Slavery" is actually the first textbook on the tactics and strategy of a revolutionary coup. Marat is literally obsessed with the idea of ​​revolution, but involves many difficulties and pitfalls. Manfred described the work of Marat as follows: “The book was, as if, illuminated by the light of the distant fires of the popular uprising. Past or future? It's hard to say, but when reading "The Chains of Slavery" everyone feels the breath of the whirlwinds blowing over the world. " The only way to win is universality, the broadest possible mass participation in the revolution. "Chains of Slavery" are the first serious works of our hero, where the psychological experiences of Marat are already clearly traced: a craving for justice, a dislike for the rich and zealous ambition.

In 1775, the University of Edinburgh conferred on Jean-Paul a doctorate in medicine.

Soon after the publication of "The Chains of Slavery" Marat moved to Paris, the next stage of his life and political activity begins. In 1777. Marat receives the official post of physician of the Life Guards and makes a brilliant career during his fifteen months in Paris. The acquisition of such an honorable position testified to Marat's high medical qualifications.

Despite the prosperous period of his life, Jean-Paul not only does not abandon his revolutionary sentiments, on the contrary, they only intensify in him. Marat writes "The Plan of Criminal Legislation", which later became the subject of study by lawyers of all countries. Here Marat makes a new exposure of an unjust society.

Marat's original ideal is the position of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He argues that all state institutions were created not by social consent, but by violence and force: "All states were created by violence, murder, robbery, and the authorities had no powers other than force." But before the revolution, his ideas were not widely popular.

Marat encourages theft, if it is forced, acquired as a result of social injustice: “When one of them is always lacking, he has the right to snatch from the other the surplus of what he has in abundance. What am I saying? He has the right to snatch what is necessary from him and has the right, instead of starving to death, to stab him and devour his quivering body. "

Some contemporaries had an idea about the not entirely healthy position of Marat. Bertelon advised “not to respond to this ignorant ... who seeks only to make him talk about himself. It seems to him that he is subverting Newton's theory of flowers ... This man is a madman who achieves celebrity by attacking great people ... he is infuriated that no one speaks to him or refutes him. "

Therefore, we can say that Jean-Paul was not only a man of democratic principles, but also a very ambitious and very ambitious person. Subsequently, these traits of his character will be clearly manifested during the years of the Great French Revolution, both on the positive and on the negative side.

It should be noted that the path of violence has nothing to do with the character of Marat, his biography and psychology. Rather, it is a forced path, the only possible solution, a response of strength to strength. "The villains only seek to deceive us, and if someday they take the right path, then only driven by the fear of popular reprisals, only supported by terror."

Accordingly, one can agree with Manfred's opinion about the humanity of Marat. The rage, which subsequently grew even more, was caused in Marat, oddly enough, by the greatest philanthropy.

For the layman, the word "terror" is associated with violence and tyranny - translated from Latin (terror) means "fear, horror", however, political murder as a type of crime during the Middle Ages was widely used, but the term "terror" was not used in relation to them.

marat revolution french terror

Chapter 2. Marat in the initial period of the revolution

“As long as nature gives people in abundance what they need to eat and dress, everything is going well and peace reigns on earth.

But when a person lacks everything, he has the right to take away from the other the surplus he has in excess. "

The riots in Paris marked the beginning of the French Revolution. On July 14, 1789, the Bastille was taken, a prison where political prisoners and people disliked by the king were kept. “There is no doubt that the revolution was caused by an uprising of small people. Moreover, there is no doubt that we owe the capture of the Bastille mainly to the ten thousand poor workers of the Saint-Antoine suburb. " The success of the start of the revolution greatly strengthened the role of the Constituent Assembly. Even the king was forced to admit the legitimacy of the existence of this representative body. And in the next few weeks, the revolution spread throughout the country. On July 18 there was an uprising in Troyes, on July 19 in Strasbourg, on July 21 in Shelburne, on July 24 in Rouen. In many cities, riots took place under the slogan “Bread! Death to dealers! " The rebels seized the barns, smashed the local town halls, and burned the documents stored there. In the future, new self-government bodies were formed, naturally on an all-estates-elective basis - municipalities, the post of mayor of Paris was established, the emergence of a new armed force.

Marat, also succumbing to the mood of the people, took an active part in the affairs of the committee of his district, but from the first days of the great coup, he completely correctly determined his place. Three days after the taking of the Bastille, Marat asks for funds for a printing press to print the newspaper.

Marat abandons his experiments and begins to publish the newspaper "Friend of the People". The extraordinary strength of his writing style is immediately revealed: simplicity, clarity, passion, brilliant and at the same time natural, not at all contrived turns of speech - all this makes Marat an exceptional stylist of newspaper political prose. He never bothers the reader with political abstractions, bare schemes, dry presentation of principles. Tarle very well described Marat's writing style and his journalistic style: “He did not report, but taught, he was not guided and was not carried away by the stream, but wanted to direct it along a certain channel, in one place he put barriers and dams, in another he hastily dug a canal. Marat did not develop issues that occupied the society, but often demanded that it abandon some topics and turn to completely different ones. "

The revolutionary wave, meanwhile, begins to gradually subside, inter-class squabbles occur. The anti-democratic policy of the big bourgeoisie, which separated from the rest of the third estate and turned into a third force, aroused the discontent of the peasantry, workers and the revolutionary-minded public. What happened was what the common people were so afraid of: the top of the society began to pursue their own interests.

The masses in the cities became more active. The deteriorating food situation in Paris and the counter-revolutionary intentions of the supporters of the royal court prompted the people of Paris on October 5-6, 1789 to march on Versailles. This march thwarted counter-revolutionary plans and forced the Constituent Assembly and the king to move from Versailles to Paris. Marat, of course, could not ignore these events. On the pages of his publication, he categorically accuses some of the most prominent figures in the initial stage of the revolution: the mayor of Paris Bayy, the Marquis Lafayette, who led the noble opposition to the court, and Necker, a financier called to save the state's payment system, which is close to bankruptcy. Jean-Paul hated Necker, first of all, for his position hostile to the popular movement on October 5 and 6: “This was exactly confirmed in relation to the divine Necker. This father of the people not only stood at the head of those scoundrels who starved the people, but was also the soul of speculators who drove the people to poverty, was also the driving spring of the enemies of the revolution. "

The "moderate" Mirabeau, Sieyès and Lafayette began carrying out bourgeois-democratic reforms in France and banned political persecution. On August 11, 1789, they adopted the Decree "On the abolition of feudal rights and privileges." On August 26 of the same year, the National Assembly approved an outstanding document of the New Age - the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which proclaimed the sacredness and inviolability of natural rights and freedoms, the principles of national sovereignty and legality. The power of the king, in a version strongly limited by parliament, was retained by the "moderates" as a tribute to tradition and a symbol of stability in the state.

Marat's revolutionary passion is looking for enemies precisely between those who follow the line of least resistance and hide behind schemes and declarations, but at the same time in their hearts no longer want the continuation of the revolution, because they received everything he needed from it. He accused the majority of the deputies of the Constituent Assembly, who, according to Marat, were involved in an ominous performance, seeing in them rogues, conspirators, traitors. " From time to time, police prosecutions were instituted against him, he left his home, hid with friends, the newspaper temporarily ceased to be published. But his popularity among the masses grew so quickly that it became more and more difficult to pursue him, and when the police, having come to arrest him, ran into a threatening crowd of proletarian and semi-proletarian people who had come to defend their favorite, the police officer learned with great pleasure that Marat had disappeared and that you can return in peace from a dangerous place to your police station.

The colossal success of Marat's newspaper was based on sheer loyalty and sincerity. She attracted readers with a magnet. In terms of content and form, his articles did not at all seek to imitate everyday triviality, but on the contrary: every time the reader had to feel that the publicist was calling his attention to something extraordinary, that this article was an alarm bell warning of terrible dangers.

In general, we can say that the newspaper "Friend of the People" is the most popular and accessible publication of the period of the revolution. Marat, without undue modesty, remarked: “The newspaper“ Friend of the People ”is too well known to give a detailed summary to the publication that will replace it. To uncover conspiracies, expose traitors, defend the rights of the people, post reports on the work of the Convention, monitor its actions, call for the observance of the principles of those of its members who will deviate from them, and devote my knowledge of the new constitution that will be given to France - this is the goal of this newspaper. "

Marat really loved the people very much, not so much for principles as for spiritual solidarity. His thinking was the pursuit of a new order, a new world, which was in the heads of the French lower classes. Jean-Paul vehemently criticizes the aristocracy that sat in the National Assembly, and believes that only the lower classes are capable of bringing about the revolution: “The revolution would be brought to an end and freedom was established forever if ten thousand Parisians marched to Versailles on July 15 to shake up the National Assembly and sweep out of it the aristocrats and prelates who have no right to sit in it. "

At the same time, Marat does not deny the idea of ​​the National Assembly, believing that a compromise is possible between the people and representatives of the authorities. Fathers of the Fatherland! You, favorites of fate. We do not demand from you now that you share your possessions, the property that heaven has given people for common use: realize the full depth of our moderation and, for the sake of your own interest, forget for a while about respecting your dignity ... "

It is no coincidence that the word "moderation" is highlighted here, Marat seems to most of his opponents a terrible tyrant and "anti-liberal". However, from the above, it is clear that Jean-Paul, on the contrary, is looking for ways of cooperation, appealing to the conscience of the members of the National Assembly. Marat, like most, the French do not want to see in the power of self-righteous, pretentious former aristocrats or big bourgeoisie who live in their midst, not understanding the problems of the "third estate" and the petty bourgeoisie. Jean-Paul sees in the revolution a historical mission, the replacement of Old France with a New one. In fact, it turns out that monarchical power is being replaced by secular-elite power, which in the representation of our hero does not make much difference. But at the same time, he still believes that only violence can be used to counteract the violence of the state. “Such a great villainy should have angered both the regiment of the carabinieri and the regiments of the Nansi garrison. Why then did they not betray him to the most horrible execution? Why did they allow themselves to be killed like rams? Why did they care about his safety? Here they are, these people who were exposed as rebels, against whom even the most barbaric decrees are supposedly powerless! Ah, if they had sinned, it would only be due to their ignorance: if they had known their rights, they would have destroyed this monster and everyone like him. "

Jean-Paul Marat notes that the fall of royal power did not bring not only positive shifts, but rather the opposite: “You not only did not come to our aid, trying to mitigate our misfortunes - you made us feel our poverty twice as much, humiliating us with an unjust decree which deprives us and our descendants of the right of citizenship ... "

One of the foundations of a democratic society, the people's suffrage, is sharply criticized in the pages of his publication. Many French citizens, because of the decrees of the National Assembly, were deprived of the opportunity to vote, although they took an active part in the revolutionary events. Marat emphasizes the monstrous injustice: “And the National Assembly deprives these poor people of the fruits of the freedom they have won. From these citizens, it takes away the civil rights that they won for their compatriots - the National Assembly, which owes them everything, right up to its existence. " Returns again to the ideas of terror. "Let the people, having risen at the same time in all parts of the kingdom, sacrifice them to their just anger in retaliation for their black crimes, let them finally show those who will be tempted to imitate them this salutary example of horror and terror!" The concept of "saving terror", in my opinion, has a slightly different connotation than "violence and horror."

Marat is well aware of the complexity of the current situation. Naturally, representatives of the “old order” will not want to lose their privileges and are on a par with ordinary citizens. "The height of madness to think that the people who have pushed us around for ten centuries, robbed and oppressed us with impunity, will voluntarily agree to be our equal people."

Historians and scholars associate the term "terror" with the methods and forms of the struggle of the Girondist and Jacobin opposition with the government. This is evidenced by the statements of both the opposition leaders themselves and other witnesses of the events.

Jean-Paul Marat in the newspaper "Friend of the People" called the armed pogromists who committed robberies and murders of civil servants in the cities of France at the call of the Jacobins, "real patriots." In the writings of Marat, the first in history program of seizing power with the help of terror, which creates nervousness and excitement of the crowd, is set forth. This crowd should be organized, armed, and dispatched to the right address for political leaders.

Agreeing with the position of scientists, right now his “terror” is turning from a “mythical” phrase into concrete actions: “Take down five or six hundred heads, and you will ensure yourself peace, freedom and happiness; false humanity has held you back and suspended your blows; it will cost you the lives of millions of your brothers; let our enemies triumph for a moment - and blood will flow in streams; they will choke you mercilessly; they will rip open the bellies of your wives, and in order to extinguish the love of freedom in you forever, their bloody hands will seek hearts in the insides of your children. "

Jean-Paul's bright emotionality was not accepted by the members of the National Constituent Assembly. Most believed that the resistance of the court was broken once and for all and that a clear, democratic future for France lay ahead. Even one of Marat's closest associates, Maximilian Robespierre, is inclined to admit that the revolution is over. But Jean-Paul strongly insists that the revolution is not over, and only a temporary truce has come. And soon Marat already becomes completely obsessed with his ideas.

Events in France had a great social democratic impact on other countries. At the same time, a counter-revolutionary coalition began to form against France in order to prevent the spread of the “French revolutionary infection”.

Marat could not help but worry about the foreign policy situation around the revolution in France. The main danger came, first of all, from Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, who agreed to help the French monarch return to the throne. However, Jean-Paul was worried not so much about the threat of the return of monarchical order as the personal ambitions of European rulers in the sovereign territories of France “Sovereignty is independent of any human power and enjoys unlimited freedom and the power of that unlimited freedom that nature has endowed each person. In order to maintain its sovereignty, the nation must maintain its independence. "

Marat understands perfectly well that the representatives of the elite are trying to push the people face to face, to unleash a civil war, where to be just mediators pursuing their own goals: “These are the fierce enemies of our freedom, your peace, your well-being, who have come to by the power of cunning, lies, deceit, treachery, cruelty to raise some citizens against others, to push the soldiers of the fatherland against each other and incite his sons to strangle each other. "

In December 1790, Marat seriously considers a new wave of revolution, tired of indecision, he openly calls on the people to revolt: “Stop wasting time and inventing means of protection: you have only one thing left. This is the one that I have recommended so many times: a general uprising and executions by the hands of the people. "

In early 1791, Marat loses faith in the French people as the driving force of the revolution. In February, he writes: “A blind people, without leaders and leaders, a people without reasoning, who lead wherever they want, clever swindlers! Foolish people, incapable of learning in the school of disasters, and for whom the lessons of experience are always in vain! A childish people, which any impudent magician always manages to distract from thoughts of his own good, even in the midst of social disasters, through a silly fairy tale! Without doubting the historical significance of the revolution, Marat changes accents. From the people - the leading force of the revolutionary process, to the people - led by a strong leader.

Marat attacks with fury at Bayy, at Lafayette, at all who, secretly or openly, helped the royal flight. Marat says that now, to save the revolution, it is necessary to cut down not five hundred heads, as it would have been enough in 1790, but one hundred thousand heads. Treason is all around, and nothing else can be done but physically destroy and trample counter-revolution. But the victorious and ruling bourgeoisie resisted. The demonstration of the masses of Paris on July 17, 1791, directed against the king and partly against the National Assembly, which left the king on the throne, ended with the execution of the protesters.

The shooting of the demonstration on July 17, 1791, as well as the predominance of the Girondins in the new Legislative Assembly, elected in the fall of 1791, the slowing pace of the revolution - all this discouraged Marat: a congregation that will be no less corrupt than the current congregation, if it ever meets. " The enemies of the revolution will themselves put the question squarely before the majority of the people: do the French agree to return to the old regime or do they wish to go further along the path of liberation from all tyranny? And he had a presentiment that it was precisely this haste of action and the unquenchable malice of the counter-revolutionaries that would awaken at last the energy of the masses of the people as sleepy and save the revolution.

It should be noted that at this stage of the revolution, the “terror” that Marat called for was just a phrase of the Friend of the People. It acquired specific features, a call to action, but remained on paper.

Chapter 3. New views of Marat. Montagnards against the Girondins

In 1792 Jean-Paul Marat was elected to the Convention. Taking his place at the head of the Montagnards, he became the main target of the Girondins. The confrontation between the Montagnards and the Girondins was one of the main problems of the Great French Revolution, it in fact formed a new socio-political thinking even far beyond the borders of France, for the first time a fierce rivalry is being challenged by two popular parties. In the work of P.A. Kropotkin says that the Girondins fiercely defended property rights, and even in the smallest details. Illustrative quote: So, for example, at the foot of the statues, which were carried through the streets during one festival, they made the inscription “Freedom. Equality. Property instead of Freedom. Equality and Brotherhood ".

To strengthen the revolutionary forces, Marat renamed his publication the Gazette de France, publishing in it a proposal for a possible unification of political forces with the Girondins, but his position did not find support in their ranks. With their submission, Jean-Paul was arrested in April 1793, despite his parliamentary immunity. However, the court of the Revolutionary Tribunal acquits Marat, and the people return him to the Convention.

The triumph of this small victory strengthens the position of the Montagnards. “I am carried by the National Guards around me and lowered in the middle of the Mountain. I am in a hurry to take off the wreaths that the people put on my head and which I had to keep. The audience burst into applause. Coming out of the embrace of my worthy colleagues, I went up to the podium. “Legislators, patriotic testimonies and joy that have flashed in this room are a tribute to the national representation, to one of your brethren, whose sacred rights have been violated in my person. I have been treacherously accused; the solemn judgment brought the triumph of my innocence; I bring you a pure heart, and I will continue to defend the rights of man, citizen and people with all the energy given to me by heaven. "

The main events of the revolution soon unfold. Waves of popular discontent flare up with renewed vigor - on August 10, 1792, the Sansculotte detachments, excited by the Jacobin and Girondist leaders, first arrest the king, royalists and "moderates", then on September 3 of the same year there is a mass extermination of those arrested in prisons, and at the same time everyone who was caught under the arm of a heated crowd. It is important that the leaders of the Jacobins, who now fought with their former allies, the Girondins, for sole power, approved the actions of the prison thugs: “Some of the bloodthirsty conspirators held in prisons have been killed by the people. It was an act of justice in order to keep the legions of traitors by means of terror. ”The methods used by the Jacobins in the struggle for power, far from the ideology of violence, A. Chenier called terror.

As an example of the non-verbalism of these scientists, I will quote from the publication: “Some researchers associate the beginning of the use of such terror with the methods used by the Jacobins in the struggle for power, mass murder and beating of political prisoners in Parisian prisons (“ the first terror ”) in September 1792.

By the way, it should be noted that in the framework of the execution of the death penalty in accordance with the Law of March 25, 1792 "On the death penalty and the methods of its execution", from April 1792 the guillotine begins to be used.

Other scholars associate the emergence of "terror" with the subsequent events of the French Revolution.

The trial of the king, which began in January 1793, showed the full solidarity of the senators on this issue. The overwhelming majority of votes (715 out of 748) pleaded guilty to the king in a conspiracy against freedom, democracy and national security. However, the extent of the punishment sparked bitter controversy. The Montagnards advocated the death penalty, the Gironde - imprisonment. The Montagnards won in this issue, and on January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was beheaded on the guillotine, becoming the second monarch in Europe (after Charles I), who lost his life as a result of the revolution.

From the very beginning of the trial of the king, Marat urged to reject any punishment, with the exception of the death penalty. During a roll-call vote, Marat voted for the death of the "tyrant" at 24 hours. This clearly shows the decisiveness and adherence to principles of our hero.

It is the execution of the country's political leader, in my opinion, that gives rise to the "terror".

"The emergence of" terror "as a concept that characterizes specific phenomena is usually associated with the Jacobin dictatorship established in France in 1793, although, in fact, the processes and phenomena that are now designated by this term periodically declared themselves throughout the history of mankind." ...

Now all forces are directed towards the struggle between the two political parties. "Among a people not obsessed with flaunting wit and a fierce desire for difference, there is not a single sane person who does not understand that no revolution can be strengthened without one party crushing the other."

The decisive moment was the uprising of May 31 - June 2, 1793 mass demonstrations led to the defeat of the Gironde and the establishment of the dictatorship of the Montagnards. The first experience of revolutionary mass terror is associated with the Great French Revolution (1789 - 1793). In less than nine months, 2607 people were executed by the verdict of the revolutionary tribunal. The Jacobin leaders, in essence, no longer saw any other way to save the regime and strengthen their personal position, except by intensifying terror. Robespierre substantiated the need for the extermination of the enemies of the revolution in a special judicial procedure: "Terror is nothing more than justice - swift, harsh and inexorable."

These events go down in history as "terror": a number of scholars associate the origin of terror with "the bloody events of the Jacobin dictatorship from May 31, 1793 to July 27, 1794 during the French Revolution."

Marat himself does not consider this a tyrannical regime, he speaks of the need for a strong ruler, able to rule the people. Shortly before his tragic death, Jean-Paul writes about his dialogue with the Jacobins: "No, it is possible that the people will be saved if they have no leaders." "How," cried one statesman who was listening to me, "do you demand a leader?" “Rude,” I replied immediately, “a leader for me is not a lord; no one is afraid of Vladyka anymore, but during the current crisis I want leaders who would guide the actions of the people, prevent them from committing false deeds and resist the fact that their efforts remain fruitless. "

All messages of the "Friend of the People" during this period are reduced to the search for "traitors", their exposure, in fact, he "supplies" victims for execution and justifies them - articles "Against the buyers", ".... The insidious plan of the leaders of Brissot ... "," Complete exposure of Dumouriez's betrayal ... ", etc. Such messages of the "friend of the people" are included in the system. It should be noted that since 1792 terror has been an officially declared, many times repetitive and legally permitted method of political struggle. Scientists called it "systemic terror." That is, from "fear and horror", terror has evolved into a "political regime".

July 1793 Marat was killed by the Girondist Charlotte Codre. Death was painfully perceived by the people, the living symbol of the revolution fell. The death of Marat completed, whole era in the French Revolution. Jean-Paul was one of the only people who wholeheartedly believed the nation. He was one of the few truly people's deputies. With the death of Marat, the revolution develops along a different path, but his calls still found their place in it. E. Tarlet in his work "The Revolutionary Tribunal in the Era of the Great French Revolution" wrote: "The era of terror is usually called the time from the fall of the Girondins (May 31, 1793) to the fall of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794) ... Robespierre was the soul the terrorist system and the main inspirer of terror ... The terrorist system reached its climax in the last two months of the life and rule of Robespierre. "

Conclusion

Within the framework of the study of the personality of Jean-Paul Marat, the development according to the scheme "from words to deeds" is obvious. Undoubtedly, he can be called one of the founders of "terror".

The pre-revolutionary period is characterized by the emergence and formation of ideas, thoughts and views of Marat. Like the Decembrists in Russia, the revolutionary movement in France, or rather its ideological platform, is formed by extremely educated and well-read people, who our hero was. The poet André Chénier wrote: "Robespierre and others like him are scouring history, looking for which of the respected personalities, causing the indignation of the human race, insult their choice as models." For Jean-Paul, as already mentioned, such a philosopher was Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

The thoughts of our hero are pure and not covered by the theory of violence. At this stage, the revolution for Marat is a struggle based on patriotic principles. This stage lays down one of the constituent elements of terror-propaganda.

The beginning of the revolution, the subsequent events form Marat's clearer, "applied" methods of struggle. Emotional speeches form an equally emotional call to action, a kind of evolution of propaganda into an action plan. Marat completely ideological platform of terror on the pages of "Friend of the People":

proves to the people the need for a revolution;

psychologically adjusts the public masses to future participation in acts of political violence;

demoralizes power and government. Threats to the legitimate government with terror were presented by the opposition as a response and forced reaction to the lawlessness and violence of the government, that is, the responsibility is shifted to the “moderates”. This technique will become a classic in terrorist propaganda for all subsequent times.

This stage can be described as "launching" the terror mechanism.

The most striking, "rich" in events was the period since 1972. Most scholars consider this stage to be the beginning of the origin of the concept of "terror". In my opinion, this is not entirely true. Without proper preparation, without creating an ideological platform, the subsequent actions would be less significant. "Terror, if you plunge into a historical retrospective, has always been accompanied by global ideological and targeted slogans: the establishment of a republican system ...".

Despite the fact that the revolution is entering the stage of a struggle for power, Marat continues to believe in the idea of ​​patriotism. “The events of the struggle between the Girondins and Jacobins against the" moderates "and the subsequent dictatorship of the Jacobins led to the emergence of one scientific problem that remains controversial to this day. Having come to power, the Jacobin leadership continued to use extreme violence to destroy its political opponents, to establish revolutionary order, i.e. a model of state governance was formed, which they themselves (and traditionally after them in history) also called “terror”.

If we talk about the conceptual apparatus, then the "first terror" through regulation turns into "systemic". "... since 1792 this form of violence has been used by the opposition after it came to power as an effective, officially declared, repeated and legally permitted method of political struggle, which was defined as systemic terror."

The publication of a number of acts after the death of Marat, for example, the Decree of the Convention of September 17, 1793 "On the Suspicious", according to which those who did not obey the new government were declared criminals subject to punishment, provided the basis for the global concept of "state terrorism".

Subsequently, the activities of Jean-Paul Marat will be studied by the revolutionaries and other states.

Such resonance of Jean-Paul's personality is striking - humanity, generosity, humanity, patriotism, which became the basis of his impulses for him, gave rise to a problem not only of that time, but very relevant in our time - terrorism. He can be safely called one of the founders of this phenomenon, however, we cannot call him a "bloodthirsty tyrant".

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