MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution of higher professional education

Orenburg State University

G.V. TEREKHOVA

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION

Recommended by the Academic Council of the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Orenburg State University" as a textbook for students enrolled in higher professional education programs in the specialty "Informatics" with the additional qualification "Translator in the field of professional communication"

Orenburg 2004

BBK 81-2 i 7 T 35

UDC 82.035 (07)

Reviewer Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor N.S. Sakharova

Terekhova G.V.

Т 35 Theory and practice of translation: Textbook. - Orenburg:

GOU OSU, 2004.-103 p.

This work is a course of lectures and practical assignments on the theory and practice of translation from English into Russian. The work describes the main methods of translation and considers specific examples of translation of texts in various areas of science and technology.

The textbook is intended for students enrolled in higher professional education programs in the specialty "Informatics" with the additional qualification "Translator in the field of professional communication". The exercises are aimed at developing the skills and abilities of translating popular science literature. The manual can be recommended for students of other specialties studying translation.

T 4603010000

BBK 81-2 i 7

Terekhova G.V., 2004

GOU OSU, 2004

Introduction

This manual is a comprehensive course containing translation theory and practical assignments from various sources for translation from English into Russian. It is intended for students studying the theory and practice of translation for educational purposes. The purpose of this work is to teach how to translate scientific and technical literature in various fields of knowledge.

Since the manual is designed for people with general language training and completed a course of normative grammar, it covers only those grammatical phenomena that are especially difficult for translation (infinitive, participle, gerund, syntax, etc.). Exercises are offered to consolidate the passed theoretical material. In addition, each section analyzes the most difficult cases of translation, both lexical and grammatical, associated with the difference in the structure of the English and Russian languages. Practical tasks were taken without adaptation from English and American sources (monographs, articles from newspapers, magazines, etc.).

1 Translation theory

1.1 The translation process and the causes of common mistakes

1.1.1 "Mechanism" of translation

It is quite obvious that practical training in translation is impossible without knowledge of the basics of translation theory, especially those sections that deal with the types of lexical and grammatical transformations in translation. The main purpose of classes at the stage of teaching translation theory is to master the elementary techniques of such

translation. Acquaintance with these theoretical issues will allow students to more holistically imagine the general "translation mechanics".

All or almost all of our mistakes stem from the fact that we wanted to translate an English word into a Russian word, an English phrase into a Russian phrase, an English sentence into Russian. You cannot translate words in isolation and translate phrase by phrase, sentence by sentence, i.e. you cannot do what is called a literal translation. It is impossible because a literal translation is not a translation; individual words are usually meaningless. Let's look at the simplest example: everyone knows the word "table". The point, however, is that words are ambiguous! The table at which we dine is a piece of furniture. And the passport office? This is already an institution. What about the lost and found table? Too. And the table of the ancient Russian prince? This city. And the salt-free table? This is a diet, a menu. And the table in the sense of "boarding house"? And what about the milling machine table? Thus, in different cases, the Russian word "table" in English will correspond to different words: table, bureau, room, department, office, board, capital, throne, court, accommodation, ration, dietary cookery, meal, course, support, etc. And this means that a separately taken Russian word "table" cannot be translated into an English word. On the other hand, different Russian words will correspond to the English word table in different contexts: table, food, guests, board, plate,

tablet, report card, flat surface, schedule, schedule, table of contents, plateau, drawing, launch pad, faceplate, roller conveyor, etc.

The word "table" or table is no exception. This is a typical example, and exceptions (extremely rare) are cases when one Russian word always corresponds to one English, and vice versa.

Almost any word can have at least two meanings, since any initially unambiguous word can receive a second meaning as a name, term, proper name, part of a metonymic or elliptic construction, etc. For example, "all" for "and “against.” In this case, “for” and “against” are not prepositions denoting place, but nouns denoting agreement and disagreement. The English say: “

If ifs and ans were pots and pans. "In this sentence, the union and the article also become nouns.

V lexicon of scientists break through is not a verb, but a noun,

denoting "discovery", "achievement"; back up means "duplicate unit" and so on.

Look through the dictionary and you will find words that have 40 equivalents in another language.

A Here are the different meanings the word "set" takes on in various combinations:

Apply a patch - apply a patch Put a thermometer - measure with a thermometer Make a diagnosis - determine a diagnosis Put a compress - apply a compress Ask a question - ask a question Place a mark - evaluate a mark, etc.

V other, more stable combinations, the word "set" is even less definite and cannot be replaced by another word, since all such combination becomes equivalent one word:

Baffle - perplex Stake - blame Stake - take risks Set barriers - discourage Set high - value, etc.

Here are some more examples in Table 1, when seemingly the simplest and most unambiguous words as technical terms acquire completely unexpected meanings.

Table 1 - Translation of some English words of everyday speech

	What these words can mean in technology
everyday speech
	Blank
	Crosspiece
	Svetlovina
	Baba (for driving piles)

Continuation of table 1

	Bearing
	Cylinder wall
	Hollow cylinder
	Aiming frame
	Noise tape
	Jack head
	Bucket visor
	Embrasure
	Rail cushion
	Playback area

The same is observed in Russian technical terminology. Examples are given in Table 2.

Table 2 - The meaning of some Russian words of everyday speech

	What can these words mean as
everyday speech	special terms
	Part of sighting device
	Abutment of the bridge
	Hearing aid part
	Pyrotechnic projectile
	Lever piece
	Branch
	Cylinder part

Even terms mean different things in different contexts; for example, the terminology word flush can have the following meanings: alignment of fields; set without paragraphs; alignment of text; shift; flushing (the contents of the cache or buffer to disk);

The context that determines the meaning of the term in such cases is usually the field of technology in which the term is used, for example:

V machine tool industry - bed

V cinematography - frame, video frame

V construction - frame

V textile industry - weaving machine

V foundry - flask

V computer technology - a data block of a fixed format,

report system, coordinate system, column, body frame (PC).

People who think that terms are unambiguous, and therefore they can be "translated", i.e. replace in translation with "corresponding" Russian words

language, often find themselves in a ridiculous position, mistaking for an unambiguous international term a word that in fact is not.

By the way, one of the first translators of Gulliver's Travels into Russian fell into a similar trap and mistook the word compasses for an international term, which he translated as "compass". As a result, Lilliputian tailors who take measurements from Gulliver walk around with compasses in hand, instead of arm themselves with surveying fathoms (bipeds or compasses for measuring land)!

Here are some examples:

As for individual words, everything is clear here, but if you take a phrase, i.e. a combination of words that form something whole and is usually a certain part of a sentence?

It turns out that in this case, too, we encounter ambiguity, and, consequently, with the impossibility of translating phrases out of context. Context is what makes a word or sentence unambiguous. The context can be not only the verbal environment, but also the real situation.

Of course, the more related words are used to express a concept, the more accurately this concept should be expressed. However, many phrases and combinations can have direct and figurative meanings and therefore express different concepts.

Hot air - can mean and " hot air, and chatter"After all, both in Russian" give a light "and" stand on the clock "can be understood both literally and figuratively.

Phrases are also polysemantic and, apart from the context, do not have a definite meaning, which means that they cannot be translated.

Maybe a sentence always has the same meaning? Unfortunately, not either.

There are, however, sentences that always express the same thing and fully fit the definition that you were given back in school:

"A sentence is a word or group of words expressing a complete thought." Such sentences do not need context, since they themselves are a completely independent text. These are proverbs, aphorisms, etc.

Such self-contained (sufficient in itself) sentences are unambiguous, have a well-defined meaning, and therefore can usually be translated independently of the rest of the context.

Never putt off till tomorrow what you can do today.

Don't put off until tomorrow what you can do today.

Imagination is more important than knowledge.

Imagination is more valuable than knowledge. (A. Einstein)

To find, to seek, to find and not to yield.

Fight and seek, find and not give up.

Very often, such sentences already have ready-made equivalents in another language, being an exact translation, although in this case there is no correspondence with the words of the original.

However, very often, contrary to the school definition, the sentence does not express a complete thought and does not have a definite meaning outside the context.

Such sentences cannot be translated, since this inevitably leads only to the translation of words, the result is nonsense.

"When he got up, they got up."

When he stood up, they stood up too.

But after all, in the context, it could not be about him - a person, and not about them - people, but about a month, and about a clock. Then the translation had to look like

to another. When she rose (the Moon), it (the clock) stopped.

Lack of attention to the context leads to gross mistakes in translation. At best, such inattention creates an anecdote.

"They were regularly tested in the swimming pool after work."

After work, they regularly took their swimming standards in the pool.

The finished products were periodically tested in a homogeneous reactor!

1.1.2 Translation plan

Mastering translation is an art that requires the ability to disperse attention so that, when dealing with particulars, always keep in mind the whole, i.e. the entire text. And for this you need to clearly imagine its structure, its plan.

A plan is an essential part of the translation process. Like any process, it is an action that lasts in time, and this action is not uniform at the beginning and at the end. If the beginning of this action is perception, that is, reading (or listening) in one language, then the end of this action is reproduction, that is, speaking (or writing) in another language. Thus, these two stages (perception in one and reproduction in the other) are easily distinguished from the translation process, since they are qualitatively different. But these stages must be separated from each other by a period of time during which the result of the action of the first stage will pass into the object of action of the last stage. What can we reproduce, that is, transfer to other people? Just what we know. Consequently, the content of the intermediate stage should be the transition to knowledge from what was achieved as a result of the first stage, that is, as a result of reading or listening. And this is understanding. In

during the second stage, passive understanding turns into active knowledge, which we can transfer to other people in the language we speak.

During the same stage, some language forms are replaced by others. What we perceived in one language, we must express in another, that is, with the help of another system of conventional signs, which has its own laws, different from the laws of the original language.

I have a question - I have a question (I have a question)

I`d rather not - I probably will not (I would rather not) Nobody knows anything - no one knows anything (no one knows everything)

I wish you hadn "t said it - why did you say it (I wish you didn’t have it said)

This list can be continued as long as you like, without even including purely expressive idiomatic means, for example, proverbs like every dark cloud has a silver lining(there is a silver lining), which should have sounded like " Each dark cloud has a silver lining"if the internal laws of different language systems were the same.

But at the second stage, not only a change in linguistic forms occurs, but also a meaningful memorization of the understood one, as a result of which the thoughts of the author of the original become the translator's own thoughts, which he can now express in another language.

In the process of meaningful memorization, we first analyze the text to find out what semantic parts it consists of and how they are connected with each other, and then we restore, synthesize what becomes our knowledge.

Analysis in the translation process consists in sequential division of the text into simple parts. to identify logical connections between them,

and it is necessary to divide the text into independent parts, each of which is something whole. The text is divided into meaning-complete parts, the size of which is determined by the text plan and the translator's capabilities.

Planning is a way of analyzing. A drawn up plan is a means for conducting synthesis.

Planning rules:

1) each point of the plan should be the title of the corresponding part of the text;

2) all points of the plan should be logically related to each other, and this connection should be expressed formally;

3) equal points of the plan should be indicated in the same system. Practically experienced translator uses informal

drawn up by a plan, but by the text of the original itself, which he had previously read, and therefore can use it as a ready-made plan.

Explanatory note

Applied course "Theory and practice of translation" for students of grade 10 "SG" (social and humanitarian direction)compiled in accordance with the requirementsState educational standard secondary education, approved by the Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated August 23, 2012 No. 1080 and Appendix 30 to the order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated April 3, 2013 No. 115. The program is built based on the teaching and learning method "Technical translation at school", author N.D. Cheburashkin, Moscow Publishing House "Education" and "StoriesaboutKazakhstan. ACulturalReader", Author A. Novokreshenov, Kokshetau publishing house" Keleshek-2030 ", recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

This course "Theory and Practice of Translation" is one of the components of the profile training "Social - Humanitarian Profile", aimed at developing students' skills in interpretation and translation using conventional lexical, as well as polytechnic, economic and electronic dictionaries. The value of this course is its professional focus, aim which is to acquaint students with the main provisions of the modern theory of translation and contribute to the formation in this regard of the corresponding translation skills and abilities, which together should lay the foundations for the formation of their translation competence.

The most important tasks course:

Formation of a knowledge system about translation, its types, pragmatic and normative aspects, peculiarities of translation of materials of various genres, typical difficulties and standard ways to overcome them;

Formation of translation skills and abilities by applying the acquired knowledge in practice during the implementation of training exercises;

Develop the horizons of students, arouse research interest through mastering the English language, introduce them to world culture;

Improving skills in working with dictionaries, encyclopedias and other reference materials;

To foster a sense of patriotism and citizenship, to form the ability to represent one's country, its culture in the conditions of foreign language intercultural communication;

The principle of development and enrichment of knowledge in a subject from simple to complex, the principle of integration with other subjects, such as history, geography, is the basis for teaching translation techniques. The course is designed taking into account all seven modules of study, with a special emphasis on critical thinking. Students learn to work individually, in pairs, in groups.

The course is designed for 1 hour per week, 34 hours per year.

Requirements for productive speech skills

As a result of passing the course of theory and practice of translation, students should form the following skills:

In the process of translation, monitor the equivalence / adequacy of the means and methods of the source and translation languages;

Possess basic grammatical structures and methods of their translation;

When using dictionaries, find the most suitable for a given text, for a given sentence, variants of words and phrases;

See the source text as a whole, i.e. the ability to determine the type of text and its style and to form the translated text according to the same laws, i.e. in the same style and type of text;

Based on the above features, edit the translation text made by the translator himself, another translator or a computer.

Predicted result

The results of teaching a foreign language correspond to the state standard. In the process of studying this course, students will master the skills and abilities of translation that are in demand in modern life. The skills of intellectual activity are developed. The result of studying this course is the ability of students to correctly understand, express, transform the information offered. When working with translation, the skill of literary presentation of what has been read develops, vocabulary is enriched, the grammatical structures of foreign speech are fixed, analogies are drawn and differences between foreign and native languages ​​are studied. A variety of topics helps students to use lexical and grammatical material in full, to expand knowledge not only in the language, but also in other areas: geography, culture, business, science, finance, etc.

Educational - thematic plan

10 SG class (34 hours)

	Lesson topic	Watch	Including practical exercises
	Basic types of translation
	Types of technical translation
	Full translation rules
	Abstract translation
	Annotation translation
	Consecutive and simultaneous translations
	Working sources of information and the procedure for using them
	Technical translation related to the processing of patent literature
	Consultative translation
	The problem of translation equivalence
	Methods for translating neologisms
	Phonetic translation problems
	Lexical translation problems
	Grammar translation problems
	Borrowed words
	Credit lesson
	History and social life of the country		0,5
	Country and symbols
	National flag
	Ablai khan
	Abai Kunanbaev
	Olzhas Suleimenov
	Nauryz
	Practical exercises
	The gold man
	Dombra
	Snow leopard
	Poppy. Eagle
	Practical exercises
	The Nature of Kazakhstan
	National Clothes. Dictionary work
	Wedding Customs
	Credit lesson
	Total:	34 lessons	10 hours

Thematic content:

10 SG class

(34 hours per year, 1 hour per week)

Types of translation - 7 hours

Working sources of information

and the procedure for using them - 1 hour.

The translation process and the reasons for typical mistakes - 5 hours.

Methods for translating neologisms - 1 hour

Borrowed words - 1 hour

History and social life of Kazahstan - 3 h

Famous people - 3 hours

The Nature of Kazahstan - 4 hrs

Traditions and Customs - 4 hours

Practical exercises - 3 h.

Credit lesson - 2 hours

1. The subject and objectives of the theory of translation

Creation of the concept of "translation". Place of translation in modern culture. The role of translation in the development of national languages ​​and fiction of various peoples and in the development of international relations. The value of oral (consecutive and simultaneous) translation in the modern world. Translation theory and related disciplines. Translation theory and comparative study of languages. Translation theory and issues of teaching foreign languages. Machine translate. Characteristics of various types of dictionaries.

2. Translation theory and translation thought

The main trends in translation in Western European literature. The concept of equivalence in translation. Types of equivalence: full and partial equivalence, lack of equivalence. The concept of translation adequacy. Types of translation: oral, written, complete, consecutive, simultaneous, etc.

The main types of translation transformations: addition,

reduction, adequate replacement, generalization, concretization, etc. Three phases of translation work: comprehension of the original, interpretation of the original and the translation itself.

4. Lexical and phraseological issues of translation

The main possibilities of transferring a word as a lexical unit. The concept of a lexical equivalent, the so-called non-equivalent vocabulary and ways of translating it. Peculiarities of translation of partially equivalent vocabulary.

The transmission of words denoting the realities of social life and material life, the transmission of proper names. The question of the so-called "false friends" of the translator. Translation of phraseological units. Equivalent and non-equivalent phraseology. Translation of proverbs and sayings.

Characteristics of various types of dictionaries: encyclopedic, explanatory, bilingual, phraseological, synonym dictionaries, etc.

5. Grammatical issues of translation

The grammatical discrepancy between the original language and the target language. Methods for selecting a grammatical variant in translation. Taking into account and using specific elements of the grammar of the language into which the translation is made. Taking into account the syntactic capabilities of the target language. Grammatical transformations during translation: replacement of word order, replacement of parts of speech, replacement of sentence members, difference in the division of sentences.

6. Features of the translation depending on the genre of the original

Translation of newspaper informational material. Translation of special scientific literature. Translation of social and political literature. Translation of journalism. Translation of a public speech. Translation as an art form. Translation of fiction. Preservation of meaning and stylistic coloring in the transfer of vocabulary. Figurative meaning of the word and its consideration in translation. Methods of transferring the national and individual originality of the original during translation. Features of poetic translation. Methods of conveying the form of a poetic work: dimensions, rhythm, rhyme. Preservation of the stylistic unity of form and content when working on the translation of a literary text.

Various original texts in a foreign language are used as teaching materials in teaching translation. To get acquainted with the translation technique, students are offered texts taken from works of fiction intended for home reading, journalistic texts, etc.

Monitoring the level of training:

Knowledge control shows the extent to which students have achieved their goals and learning objectives. The control assumes credit lessons in the form of a competition of translators, a competition of presentations on the studied topic. Based on the results of these lessons, "pass" or "fail" is given.

List of basic literature for the teacher:

Barkhudarov L.S. Language and translation. Questions of general and particular theory of translation. - M .: International relations, 2004.

A. Novokreshenov, "StoriesaboutKazakhstan. ACulturalReader

4. Cheburashkin ND, "Technical translation at school", ed. Moscow

"Education", 2000.

Cheburashkin N.D. "Reader for Technical Translation", ed. Moscow

"High School", 2003.

List of additional literature for the teacher:

Breus E.V. Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English. - M .: URAO, 2013.

Vlakhov S., Florin S. Untranslatable in translation. - M: International relations, 2009.

3. Zaeva L.K., Rudzievskaya M.B. The art of literary translation. I and II

Part. M., RUDN, 1993.

4. Kopanov P.I. Questions of history and theory of literary translation.

Minsk, 1999.

5. Komissarov V.N. A word about translation. - M .: International relations,

2003.

6. Minyar-Beloruchev R.K. Consecutive translation. M., 1999.

7. Sergey Vlakhov, Sidor Florin. Untranslated in translation. M., “Higher

School ”, 2000.

8. Soshalskaya EG, "Stylistic Analysis", ed. Moscow "Higher School", 1999.

9. Fedorov A.V. Foundations of the General Theory of Translation, ed. 3rd. M., 1998.

List of basic literature for the student:

Alekseeva I.S. Fundamentals of the theory of translation. - SPb .: IIYa, 1998.

2. Novokreshenov A ., “Stories about Kazakhstan. A Cultural

Reader", Kokshetau publishing house" Keleshek-2030 ", 2013.

3. Glossary of terms and personalities

4. Cheburashkin ND, "Technical translation at school", ed.

Moscow "Education", 2000.

5. Cheburashkin N.D. "Reader on technical

Translation ”, ed. Moscow "Higher School", 2003.

List of additional literature for the student:

Alekseeva I. S. Professional training of a translator. - SPb .: Soyuz, 2003.

Alekseeva I.S. Introduction to Translation Studies. - St. Petersburg .: Faculty of Philology, St. Petersburg State University; Moscow: Academy, 2006.

V.N. Krupnov Workshop on translation from English into Russian. - M: Higher school, 2006.

4. Longman Exam Dictionary, 2006.

5. Hornby A.S., “Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of

Current English ”, ed. Oxford University Press, 1999.

6. Minyar-Beloruchev R.K. General theory of translation and interpretation

Translation. - Moscow: Military Publishing, 2008.

7. Translation is a means of mutual rapprochement between peoples. M.,

“Progress”, 2007.

8. Petrova OV Introduction to the theory and practice of translation. -

M .: AST: East - West, 2006.

Prozorov V.G. Theory and practice of translation from English into Russian. - Petrozavodsk: KSU, 1997.

10. Cambridge Learner's Dictionary. English - Russian, 2011

11. Semenov A. L. Modern information technologies

And translation. - M .: Academy, 2008.

Solodub Yu.P., Albrecht F.B., Kuznetsov A.Yu. Theory and practice of literary translation. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2005.

Solodub Yu.P., Albrecht F.B., Kuznetsov A.Yu. Theory and

Prakika literary translation. - M .: Publishing

Center "Academy", 2005.

14. Chernov G.V. Theory and practice of simultaneous translation. -

Moscow: International Relations, 1999.

15. Shah-Nazarova V.S., "Anglo-Russian diplomatic

Dictionary ", ed. Moscow "Russian language", 2001.

Educational and methodological support of the program.

Educational and methodological support of the program includes the following materials:

Curriculum, thematic plan;

Lecture notes;

A manual for students with theoretical and practical material.

Electronic resources

www. yazykoznanie. ru.

www. transneed. com

www. translation. net

www. ncstu. ru

sch -yuri .by .ru

www.teoriya i praktika perevoda

www.utr.spb.ru/mir.htm

www.utr.spb.ru/articles.htm

Transcript

1 S.S. Mikova, V.V. Antonova, E.V. Shtyrina THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION Textbook Moscow Peoples' Friendship University of Russia

2 UDC 82.03 (07) BBK 7 * 81.2Angl-923 М 59 Approved by the RIS of the Academic Council of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia Reviewers: Dean of the Faculty of Foreign Languages ​​of the International Slavic Institute, Doctor of Philology, Professor P.V. Moroslin, Associate Professor of the Department of the Russian Language and Methods of its Teaching, Candidate of Philological Sciences E.N. Baryshnikova Mikova, S.S. М 59 Theory and practice of written translation [Text]: textbook. manual / S.S. Mikova, V.V. Antonova, E.V. Shtyrina. M.: RUDN, p. ISBN The translation manual is addressed to Bachelor linguists of the 3rd and 4th year. The practical part of the manual contains exercises aimed at developing students' skills in translating texts of various styles. The main focus is on the translation of specialized texts. The theoretical part of the manual contains information on translation theory necessary for the exercises. This theoretical information is supplemented by the tables contained in Appendix 1. Appendix 2 contains texts on linguistic topics: “Translation. The profession of a translator ”,“ Phonetics ”,“ Morphology ”,“ Lexicology ”,“ Phraseology ”,“ Syntax ”. After the texts of each topic, there is a short dictionary of English-Russian correspondences of linguistic terms. ISBN UDC 82.03 (07) BBK 7 * 81.2Angl-923 Mikova S.S., Antonova V.V., Shtyrina E.V., 2013 Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Publishing house,

3 CONTENTS DESCRIPTION AND PROGRAM OF THE COURSE "PRACTICAL COURSE OF WRITING TRANSLATION (1 LANGUAGE) 1, 2, 3 LEVELS" 6 SECTION I. GENERAL ISSUES OF TRANSLATION 12 Topic 1. Types, forms and methods of translation 12 SECTION II. LEXICO-SEMANTIC ASPECT OF TRANSLATION 20 Topic 2.1. Types of lexical-semantic transformations 20 Topic 2.2. Translation of non-equivalent vocabulary. Translation of realities. Translation of proper names. Translation of titles. Translation of geographical names. Translation of abbreviations 34 Topic 2.3. International and pseudo-international words ("false friends" of the translator) 51 Topic 2.4. Translation of terms. Translation of complex words. Terms and their translation 53 Topic 2.5. Translation of ambiguous words 60 Topic 2.6. Translation of obsolete words and neologisms 63 Topic 2.7. Translation of nouns with broad semantics 67 Topic 2.8. Translation of multifunctional words. Translation of the word "one" 69 Topic 2.9. Translation of the multifunctional word that 71 Topic Translation of the word it 75 Topic Translation of conjunctions and allied words what, which, as, like, since 78 Topic Translation of phraseological units 83 SECTION III. GRAMMATIC ASPECT OF TRANSLATION 88 Topic 3.1. Features of the translation of nouns. Translation of Russian case constructions 88 Topic 3.2. Translation of constructions with the possessive case. Translation of prepositive attributive combinations 91 Topic 3.3. The article and its translation correspondences in Russian. The use of the article in translation from Russian into English 95 3

4 Topic 3.4. Features of the translation of the verb. Difficulties in translating the Russian verb. Translation of the temporal forms of the English verb 98 Topic 3.5. Features of translation of pronouns 103 Topic 3.6. Translation of constructions with passive voice 108 Topic 3.7. Translation of comparative forms of adjectives. Translation of adverbs 111 Topic 3.8. Translation of infinitive and infinitive constructions 116 Topic 3.9. Translation of gerund and gerundial constructions 120 Topic Translation of Participle and constructions with Participle 124 Topic Translation of Russian participles and gerunds 128 Topic Translation of constructions with indirect speech 131 Topic Basic ways of transmitting modality in translation 134 SECTION IV. DEVELOPMENT OF TEXT GENRE IN WRITTEN TRANSLATION 137 Topic 4.1. Peculiarities of Translation of Scientific Style Texts 137 Topic 4.2. Peculiarities of translation of texts of official business style 147 Topic 4.3. Peculiarities of Translation of Newspaper Style Texts 155 Topic 4.4. Fundamentals of Literary Translation 172 Topic 4.5. The main ways of conveying irony in translation 191 APPENDIX 1. Auxiliary tables 204 Table 1. “Transliteration rules (Russian English)” 204 ​​Table 2. Transliteration rules (English Russian) 206 Table 3. “False friends” of the translator ”208 Table 4. Some English-Russian correspondences of term-forming prefixes and affixes 209 Table 5. Meaning of derivational affixes of the English language 212 Table 6. Meaning and translation of the Russian genitive case 213 Table 7. Meaning and translation of the Russian dative case 217 Table 8. Meaning and translation of the Russian instrumental case 220 Table 9. Meaning and translation of the Russian prepositional case 221 Table 10. Use of the article 223 Table 11. Fixed expressions with the definite article 228 Table 12. Fixed expressions with the indefinite article 228 Table 13. Stable combinations with the indefinite article 229 Table 14. Translation of constructions with a passive voice 230 Table 15. Translation of the infinitive 233 4

5 Table 16. Translation of the gerund 236 Table 17. Translation of the English participle 238 Table 18. Translation of the Russian participles and gerunds 240 Table 19. Transmission of modality in translation from Russian into English 244 Table 20. Transmission of modality in translation from English into Russian 247 APPENDIX 2. Texts for translation 250 Topic 1. Translation. The profession of a translator 250 Topic 2. Basic concepts of language science 258 Topic 3. Phonetics and phonology 272 Topic 4. Morphology 286 Topic 5. Lexicology 297 Topic 6. Phraseology 304 Topic 7. Syntax 311 A SHORT DICTIONARY OF TRANSLATION TERMS 320 LIST OF USED LITERATURE 324 5

6 DESCRIPTION AND PROGRAM OF THE COURSE "PRACTICAL COURSE OF WRITING TRANSLATION (1 LANGUAGE) 1, 2, 3 LEVELS" General description of the course UMK Discipline name: "Practical course of written translation (1 language) 1, 2, 3 levels". Level of study: bachelors of the III IV course (3-4 years of study). Direction of training: Linguistics. Training profile: theory and methods of teaching foreign languages. Mandatory course. Goals and objectives of the discipline The main goal of the course is to prepare students for the implementation of written translations of texts in compliance with the principles of adequacy and equivalence. To achieve this goal in the teaching process, the following tasks are solved: 1) teach the basic methods and techniques of written translation; 2) to give an idea of ​​the main types of transformations of the source text in the process of translation; 3) to form the skills of pre-translation analysis of the translated text. 6

7 The place of discipline in the structure of OOP This module refers to the variable (profile) part of the professional cycle of disciplines (B.3). The preceding courses, on which the module "Practical course in translation of 1, 2, 3 levels" is directly based, are the disciplines of the basic and variable parts of the professional cycle: a practical course of the Russian language, the theory of the first foreign language, the basics of the theory of intercultural communication, a workshop on intercultural communication. Requirements for the results of mastering the discipline The process of studying the discipline is aimed at the formation of the following competencies: OK-1, OK-2, OK-5, PC-1, PC-2, PC-4, PC-6, PC-8, PC-9, PK-10, PK-11. As a result of studying the discipline, the student must know: basic phonetic, lexical, grammatical, word-formation phenomena and regularities of the functioning of the foreign language being studied, its functional varieties (PC-1); ethical and moral norms of behavior adopted in a foreign cultural society, models of social situations, typical scenarios of interaction (PC-2); the main discursive ways of realizing the communicative goals of the statement in relation to the peculiarities of the current communicative context (PC-3); the main ways of expressing semantic, communicative and structural continuity between the parts of the utterance are compositional elements.

8 cops of the text, super-phrasal unity, sentences (PC-4); the main ways to achieve equivalence in translation (PC-11); Be able to: overcome the influence of stereotypes and carry out intercultural dialogue in the general and professional spheres of communication (PC-7); use etiquette formulas in oral and written communication (PC-8); apply basic translation methods (PC-11); carry out written translation in compliance with the norms of lexical equivalence, compliance with grammatical, syntactic and stylistic norms (PC-12); Possess: the skills of socio-cultural and intercultural communication, ensuring the adequacy of social and professional contacts (OK-3); the method of pre-translation analysis of the text, contributing to the accurate perception of the original utterance (PC-9); methods of preparation for translation, including information search in reference, special literature and computer networks (PC-10). eight

9 The scope of the discipline and types of educational work The total labor intensity of the discipline is 14 credit units 504 hours. Type of academic work Total Semesters of hours Classroom lessons (total): Including: Practical lessons Independent work (total) Type of intermediate certification: written exam Total labor intensity, h cred. units Contents of discipline sections Name of discipline section 1 General issues of translation 2 Lexicosemantic aspect of translation Section contents 1. Translation units and text segmentation. 2. Basics of translation analysis of the text. 3. Types, forms and methods of translation. 1. Types of lexical-semantic transformations. 2. Translation of non-equivalent vocabulary. Translation of realities. Translation of proper names. Translation of titles. Translation of geographical names. Translation of abbreviations. 3. International and pseudo-international words ("false friends" of the translator). 4. Translation of terms. Translation of complex words. nine

10 p / n Name of the discipline section Contents of section 5. Translation of ambiguous words. 6. Translation of obsolete words and neologisms. 7. Translation of nouns with broad semantics. 8. Translation of multifunctional words. Translation of one. 9. Translation of the multifunctional word that. 10. Translation of the word it. 11. Translation of unions and union words what, which, as, like, since. 12. Translation of phraseological units 3 Grammatical aspect of translation 1. Features of translation of nouns. Translation of Russian case constructions. 2. Translation of constructions with the possessive case. Translation of prepositive attributive combinations. 3. The article and its translation correspondences in Russian. 4. Features of the translation of the verb. Difficulties in translating the Russian verb. Translation of the temporal forms of the English verb. 5. Features of translation of pronouns. 6. Translation of constructions with passive voice. 7. Translation of comparative forms of adjectives. Translation of adverbs. 8. Translation of infinitive and infinitive constructions. 9. Translation of gerund and gerundial constructions. 10. Translation of Participle and constructions with Participle. 11. Translation of Russian participles and participles. ten

11 p / n Name of the discipline section Contents of section 12. Translation of constructions with indirect speech. 13. The main ways of conveying modality in translation. 4 Mastering text genres in written translation 1. Peculiarities of translation of scientific style texts. 2. Peculiarities of translation of texts of official business style. 3. Peculiarities of translation of newspaper-journalistic texts. 4. Fundamentals of literary translation. The point structure of the assessment (1 credit) Type of work Points Attendance of classes 6 Regular active work in the classroom 8 Performing tests 6 Doing homework 8 Intermediate certification 8 Information about the authors Mikova Svetlana Stanislavovna, Ph.D. ... Valeria Vladimirovna Antonova, Assistant of the Department of Russian Language and Methods of its Teaching, PFUR. Elena Viktorovna Shtyrina, Assistant at the Department of Russian Language and Teaching Methods, RUDN University. eleven

12 Section I GENERAL QUESTIONS OF TRANSLATION THEME 1. TYPES, FORMS AND METHODS OF TRANSLATION The concept of translation is a polysemantic concept. Translation can be understood as the activity of interpreting the meaning of a text in one language (original language [IL]) and creating a new, equivalent text in another language (translating language [TL]). In the process of translation, the content of the text in one language is transmitted using the means of another language of the target language. Therefore, translation is understood as: 1) “actions of the translator to create the text” (VN Komissarov); 2) "reproduction in the receptor language of the closest natural equivalent of the original message" (Yu. Naida, Ch. Taber); 3) "the process of processing and verbalization of the text, leading from the text in the original language to an equivalent< >the text in the target language and assuming a meaningful and stylistic interpretation of the original ”(V. Wils). The selection of different types of translation is associated with the genre characteristics of the original texts that serve as the object of translation. There are two types of translation: literary and special. Literary translation functions in the field of fiction and, along with informative tasks, performs an aesthetic function. Special translation mainly performs information and communication tasks and serves various subject areas of knowledge (socio-political 12

13 relations, various branches of science and technology, military affairs, journalism, etc.). The selection of types of translation is associated with the method of making a translation. In accordance with this criterion, translation and interpretation are distinguished and their varieties, for example, two-sided, consecutive, simultaneous types of interpretation. The types of translation are determined by the relationship between the original text and the translation text. In this case, a free, literal (literal), word-by-word and equivalent (adequate) translation is distinguished. Free translation is the transfer of the general content of the original text by means of the target language, regardless of the form of the original text. This translation is subjective. Literal translation assumes following the original form. Historically, such a translation was used primarily in the translation of sacred texts, but its elements can also be found in modern translations. Thus, literal translation is the opposite of free and objective. Word-by-word translation is "such a field-lexical transmission of the meaning and content of the original, which takes into account the syntactic and stylistic relationships between the original language and the target language." This type of translation is used at various conferences, meetings, in court, etc. In an equivalent translation, the principle of the unity of the form and content of the original, which are transmitted by means of another language, is observed. According to the completeness of the transfer of the original content, a complete translation and incomplete types of translation (functional, selective, abbreviated (aspect), annotation, abstract) are distinguished. 13

14 In a functional translation, the original text is shortened and simplified. As a result of such a translation, adaptations, retellings, versions, etc. are created. Selective translation involves translating key phrases in the original text. An abbreviated (aspect) translation is understood to mean the transfer of “the semantic content of the original only in the part that includes information related to a specifically set informational purpose” can make or break the politician. The English press can make or ruin a political career. 4. The crash killed 200 people. The plane crash killed 200 people. 5. They managed to see the king of beasts himself. They even managed to see a lion. 6. She prefers going by train. She prefers to travel by train. 7. She said, Why are you making so much noise? She asked, "Why are you making such a noise?" 8.I don t think she s living here at the moment. Her bed wasn t slept in. I think she does not live here at the present time. Her bed is not crumpled. 9. It was Christmas time. What a joy! Svyatki (Svyatki in Slavonic tradition two weeks after Christmas, when the Slavs take part in masquerades, tell their fortunes, etc.) have come. Everybody is so happy! 10. The performance shocked the audience. The performance shocked the audience. 11. It is a play of the Bard of Avon. This is a play by W. Shakespeare. 12. He slowly went to the window. He walked slowly to the window. 13. He visits me practically every weekend. He visits me almost every week. 14. He's dead. He died. 15. It s necessary to encourage our young people to become pilots. It is necessary to involve our youth in aviation. Exercise 22 Translate, applying the concretization technique to the verb to be: 1. I shall be at the Easthead Bay Hotel, said Ted. I ve booked my rooms (Christie). 2. The drinks were on a table at the other end of the room. Thomas Royde, who was near them, stepped forward (Christie). 3. The funeral service is tomorrow at 11 a.m. from the Chapel of Rest. 4. I was two hundred miles away from home (Braine). 5. It was only last year. 6. You ve been in Paris, I hear, said Soames at last (Galsworthy). 32

33 Exercise 23 Determine the translation technique used in these sentences: 1. He was at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony. 2. The United States did not enter the war until April The United States entered the war only in April 1917. 3. Jane used to drive to market with her mother in their La Sane convertible. Jane took her mother to the market by car. 4. If a client went to him with some trouble that was not quite nice, Mr Skinner would look grave. When a client told him about circumstances that might seem unseemly, Mr. Skinner furrowed his eyebrows in concern. 5. "I don" t believe this is a smoker ... "In my opinion, this is a non-smoking carriage. 6. He told me I should always obey my father. He advised me to always obey my father. 7. To the ancient capital We arrived in the Russian state in the morning. We arrived in Moscow in the morning. 8. He would not have refused kvass, sbitn or lemonade. He could do with a glass of kvass, or sbiten (traditional Russian hot drink with herbs), or orangeade. 9. The people are not slow in learning the truth.People learn the truth quickly.Exercise 24 Translate using the specified translation method: Specification: 1. It s sweet for you to see my parents go wrong and yours recover. 2. The painting was called Napoleon on his mount visiting the plague stricken in the streets of Jaffa. Generalization: 1. He was a thin, stoop-shouldered man not much under six feet tall. 2. At this moment O Brien glanced at his wristwatch. 33

34 Logical development: 1. At last he found his voice. 2. I don t think she s living here at the moment. Her bed wasn t slept in. Antonymic translation: 1. The woman at the other end asked him to hang on. 2. I don t dislike you, Mr. Mont, but Fleur is everything to me. 3. Shut the window to keep cold air out. TOPIC 2.2. TRANSLATION OF NON-EQUIVALENT VOCABULARY. REALITY TRANSLATION. TRANSLATION OF OWN NAMES. TRANSLATION OF TITLES. TRANSLATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. TRANSLATION OF ABBREVIATIONS One of the most difficult problems for solving translation problems is the discrepancy between the range of meanings of the units of the source language and the target language. L.S. Barkhudarov distinguishes three types of correspondences between linguistic units: 1) full correspondence; 2) partial compliance; 3) lack of conformity. In the third case, we are talking about a non-equivalent vocabulary, that is, about "lexical units (words and stable phrases) of one of the languages ​​that have neither full nor partial equivalents among the lexical units of another language." Non-equivalent units include: I. Proper names that do not have a constant correspondence in the target language (names of geographical objects, anthroponyms, animal names, names of institutions, press agencies, etc.): p. Shakha, Timofey Akulchin, Bobik. Thus, proper names, little-known or unknown to the speaker of another language, are among the non-equivalent vocabulary. The same group should include various kinds of abbreviations, also used as names: BAM (Baikal-Amur Mainline); 34

35 MAPRYAL (International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature); AAA (American Automobile Association); AURA (Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy). For the transfer of proper names in translation, the researcher D.I. Ermolovich offers the following recommendations: 1) make sure that the text contains a proper name as the name of an individual subject; 2) determine by context the class of objects (denotations) to which the proper name belongs; 3) determine the national specifics of the name (Peter, Peter, Pierre, Peter); 4) check the presence of traditional matches in the dictionary; 5) then make a decision, guided by the nature of the text. II. Words-realities "a special kind of referents, which in their totality reflect the specificity of a particular culture, due to a special structure of material and spiritual values, formed in the process of formation and development of this cultural and genetic community." Such words name objects of material and spiritual culture, names of clothing items (sundress, kilt), names of dishes and drinks (borsch, kvass, cottage pie), names of holidays (Victory Day, Thanksgiving day), etc. Among the words-realities, as well as among proper names, abbreviations may occur: DK (house of culture), NEP (new economic policy), BA (Bachelor of Arts), MBA (Master Business Administration). 3) The lexical units also do not have correspondences in the target language, which can be called random lacunae “those vocabulary units of one of the languages ​​for which, for some reason (not always clear), there is no correspondence in the lexical composition (in the form of words or stable phrases) of another language ". As an example, 35

36 cite the word "day", which has no direct correspondence in English. This concept is conveyed in English descriptively: either by indicating the number of hours, for example, I will arrive in a day (in two days). I shall come back in twenty-four (forty-eight) hours, or, if the continuity, round-the-clock action is emphasized, by a combination of day and night, for example, They worked for four days. They worked four days and nights. There are the following rules for translating non-equivalent words. In the text of the translation remain in the original spelling: words and sentences are not in the original language; abbreviated names of brands of products and devices; names of foreign publications. The translation text translates: names of units and departments of institutions and organizations; titles of positions, titles, academic degrees, titles; proper names and titles in accordance with established practice. The text of the translation transcribes: foreign surnames and proper names "taking into account the spelling and sound, possible analogies, traditions or existing schemes of transferring phonemes of one language by phonemes of another"; articles and prepositions in foreign surnames; the names of foreign firms, companies, joint-stock companies, corporations, concerns, monopolies, industrial associations, political parties (in this case, the nomenclature names (factory, plant, joint-stock company, etc.) are translated); 36

37 titles of periodicals in the original language; names of streets, airports, train stations, stations, etc. alliances and prepositions in company names; brand names of machines, devices, chemicals, products, materials. In the text, the translation is replaced by Russian equivalents: scientific and technical terms; geographical names. Courtesy forms are preserved in translation and transmitted using transliteration: Sir Sir, Mister Mister, Mrs. Mrs, etc .; the exception is diplomatic documents and newspaper reports, in which these words are translated into Russian words "lord" and "mistress", for example: Mrs. Roosevelt Mrs. Roosevelt. It can be difficult to translate the titles of articles, literary works, which briefly reveal the main content of the text, its main idea. Translation scholars distinguish two types of names: descriptive and symbolic. Names of the first type, directly conveying the theme, the arrangement of the characters, do not present any particular difficulty in translation. Usually, such names differ in length, and therefore the translator can shorten them a little. When translating symbolic names that in a figurative form convey the main content of the text, the translator can preserve the figurativeness, or he can interpret the meaning of the title in accordance with the content of the text. Thus, an accurate translation of a title always presupposes a careful reading of the entire work and the correlation of the title with the text. 37

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Here you can download the book for free: Breus E.V. "Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from Russian into English".

Description: The course of theory and practice of translation from Russian into English is based on the thesis, according to which the source text is considered as a matrix of translation problems solved in line with the communicative model of translation. For the first time in the practice of educational translation, the provisions of this model are widely and purposefully developed in didactic terms on a specific language material in order to form and consolidate the skills of translation from Russian into English.

The manual is intended for students of faculties of foreign languages, philologists of a wide profile, translators, teachers and other specialists in the field of humanitarian disciplines interested in the problems of translation and comparative linguistics.

Year of issue: 2000

Foreword
Introduction. Translation as an act of interlingual communication

1. Denotative function
1.1. General information



1.5. Dividing and combining statements in translation
1.6. Free phrases translation

2. Expressive function
2.1. General information
2.2. Maintaining an expressive effect
2.3. Decreased expressiveness
2.4. Idiomatic expressive-stylistic means

3. Pragmatic adaptation of the source text

Applications

1. Texts with translation commentary
2. Keys to exercises and texts

Literature

Foreword
Translation studies first took shape as an independent discipline as a branch of linguistics in the 1930s. Currently, this area of ​​scientific research has a well-established tradition. In theoretical and linguistic terms, translation studies gravitates towards sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, comparative linguistics, grammar of the text and concerns such important sections of the science of language as language and thinking, language and worldview, language and culture.

In the manual, the presentation of the material follows in line with the theory that interprets translation as an act of interlingual communication. The advantage of this model is that translation phenomena are not considered in isolation, but from the point of view of their communicative attitude. It is essential that students acquire knowledge about the relative configuration of linguistic functions in a particular pair of languages ​​and the differences in the ways of their linguistic expression. No less important is the pragmatic aspect of the communicative theory of translation, which involves comparing not only two language codes, but also two cultural communities.
Manual Designed to promote a wider application in the practice of educational translation of provisions based on the conceptual apparatus and terminology of the communicative model. There are few such developments, and this is regrettable. Indeed, one of the advantages of the communicative model is precisely that it has great explanatory power in relation to a wide range of translation problems reflected in the program for the translation course.

For the translator, the text appears as a matrix or grid of translation problems, each of which has its own linguistic and non-linguistic aspects. In the manual, translation problems are named through their inherent linguistic features. This is done not only because linguistics retains a leading role in the study of translation, but also for methodological considerations. A beginner translator must first of all learn to see translation problems, and this is not easy. Reliance on familiar linguistic forms in this case is a significant help.

The manual uses texts taken from modern periodicals.
The materials of the manual were tested in the course of classroom studies conducted by the author for several years with students of the translation faculty and the faculty of foreign students of the Moscow State Linguistic University, with students of the Higher Courses of Interpreters at the Moscow State Linguistic University, as well as with students of the Faculty of Foreign Languages ​​of the University of the Russian Academy of Education.

Introduction
TRANSLATION AS AN ACT OF INTERLINGUAL COMMUNICATION
Translation has a long history. With its roots, it goes back to those distant times when the proto-language began to disintegrate into separate languages ​​and there was a need for people who knew several languages ​​and were able to act as intermediaries in the communication of representatives of different linguistic communities.

Nevertheless, for a number of reasons, in particular due to its interdisciplinary nature, translation took shape as an independent science only at the beginning of the 20th century. In the context of the expansion of international relations and the exchange of information, translation studies have developed rapidly and currently enjoys the status of an independent scientific discipline with its own theoretical base, conceptual apparatus and terminology.

Starting with the establishment of linguistic correspondences between the source language and the translating language, the theory of translation followed the path of understanding the translation process as a multidimensional phenomenon, in which not only linguistic forms are compared, but also the linguistic vision of the world and the situation of communication along with a wide range of non-linguistic factors determined by the general concept culture.

In the most complete form, this approach to the translation process is reflected in the theoretical model that interprets translation as an act of interlingual communication. The following scheme allows us to understand the most essential features of the communicative theory of translation.

According to this scheme, the translation process falls into two stages: 1) generation and perception of the Original Text (TO and 2) generation and perception of the Translation Text (T2). On the basis of this sprinkling, two Acts of Communication are distinguished - primary (K]) and secondary (K2). At the primary Act of Communication, the Sender of the Original Text (O]) generates the Original Text, which is further perceived by the Recipient of the Original Text (P [).
Within the framework of secondary communication, the Translator acts in a dual capacity: as the Recipient of the Original Text (P2) and as the Sender of the Translation Text (O2), perceived by the Recipient of the Translation Text.
(Pz).

The term "subject situation" (PS) denotes the objects described in the text and the connections between them. In this case, we are talking about the same extra-linguistic situation reflected in the TI and T2 texts, which is often perceived differently in different languages. So, in Russian, when describing terraces on the shore of a lake or sea, they say that they descend to the water. In English, on the contrary, terraces rise from the water up the slope of the coast. The position of a seated person, which in Russian "is described as" sitting with legs crossed ", is perceived differently in English, namely as the position" with one "s knees crossed". "Foam on milk" in English is conveyed using a different concept, namely "milk with skin on it". In the scheme, differences in the linguistic vision of the world are conveyed by means of abbreviations PS) - the subject situation in the FL (source language) and PS2 - the subject situation in the PL (translating language).

When translating, there is not only a contact between two languages, but also a contact of two cultures. What is obvious to the Nt-teller may be incomprehensible to the Receiver of Ps. The difference in cultures is manifested, in particular, in the difference in background knowledge. An example is the translation of the name "Snow White" from the fairy tale "About Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs." For some peoples living in the tropics and having no concept of "snow" in their language, this name had to be rendered descriptively as "a white girl, like the plumage of an egret."
This is, in general terms, a model that reflects the main features of translation as an act of interlingual communication. Following in line with this model, let us move on to consider a number of key concepts that are directly related to translation practice.

One of them is the notion of the Sender's communicative attitude, which expresses the relationship between the Sender and the text he forms. When generating a text, the Sender sets a specific goal for himself each time. It can be a message to the Recipient of any facts, the desire to induce certain actions or to convince the reliability of what is reported, to express the Sender's attitude to the reported or his desire to verify the effectiveness of contact with the Recipient.
Depending on the purpose of the communicative setting of a speech act, its linguistic function is determined. In linguistic literature, six linguistic functions are usually distinguished: denotative, associated with the description of an objective situation; expressive, expressing the speaker's attitude to the text; volitional, transmitting instructions and commands; metalinguistic, characterized by an attitude towards the language itself used in communication; contact-establishing, or phatic, associated with maintaining contact between the participants in communication and, finally, poetic, in which the emphasis is on the linguistic form.

For the practice of translation of the listed linguistic functions, the denotative function associated with the transfer of information about extra-linguistic reality is of paramount importance. In language, the reflection of the external world is carried out using the semantic relationship between the signifier, or sign, and the signified, called the denotation. Let's take the word "table" as an example. Its sound and graphic interpretation is the sign of the concept of "rtola". The concept serves as a generalizing image of an object in our mind, reflecting its main features. The sign "table" and the concept of "table" are related to each other in a semantic relationship. Within the framework of this relationship, the sign "table" acquires its linguistic meaning.

As a sign system, human language has two forms of existence: as a set of signs and rules for their combination and as a type of activity, which consists in the use of a system of linguistic signs for communication purposes. These forms of language existence correspond to the opposition of language and speech. In speech, linguistic meanings are actualized, i.e. correspond to specific subjects. So, in our example, the meaning of the word "table" when used in the text correlates with the specific type of this piece of furniture.

Like a word, a sentence is also a sign, but a sign of a special kind that reflects not individual concepts, but typical object situations. Among them are situations characterized by the attitude of the agent to the action, the object to the action, the owner to the possessed object, the object to its property, etc.
Generalized types of subject situations are called semantic predicates. Here are some examples.
Peter put the book on the table (action predicate). Ivan respected him (relationship predicate).

The car did not move (state predicate). It lacks skill (property predicate).
The predicate and the associated subject, object and locative form the semantic structure of the sentence1. At the linguistic syntactic level, the subject, predicate, object and locative correlate with the members of the sentence, the subject, the predicate, the object and the circumstance. Similarly to a word, a sentence in the language system acts as an abstract model, and in speech it is realized in the form of a concrete statement.

When discussing semantic relations, one should also mention such important concepts for translation as "meaning" and "meaning". In the scientific literature, these concepts are interpreted in different ways. We will follow the interpretation widespread in modern linguistics, according to which "meaning is the meaning of a linguistic unit actualized in speech."

The word "table" mentioned earlier as an example in Russian has several meanings, i.e. corresponds to a number of concepts. This is a piece of furniture, an institution, food, a place for storing lost things, etc. Using the term "semantic component" used in scientific everyday life, in short "seme", denoting an integral part of the meaning of a linguistic unit, we can say that the meaning of the word "table" consists of a set, or bunch, sem.

In a specific communication situation, one of the meanings, or sem, of the word "table" is used, which becomes its meaning.

A translator, always dealing with a specific text, operates on the level of meaning, not meaning. In another language, the meaning of a similar linguistic unit may be different (compare: a different scope of meanings of the English word "table"). As for the meaning, it does not depend on the differences between languages ​​and can be conveyed by other linguistic means and meanings3. So, one of the semantic components of the word "table" "lost and found" in English is conveyed by the phrase "lost and found", and the seme "food" - by the word "board". The phrase "Caution, glass" is conveyed in English by another set of sems: "Fragile. Handle with sage". Both phrases, Russian and English, convey the same specific meaning, although each of them expresses this meaning not only with the help of different words, but also with the help of different meanings.

The basic concept of translation theory is the concept of equivalence. What do they mean when they say that a phrase in FL and its translation are equivalent to each other? First of all, their semantic equivalence, i.e. correlation with the same objective situation. Let's explain this idea graphically:

The T1 text is identical to the T2 text due to the fact that they both relate to the same subject situation of the PS. This correlation makes them semantic equivalents.
There are two types of semantic equivalence - ^ component and denotative ^.
Bearing in mind that when translating, we are dealing with meaning, i.e. one of the semantic components of a language unit, we can say that semantic equivalence is achieved due to the presence of T! and T2 of the same sem. In this case, the texts are in relation to component semantic equivalence.

Formal linguistic means used to express identical semes may be similar or substantially different. Consider two pairs of statements: "He lives in Moscow" - "Not lives in Moscow" and "The doctor has been sent for". In the first pair, the identity of the semantic components is accompanied by the identity of the syntactic structure. In the second case, the phrase in English, while retaining the meaning of the original, is a transform of the original utterance - the active construction is replaced by a passive one.

The second type of semantic equivalence, called denotative, is associated with the phenomenon of linguistic selectivity. Its essence lies in the fact that one and the same object or objective situation can be described from different sides by means of different signs. Wed: "The picture hangs on the wall" (state predicate), "The picture was hung on the wall" (action predicate) and "I see a picture on the wall" (perception predicate). Different semantic predicates overlap and are interchangeable due to the fact that they describe the same situation.
In interlingual communication, this pattern is manifested even more clearly. Thus, the plant known in Russian as "tumbleweed" is called "tumbleweed" in English. One and the same object is named according to different signs: in Russian - on the basis of its spherical shape and ability to roll over the field under the influence of the wind, and in English - on the basis of a short fragile stem, which easily breaks off at the time of seed ripening and allows the plant to roll.

Another example: in English, a predicate verb in a statement does not contain a semantic component denoting whether it is masculine or feminine. When translated into Russian, where this component is present, the indicated feature is replenished from the situation or context (compare: "I have read the book" and "I have read (read) this book").

In contrast to the component level of semantic equivalence, at the level of denotative equivalence, there is a semantic discrepancy between the original text and the translation text. The equivalence relation here is based on equating different semantic components, but correlated with the same subject situation. This can be graphically depicted as follows:

Let's demonstrate the semantic shift with examples.

He plays on the student team (action predicate).
The expansion of contacts continues.

Not a member of the college team (state predicate).
Contacts are expanding.

It follows from the examples given that a variety of translation transformations are required to achieve semantic equivalence. At the level of component equivalence, transformations are mainly used that affect the grammatical structure of the utterance. The level of denotative equivalence requires more complex lexical and grammatical transformations, which entail changes in the semantic structure of the utterance.

In journalism, along with the denotative function, the expressive function plays an important role, associated with the transfer of the speaker's attitude to what is said in the statement.
In legal, diplomatic or purely business texts, the purpose of communication is to convey information, and the emotional assessment of the reported facts is minimized. In journalism, where the Sender's goal is not only to convey to the Recipient a certain amount of information, but also to induce him to side with the Sender in assessing the reported, the role of emotional assessment increases. Depending on the specific goals of communication, such an assessment can be positive or negative, saturated with light irony, humor or sarcasm, a sense of joy and satisfaction, or, conversely, dislike and irritation. The language uses a wide range of expressive and stylistic means to express such meanings, called connotative ones. Among them are various figures of speech, metaphors, metonymy, comparisons, allusions, rhetorical questions, expressively colored vocabulary, emphatic constructions, alliteration, rhyme, etc.

In translation, when choosing a particular method of transferring stylistic means, it is important to evoke a similar emotional reaction from the Recipient. The stylistic medium itself may be different. The well-known translation theorist Ya.I. Retsker illustrates this point with the example of the English phrase "Butler: donnish, dignified and dull". Proposed by Ya.I. Retsker's translation is: "Butler: academic, decent and boring."
This translation takes into account the humorous effect that alliteration is used to express in an English phrase. In Russian, where alliteration is used much less often, rhyme is used for the same purpose.

One more feature of the proposed Ya.I. Recker of translation. The word "dignified" is translated by the word "decent". More precisely, "representative" or "full of dignity." But this modification of the meaning is entirely justified. As rightly noted by Ya.I. Retsker, we are not talking about a serious analysis of the merits or demerits of one of the leaders of the English Conservative Party, but about witty political satire. It can therefore be argued that the denotative function, which is usually the leading one, in this translation is relegated to the background, giving way to the expressive function.
It follows from what has been said that the general category of equivalence should be supplemented with the concept of functional equivalence based on the transfer of various language functions. Taking into account this difference, they speak of the equivalence of denotative, expressive, volitional, phatic or contact-establishing, metalinguistic and poetic.

Prior to this, the first part of the communication chain related to the generation of the Source and Target Texts was considered. The fundamental concept at this stage is the provision on the Sender's communicative attitude. In semiotics, the science of signs, along with the previously mentioned relationship between the sign and the designated, two more types of relationships are distinguished. One of them, called syntactic, unites the signs themselves, defining their role in relation to each other. Another, called pragmatic, is the relationship between signs and the person who uses them. From the point of view of this attitude, the communicative attitude can be defined as the "pragmatics of the Sender".

Let's move on to the second part of the communication chain, characterized by the relationship between the Text and the Recipient. If the main setting characterizing the Sender-Text link was the communicative intention, the definition of the purpose of communication, then in this part of the communication chain we can talk about the communicative effect of the Text generated by the Sender. The communicative effect, like the communicative attitude, is based on pragmatic relations (sign-person); therefore, the Text-Recipient link is also called "the recipient's pragmatics".

From our own experience, we are well aware that the message often does not cause the expected response from the Recipient. This refers not only to his understanding of the information communicated, but also an emotional reaction to the connotations contained in the message. There can be many reasons. One of them consists in insufficiently clear linguistic expression of thought. As the poet says: "A spoken thought is a lie." But even with adequate linguistic expression, the message may not meet understanding due to the socio-cultural differences of the participants in the communicative act.

Obviously, the same problem exists in the framework of interlingual communication. Moreover, here the differences in initial knowledge, perceptions, interpretational and behavioral norms are even greater. A vivid illustration is the case of the English ethnographer Laura Bohannen. During her wanderings, she once found herself in Africa in a remote village. She could not leave, because after the rains water rose in the surrounding swamps. Bohannen decided to tell the elders of the tribe with whom she whiled away the time, the story of Prince Hamlet, which, in her deep conviction, has a universal character. Their reaction, in line with the discussed issues, is very indicative. What is a violation of the norms of behavior for a European, for African listeners Bohannen was acceptable and even commendable. So, Claudius, having married Hamlet's mother, did a good deed: who will take care of her and her children after the death of her husband? The picture of the world is drawn differently. Hamlet's father, the king, according to the elders, could not become a spirit. After death, he turned into a zombie and continued to behave as if he were alive.

Summarizing what has been said, we note once again that in this work the translation process is interpreted in terms of a theoretical model that describes translation as an act of interlingual communication. Among the key provisions of this model, the concepts of communicative attitude and communicative effect, linguistic functions and functional equivalence, two types of semantic equivalence - component and referential, semantic predicate, as well as the concept of meaning and meaning of linguistic units differ.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What does the schema of a theoretical model look like that interprets translation in terms of communication theory?
2. How are the concepts of communicative attitude and communicative effect defined?
3. What relationships are described in the science of signs, semiotics?
4. What does functional equivalence mean?
5. What can you say about the two levels of semantic equivalence?
6. What is the difference between the meaning and the meaning of linguistic units?

1. DENOTATIVE FUNCTION
1.1. General information
Now let us consider how the above theoretical concepts are used in relation to the identification and solution of specific translation problems.

One of the difficulties faced by a novice translator is the ability to "see" translation problems and the ability to resist the temptation to substitute the words of the original with the words of the target language. The inevitable consequence of the latter is a translation marriage called literalism. L.S. Barkhudarov, one of the founders of translation studies, defined literal translation as translation carried out at a level lower than that required in this case.
Of course, if a thought can be expressed in the same way as it is expressed in the original, this must be done. So, when translating the phrase "He lives in Moscow" as "Not lives in Moscow", there is a correspondence at all levels - formal and semantic. Everything that was said in the introduction, however, serves as evidence that such cases are the exception rather than the rule. Each language is a deeply original and specific phenomenon, and one should not expect frequent coincidences when comparing languages ​​in translation. The meaning of the original is conveyed with the help of translation correspondences that have not only a different linguistic expression, but also a set of semes different from the original, and this gives rise to the need for all kinds of translation transformations.

When translating from Russian into English, the reason for translating transformations most often lies in the vision of the world inherent in the English language and the phenomenon of linguistic selectivity associated with this. Describing the subject situation, the English language can choose a starting point in the description other than Russian, use a different predicate or configuration of features. For him, in particular, the predominant use of verb forms is characteristic. The Russian language, on the contrary, is characterized by a wider use of objectified actions and signs, which is manifested in a more frequent use of nouns than in English.
Intra-linguistic factors, such as compatibility and the communicative structure of the utterance, can also serve as a reason for translation transformations.

For the purposes of educational translation, there is a need to designate those sections of the Russian text that are associated with the danger of literalism, i.e. cannot be conveyed using direct correspondences and require certain formal and semantic transformations. In the manual, such places are called "translation problems", and for their designation language features such as "construction with verbal nouns", "a sentence with homogeneous subjects" or "a sentence with reverse word order" are used. Some typical translation problems caused by discrepancies in the transfer of a denotative function are discussed below.

1.2. Changing predicates during translation
Earlier it was said that one and the same subject situation in the Russian language can be described using different predicates. Wed: "Vehicle moving fast" (action predicate) and "Vehicle moving fast" (state predicate).

An analysis of translations from Russian into English suggests that a change in predicate is also quite frequent in interlanguage communication. In this case, a metonymic relationship is established between the initial and final utterances. As you know, a stylistic device is called metonymy, consisting in the fact that instead of the name of one object, the name of another is given, which is with the first in relation to the association by contiguity (cf.: "A red jacket walked in front"). It is this association, i.e. the relationship of cause and effect, process and result, the beginning of an action and its completion, is observed during metonymic transformations between the initial and final statements.

One of the main reasons for the transformations accompanied by a change in the predicate is the selectivity of the Russian and English languages ​​in relation to the features of the objective situation. In cases where an action denotes a transition to a qualitatively or quantitatively new state, the Russian language usually uses the action predicate, while English prefers the state predicate. In this case, the initial and final forms are united by the process-result relationship.
This humiliates the creative workers themselves, their work. This is humiliating for artistic intellectuals and their work.

A similar attitude arises when translating Russian statements with a verb predicate, denoting the manifestation of some. or a sign, for example, to be nervous, jealous, late. A similar English statement uses a state predicate (compare: He was late and Not was late).
In other cases, the state predicate in the final English utterance corresponds to the Russian verb predicate expressed by a combination of a desemantized verb and an action name.
All the others were highly critical of the agreement with crushing criticism. proposed agreement.

The state predicate "were critical" corresponds to the Russian verbal predicate expressed by the desemantized causative verb "subjected" and the name of the action "to criticism".
The subject situation in the original Russian utterance can be reflected in the English language with the help of close, but semantically non-identical verb predicates associated with the Russian verb by a cause-and-effect relationship. Along with linguistic selectivity, compatibility rules can be an incentive for such a transformation.
This turns the public against them., No.
The cause ("causes hostility to the public") is transmitted by the consequence ("turns the public against them").
To deny this right of peoples is a sign of deny a nation the freedom of choice
cheat to encroach even on that unstable is to upset the unstable balance that has
the balance that has been achieved. been achieved.
The collocation rules of the English noun "balance" in this context dictate the choice of the verb "upset" associated with the verb "encroach" by a causal relationship.

Cause and effect can be reversed. The initial predicate acts as a consequence, and the final predicate as a cause.
We are empowering local authorities. We are giving more rights to local government bodies.

The expansion of the rights of local authorities is a consequence of the increase in the number of such rights.
Finally, speaking about the change of the predicate, it should be noted the cases when the connection between the initial and final predicates is both causal and temporal.
It was so right up until the 60s, when
the last trams of this design finally disap-
good trams. peared from the streets.
The phrase "were still running" means that for some reason the trams later stopped running. At the same time, these are essentially two phases of the same process: its development ("still in progress") and completion ("finally disappeared").

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the meaning of the concept of "semantic predicate"?
2. What does the relationship "by the contiguity of concepts" or metonymic relationship mean?
3. What are the motivating reasons for the translation transformations accompanying the change of the predicate?

The translator perceives the source text as a grid of translation problems. In this case, the question is being resolved regarding the possibility of preserving the original predicate or the expediency of replacing it. Having chosen the second option, the translator acts according to the "if ... then" rule as follows:
1) if the original verbal predicate denotes a transition to a qualitatively or quantitatively new state, is expressed by a verb denoting the manifestation of a feature, or a causative verb and the name of an action, uses a state predicate in the final statement;
2) if, for reasons of linguistic selectivity or compatibility, the Russian verbal predicate cannot be conveyed by an analogous English verb, uses semantically close verbal predicates associated with the original predicate by cause-and-effect relationships;

3) if in the above cases it is undesirable to use an English predicate associated with the original Russian predicate by cause-and-effect relationships, uses the metonymic “effect-cause” relationship or a relationship in which the relationship between predicates is both causal and temporal (denotes different stages of one process ).

Exercise 3. VERB PREDICATES.
TRANSMISSION OF EFFECT OF CAUSE
1. The Summit in Washington revealed a significant shift in public opinion.
2. We take the necessary measures within our competence.
3. Whether statesmen are able to catch these sentiments in a timely manner and transform them into practical actions.
4. It has not yet been possible to improve or stabilize the state of affairs in the economy. Worse, many negative processes have even intensified.
5. Plekhanov "saw through" Lenin before anyone else.
6. Behind the rhetoric is lost what everyone should do today so that we all really move towards a better future.
7. Economics and politics are inseparable.
8. For decades, political life has been driven into perverted forms.
9. First of all, semi-official literature has lost its ideological role and immunity.
10. Nevertheless, they tried to adapt the village literature for ideological needs, to take it as an ally in the struggle against the West, to fill it with state awards and orders.
11. Yu. Bondarev compares the new forces in literature with the fascist hordes that attacked the Soviet Union in 1941.

Exercise 4. VERB PREDICATES.
TRANSMISSION OF THE INITIAL PHASE OF THE ACTION OF ITS FINAL PHASE, OR VERSATIALLY
1. Passengers hung on them (leather belts) in clusters up to the 60s, when similar trams still ran through the streets of Petrograd.
2. Passengers climbed into the carriage, sat down and found themselves in ... the past.
3. It is now recognized at the highest level that these two countries are on the way out of a protracted confrontation and are ready to leave it behind.
4. At the publishing house, Emilia rushed to the manuscript with only one intention - to read it.
5. We have taken a course towards limiting the omnipotence of the economic bureaucracy, but look how it all turned out.
6. Yu. Bondarev compares the new forces in literature with the fascist hordes that attacked the Soviet Union in 1941.
7. Such tapes of seminars could be intended for local universities.
8. The mass reader, who was hungry for information, threw himself with genuine enthusiasm at these books.
9. Their collapse leads to tangible changes in the literary and social hierarchy of values.
10. Rural literature took shape in the post-Stalin years.
11. Those who are unable or unwilling to organize work are comfortable looking for "conspirators" and "intriguers."
12. Only connoisseurs will be able to find the difference from the original carriages of the "Bresh" company, purchased in England in 1907.
13. This does not mean that in the next year or two it is impossible to give the economy a strong impetus for further development, to make people really feel that the direction is right.
1.3. Reverse word order translation
In the process of learning to translate from Russian into English, statements with reverse word order can present certain difficulties.
Such statements are a characteristic feature of texts related to the Russian social and journalistic style. In English, inversion is used much less frequently. This gives rise to the need for various translation transformations, for a deeper understanding of which it is necessary to understand the nature of the communicative structure of the utterance.
It is known that two structures are distinguished in an utterance - syntactic and communicative.
The syntactic structure is formed by the main and secondary members of the sentence.
The nature of the communicative structure is different. When an utterance is generated, the semantic segments formed by the members of the sentence are arranged in a certain sequence in accordance with the movement of thought from the initial point of the message (or "old" knowledge) to its semantic center ("new" knowledge). A semantic segment expressing "old" information and having a minimal communicative load is called a "topic". The segment with the maximum communicative load, expressing the information for the sake of which the statement is made, is called "remy". These components form the communicative structure of the utterance. Let us explain what has been said with an example: Into the room | entered | old man.
The words "into the room" are the theme, the words "old man" are the remy, and the verb "entered" serves as the section between the theme and the remy.
In the scientific literature, there is no clear boundary between theme and rema. The statement is viewed as a range of shades in the degree of communicative load: from the minimum in the topic to the maximum in the topic. But for the purposes of a practical translation course, such a division is quite acceptable, since it coincides with the boundaries of the syntactic and communicative structures of the utterance.
Consider "monorem" and "direm", two other concepts that are important for the translation of the statements of interest to us. For this purpose, the previously mentioned statement "An old man has entered the room" will be supplemented with one more phrase: "In his hands I was | a book."

In the new utterance, the theme is "in his hands," and the rhema is "a book." What is common to these statements and how do they differ from each other? Both have a theme and a bump. The peculiarity is the "novelty" of the theme. Here it should be noted that the "novelty" of information is understood by us not as something hitherto unknown to the Recipient, but as information first mentioned in a given context or communication situation. In this sense, the first statement contains only new information, since we mention the "room" for the first time in this situation. In the second utterance, the topic "in his hands" contains "old" information arising from the topic of the previous utterance "elderly person".

In accordance with the established name, an utterance containing "new" information will be called a monorem, and an utterance in which the topic does not contain a "new" one - a direm: Monorems are found in the initial phrases of a text or at the beginning of a paragraph. Di-rems appear as the story progresses 1.
What is the difference between the components of the communicative structure of an utterance in Russian and English? To answer this question, we will translate the mentioned monorem and direm into English. First, consider a monorem:
An old man I came I into the room. dexterous.
As you can see, the bump moves from the end position to the beginning of the English phrase. At the same time, it retains its syntactic design, remaining the subject. Now let's look at the direm:
In his hands I had I book. Not I had I a book in his hands.
As in the Russian language, the English directive follows the principle of a gradual increase in the communicative load towards the end of the utterance. The initial position is taken by the topic, and the final position is taken by the rema. This order of following the theme and the theme comes into conflict with the
1 Chernyakhovskaya L.A. Translation and semantic structure. M., 1976.S. 14-24. 22

Bovaniya on the preservation of the direct word order in the English directive. This contradiction is removed by means of a different syntactic design of the theme in the English directive: the Russian indirect object "with him" is transformed into the subject "he". The change of the subject is accompanied by a change in the direction of action, the change of the verb and the transformation of the Russian subject "book" into the English addition "book".
The same statement is translated differently, depending on whether it is a monorem or a direm:
In room I, a deadly silence was established.
At the beginning of a text or paragraph, this phrase is a monorem. When translating, the bump is brought forward:
A deathly silence I descended I upon the room.
In the middle of the text, the same phrase acts as a directive. When translated, the circumstance "in the room" is transformed into the subject. (Someone entered the house. In one of the rooms he heard the noise of voices. He came up, opened the door, and ...)
The room turned deathly silent,
tire.<
Reverse word orders require major syntactic restructuring. All of them, however, can be reduced to a few typical cases. This greatly facilitates the task of developing students' translation skills and achieving automatism in the use of translation techniques.
In direms with a theme-circumstance, the latter can become a subject in translation if the semantics allows him to play the role of a formal actor. Direms with tense circumstances use the verbs see, witness, bring about, signal:
Meanwhile, after the war, The early post-war years saw a reap-
a certain revaluation of values. praisal of values.
When translating statements with a direct addition topic, a change in the direction of action is often accompanied by the replacement of an active voice with a passive one:
France and A different stand was taken by France
Germany. and the FRG.
When the topic is presented by an indirect object, the active voice is used in the English utterance:

There has always been a lot of controversy around the oil problem in Norway.

Oil has always been the subject of heated debate in Norway.

A circumstance and object can be transformed into a subject and in direct word directives, if the semantics allows them to formally control the action:

Due to the aggressive nature of his character, he lost all his friends.
The academician has a very negative attitude to plans for the economic independence of individual republics and regions.

His belligerent manners caused him to lose one friend after another.
Economic independence for individual republics is viewed by him as a very dim prospect.

Translating diremes with a theme-nominal predicate does not present any difficulties. It is only necessary to transform the Russian nominal predicate into an English subject:

The ultimate goal of these efforts should be general and complete disarmament under strict international control.

The ultimate goal of these efforts is a general and complete disarmament under strict international control.

The situation is different with a simple verbal predicate. Having met a statement containing it, it is necessary to find out what it is, a monorem or a directive. This is not always easy to do, since the absence of words to the left of the verb does not allow us to clearly determine the connection between the utterance and the previous statement. An example is statements formulated with inverted uncommon sentences such as: "New cities are being built." "Roads are being laid." "Dam is being built."
Analysis shows that in many published translations such statements are invariably conveyed as monorems, i.e. by bringing forward the subject (cf .: New cities are built. Roads are made. Dams are erected).

Such a translation is correct if the statement is really a monorem and what is said in the topic was not mentioned earlier in the text. At the same time, there are cases when such statements are used to detail a previously expressed thought. For example: "The country is developing rapidly. New cities are being built. Roads are being built. Dams are being erected." Now we are not dealing with a monorem, but with a direma, and the subject rheme should remain at the end of the English phrase. For this, the appropriate translation techniques are used: the thematic subject, the construction there is, the formal subject it.

There was a regular exchange of gov-
government delegations. eminent delegations.
Have become a practice of meeting ex-Oar regular activities included meet-
pertov, ings of experts.
Cultural ties were rooted. It has become standard practice to
maintain cultural ties.
Russian impersonal sentences can be monorems and directives. The same translation rules apply to them as to personal sentences. Wed:
Their views can be judged differently,
but in different ways to evaluate politically, politically, ideologically, practically, but
ideologically, practically, but they can "t be accused of advocating any-
reproach for the immorality of calls. thing immoral.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the meaning of the concept of "communicative structure of an utterance"?
2. What is meant by the terms "theme" and "rema"?
3. How do you understand the expression "old information"?
4. Where is the border between theme and rema?
5. What is "monorem"?
6. What is "direma"?
7. What is the difference between the components of the communicative structure of an utterance in Russian and English?
Recommended translation rules
When confronted in the text with an utterance in a sentence with reverse word order, the translator:
1) determines that it is a monorem or a direm;
2) if monorem, brings bump-subject forward;
3) if direma, defines the boundary of the topic (words to the left of the verb) and establishes their syntactic function - circumstance, addition, nominal part of the predicate;
4) if the circumstance transforms it into the subject of an English phrase;
5) if an add-on, looks at which add-on. Translates a direct object topic using a passive construct. The indirect and prepositional addition transforms into an English subject, keeping the active construction;
6) if this is the nominal part of the predicate, transforms it into the subject;
7) if there are no words to the left of the verb, uses a thematic subject, an English formal subject, or the construction there is;
8) if the direma is framed in a sentence with direct word order and there is a circumstance or addition in front of the subject, transforms them into the subject, provided that they can, by their semantics, act in an English phrase as a doer;
9) if the direme or monorem is an impersonal sentence, it uses the same rules as when translating a personal sentence.
Exercise 5. DIREMA. TOPIC-CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME
1. In recent years, our tourists have poured into India, every day almost a full plane.
2. Meanwhile, after the war, there was a certain reassessment of values.
3. In the middle of 1934, the fall began.
4. Many of the greatest discoveries have taken place before our eyes in the natural sciences.
5. In recent years, small trading enterprises have been rapidly developing in cities and workers' settlements.
6. Lissitzky's early works date back to this time, in which he turned to the traditions of folk art.
7. Over the past ten years, a number of studies have been carried out on the physicochemical characteristics of these substances.
8. At the end of the holiday, a grandiose ballet performance takes place in the city of fountains - Petrodvorets.

Exercise 6. DIREMA. TOPIC-CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE LOCATION
1. The anthology "Children of America" ​​includes excerpts from the diaries and memoirs of famous and unknown Americans.
2. Older processes use catalysts to achieve this result.
3. This chapter describes the use of organometallic compounds and this table lists their data.
4. The premiere of the new ballet "Stone Flower" took place yesterday evening at the Bolshoi Theater with great success.
5. There has always been a lot of controversy around the oil problem in Norway. There were forces in the country that were opposed to outsourcing exploration drilling to foreign capital.

6. In rural literature, as in archaic folklore, there was a decisive demarcation between "friends" and "aliens."
7. In the foreign market, preserves and jams, honey, canned vegetables and fruits, mushrooms, medicinal plants and much more are in great demand.
8. In the solar system, such clots of antimatter, apparently, are absent.
9. This gives hope that in Russia, traditionally rich in talents, new literature will appear, which will be no more, but no less, than literature.
10. Vietnam is not such a big country, but it has high mountains, dense jungle and fertile plains.
11. This largest depression in the world accounts for three quarters of all oil and gas produced in the country.
12. In Europe, there is growing concern over the escalation of tensions in the Middle East.
13. It is not surprising that more than 50 million tons of coal are produced annually at the Bogatyr open-pit in Kazakhstan alone.
14. In Nicaragua, the most favorable geographical conditions for the channel - the maximum height of the area is only 31 meters.
15. There are more than 170 architectural, historical and archaeological monuments on the Solovetsky archipelago, and most of them are in disrepair.
16. The Senate focused on the question of whether the Safeguard system should be expanded.
17. For the first time a new fascinating excursion took place from St. Petersburg to Strelna along the famous steel track "Oranela".

Exercise 7: DIREME
TOPIC - CIRCUMSTANCES REASONS, PURPOSE AND MODE OF ACTION
1. Due to the weakening of the ruble, natural exchange between enterprises developed, and a return to primitive exchange trade was indicated.
2. As a result of higher wages for miners and other categories of workers, the purchasing power of the population would increase.
3. Lincoln was elected president due to a split in the Democratic Party.
4. Due to pig feeding, fattening of livestock and raising poultry, 78.6 thousand tons of meat gain were obtained in the current year.
5. It is time to understand that in this way not only hatred and disunity are inculcated in society, but also indifference, lack of principle, the absence of any convictions or moral principles whatsoever.
6. Only in this way can and should be achieved a new qualitative state of society.
7. To solve problems in the field of pension provision at the enterprises of the industry, under the committees of trade unions, commissions on pension issues have been created.
8. We did not manage to immediately realize that after cinema and television a new kind of screen art came to us.

Exercise 8: DIREME.
THEME - DIRECT OR INDIRECT ADDITION
1. Let us recall what a high degree of intolerance the discussions in Russian literature of the 19th century were sometimes distinguished by.
2. Russia needs unity and a new understanding of its uniting, consolidating power.
3. Self-regulation and self-government, a high measure of democracy are also required by modern economics, science, and creativity.
4. It was easily used by the Nazis to carry out their intended provocation.
5. If the principles enshrined in it are implemented, our descendants will also fully appreciate it.
6. Protocols of cooperation with the Lithuanian Society of Aeronautics were signed by representatives of the United States and the Czech Republic.
7. After the Second World War, the children of Albion, who had lost their former power, were ousted by an overseas partner.
8. Is the situation correctable? Yes, absolutely. Otherwise, bad times await us.
9. Somewhere on the eve of 1889, the first volume of "Capital" by K. Marx fell into his hands.
10. In authoritarianism, both the poverty of a person and the poverty of the state are looking for salvation.
Exercise 9. DIREMA. TOPIC PROPOSED SUPPLEMENT
1. This was discussed at the recently held plenum of the Writers' Union.
2. But even after the popular indignation arose against the speculative cooperatives, they began to smoke everyone, and the production cooperatives - in the first place.
3. It is worthy of the greatest regret that adventurers today often adhere to the very serious idea of ​​a Russian revival.
4. Their activities are based on subjective idealism and political snobbery.
5. Perestroika was aimed at this.
6. I think that life itself will answer this initially sincere and natural question.
7. They have no personal self-interest or lust for power. But they are crushed, gnawed by some kind of pain.
8. Each group has its own attractions, its own banners and slogans.
9. Without them (disputes), science, art and literature will simply die.

Exercise 10. DIREMA.
THEME - COMPOSITE NOMINAL TELLING
1. A serious problem in Russian literature has always been hypermoralism, the disease of extreme moral pressure on the reader.
2. Rural literature began to expose, curse, rather than exalt. She has three sworn enemies. The first, oddly enough, was a woman.
3. The second enemy is youth and the subculture associated with it. Village writers have a completely zoological hatred for rock and roll. Aerobics evokes a similar anger in them.
4. “Aliens” are also Jews and foreigners in general.
5. The central figure in her was the image of a righteous woman who, despite all the hardships of life, remains true to her religious instincts.
6. In a secret memorandum it was reported that the goal of the National Socialists was to establish world domination of the Reich.
7. The central point of the law was the mandatory embargo on the sale of weapons to the belligerents.
8. Realistically minded politicians could not fail to understand that the only anchor of salvation for France was a strong alliance with Russia.

Exercise 11. DIREMA. THEME-VERBAL SAID
1. As soon as, albeit slightly, the shadow economy and politics were pressed, all sorts of social * provocations appeared.
2. That is why there is a great flow of letters, which speak of "loss of faith," "loss of ideals."
3. During the holidays, the opportunity was missed to turn to one of these compromises. Moreover, there is a historical example: a monument to the Swedes who died in battle was erected on the Poltava field.
4. The environment begins to take on common sense. The skills of greater tolerance and readiness to discuss respectfully will come.
5. If we imagine a certain ideal conditional society, the combination of different schemes and types of management in its different sectors will probably be optimal. Both democracy and administrative orchestration will be required.
6. Complex systems cannot be managed according to rigid schemes and rules. The principles of self-tuning of systems are required.
7. Our psyche also resists, the possibilities, problems and difficulties of which we still do not know well.
8. All this gives a simple answer: you need a "steady hand".
9. Such reasoning has its own logic. Because there are both intentional saboteurs and specific perpetrators of outrage.
10. More successful is the large abstract "On the so-called question of the markets."
11. True, the path of repentance remains, but only a few and not the most representative "officials" have followed it.
12. Today another, "alternative" literature is emerging.
13. The greater the cost will be if prejudice, inertia and fear of change fail us again.
14. Volumes of memoirs of former ministers, military leaders, ambassadors are published one after another.
15. A column of thick smoke rose over the palace of Quet d'Orsay: diplomatic archives were destroyed.
16. The practice of pre-orders would help.
17. The poet in this position turns out to be less than the poet, since his degeneration occurs.
18. Young people entering the labor market for the first time are particularly affected by today's unemployment.
19. And here some kind of enemy is needed, and in conditions of danger it is sharper than before.
20. Otherwise, the full potential of video rental will not be realized.

Exercise 12. DIREMA.
STATEMENTS IN DIRECT ORDER OF WORDS.
REGISTRATION IN SUBJECT INVERTED SUPPLEMENT OR
CIRCUMSTANCES, AS WELL AS PREPOSITIVE CIRCUMSTANCES,
PRIVATE AND DOMESTIC TURNOVER
1. With excitement, the sergeant's voice changed almost beyond recognition.
2. Because of the aggressiveness of his character, he lost all his friends.
3. In the era of glasnost, writers were able to freely express their thoughts in books.
4. Thanks to Abstract Expressionism, by this time American artists had occupied a prominent place at the forefront of world art.
5. In its report on the essence and main provisions of the economic recovery program, the government emphasized the urgent need to consolidate all the forces of society to implement the proposed measures.
6. Due to the lack of the environment necessary for large paintings, Lieitsky was mainly engaged in graphics.
7. However, to the plans of economic independence of individual
republics and regions Shatalin is sharply negative, considering
their phantasmagoria. *
8. Ulyanov did not make a sharp turn in his fate because of the choice of the path of struggle: an ax or mass movements. No. The high school student did not yet have his own views on this issue.
9. Shatalin also considers the creation of normal conditions for the operation of small enterprises, which he considers one of the main engines of the economy, to be among the top-priority tasks.
10. And it is true, for a foreign reader this is interesting, this is something else.
11. Sweden and Japan, the world's leading industrial robots, have had the lowest unemployment rates for a long time compared to other Western countries.
12. When the sun was just rising, I got off at the Yasenki halt six kilometers from Yasnaya Polyana1.
13. Having subjected to rigorous analysis the old and newly emerging realities, we came to the conclusion that it is precisely on such approaches that it is necessary to jointly search for a way to the supremacy of universal human ideas over the innumerable multitude of centrifugal forces.
1 The example is borrowed from the decree, the work of L.A. Chernyakhovskaya.

Exercise 13: TRANSLATING IMPERSONAL Sentences
1. Too often, some recent rallies are looking for victims rather than ways and means of solving common problems.
2. We had to return to the search for answers to the solution of many problems many times, and each time all new facets were discovered, new, often mutually exclusive options were born.
3. Ulyanov had a chance to meet with N.Ye. Fedoseev only once again, almost ten years later, when both were sent to Siberian exile.
4. Even if a performance is shown on television all over the country, it is usually not before the audience's interest in it has cooled down.
5. Services for rewriting to customer's cassettes can probably be provided by mail.
6. That is why we are still suspicious of irony, because they see it as a violator of a serious view of literature as a public enlightener.
7. Without cassettes with "difficult" films and qualified commentary, the problem of a serious viewer cannot be solved.
8. For many years the country was deprived of a normal internal political process. But life still runs, it cannot be stopped, like thought.
9. There is no escape from the requirement to find a balance of interests, which has become a condition of survival and progress.
10. They tried to adapt rural literature for ideological needs, to take it as an ally in the struggle against the West.
11. Berlin considered the treaties of Britain and France with Czechoslovakia and Poland to be a dangerous obstacle to the implementation of these plans.
12. In developed countries, video firmly occupies the place of one of the main channels of information, and with the current growth of interest in our country, it cannot be neglected.
13. Proceeding from the requirements of life, it is necessary to take a fresh look at some theoretical concepts and concepts.
14. No tricks, excuses and evasions can avoid inevitable retribution.
15. All this in Russian history has always been in abundance.
16. Their (Slavophiles) reflections can be assessed in different ways politically, ideologically, practically, but they cannot be reproached for the immorality of their calls.

Exercise 14. TRANSLATE THE TEXT INTO ENGLISH,
PAYING ATTENTION TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIREM
One of the characteristic features of the world of work in the Western world is the uneven distribution of workers across industries. In the extractive and separate subdivisions of the manufacturing industry, there is an intensive process of reducing the workforce.
The highest rate of decline in the number of employees in the so-called old industries - food, textile, clothing, leather and footwear and coal mining. This is happening not only due to the growth of labor productivity, but also due to the growing competition from developing countries, where international corporations are relocating their enterprises in search of cheap labor.
In the "old" industries, as a rule, workers are concentrated without sufficient professional training, with a low level of general education. For this reason, a decrease in the number of employed here indirectly contributes to an increase in the volume of skilled labor in the entire economy as a whole.
At the same time, the demand for more highly qualified labor from new, growing industries - radio-electronic, instrument-making, petrochemical, aerospace and others - is growing. Corporations, creating new enterprises in these industries, seek to prevent the formation of trade union organizations in them. This is how, in the terminology of the Western press, the "zone free of trade unions" is expanding.
The key point in considering the qualitative shifts in the development of the world of work is the analysis of the impact on this process of the scientific and technological revolution. It demands higher qualifications from each new generation of working people, and sometimes completely changes the nature of labor.
Automation, for example, needs a greater number of knowledge workers - engineers, programmers, computer operators. For the maintenance of programmed machines, qualified service technicians are needed.

1.4. Conveying constructions with verbal nouns
As noted earlier, the Russian language is characterized by a tendency to substantivate, "or objectify, actions and processes. The consequence of this regularity is a large number of verbal nouns in the positions of the subject, object and circumstance. Verbal constructions are especially widespread in texts belonging to social journalistic style.
In English, the tendency to objectify actions is less pronounced, and verbal constructions are generally used less often than in Russian. When translating, this difference gives rise to the need for a number of semantic transformations.
One of these transformations is a change of subject. The subject acts as a starting point in describing an objective situation. During translation, a change of subject may occur, i.e. the role of the starting point is assigned to another element of the objective situation. We saw a similar transformation when we looked at the translation of sentences with reverse word order. Here, its motive is the difference in the frequency of use of verbal nouns.
In the Russian language, statements are widely used in which the subject is expressed by a phrase consisting of a verbal noun, meaning a certain process, and another name, meaning a subject or object of the process. For example: The complication of the situation in Cyprus is due to the fact that the settlement of the problem of this island state was unjustifiably delayed.
The phrase "complication of the situation" consists of the verbal noun "complication" and the name "situation", which means the subject of the process expressed by the verbal noun (compare: "the situation has become complicated"). In the phrase "settlement of the problem" the name "problem" with the verbal noun "settlement" performs the function of an object (cf .: "settle the problem").
The English style guide speaks of the undesirability of using abstract nouns as a subject. This idea is expressed by the author of one of them using the following comparison: you cannot make a hole in the wall with a boxing glove, for this you need a drill. It is equally impossible to convince by abstraction; it requires a concrete noun. In other words, it is desirable to replace abstract nouns with concrete ones. This recommendation is also applicable to the named utterances, in the translation of which it is necessary to change the subject, replacing the verbal noun in the position of the subject with a specific name.
Such a transformation can be accomplished by a translation technique, which we call the unfolding of the reduced predicate. This technique is also used to solve other translation problems, so we will consider it in more detail.
The basis of a statement is usually a verbal predicate. When updating the offer, i.e. its use in speech, predicate relations can appear in a reduced or reduced form. The sentence is folded into a phrase, in which the role of a predicate is played not by a verb, but by other parts of speech - an adjective, participle, verbal noun. Such a predicate is called reduced, but its essence does not change from this. Like the primary verbal predicate, it reflects the relationship between an object and a sign, an object and a process, etc. In the process of translation, the opposite phenomenon occurs: the phrase develops into a separate sentence. In this case, the name of the action is transformed into a verbal or nominal predicate, and a specific actor in the role of a subject is determined based on the context, depending on the function of the name with a verbal noun. Let us explain what has been said with an example.

The union's efforts are aimed at Our union is working towards over-
bridging the split in the international coming the split in the international
trade union movement of miners. movement of coal miners "unions.
This example clearly shows that in the case when a name with a verbal noun performs the function of a subject, it is easily transformed into the subject of an English utterance. In this case, the context is limited by the verb-noun phrase itself. Indeed, the verbal noun of their "efforts", which acts as a subject in the original Russian utterance, is transformed into the verb "is working", and the name "trade union" - into the subject of the final utterance "our union".
In cases where a name with a verbal noun means an object, the translator identifies a specific figure, relying on a broader context: "The resumption of negotiations was postponed under a variety of pretexts."
The article from which this statement is taken refers to the negotiations between the two communities in Ulster. We could therefore suggest the following translation: Under all sorts of pretexts, the two communities refused to resume negotiations.

The principle of reliance on a broader context is also applicable when translating utterances of the first type, where a name with a verbal noun denotes a subject: The requirement of a new stage is aimed at de-ideologizing interstate relations.
According to our rule, the subject in the English statement should be the phrase "new stage" (cf .: The new stage calls for, etc.).
But this option is undesirable, since the noun "stage" is rather abstract. An analysis of the context of the entire utterance allows finding a way out of the predicament: the decision to de-ideologize international relations is competent to make only their participants, i.e. independent states, countries. Hence a more acceptable option follows: At the new stage countries should try and free international relations from ideology.
In addition to taking the subject out of context, a number of other translation techniques help to avoid the use of a verbal noun as a subject. Since the name in a verbal noun acts as an object, it can be transformed into the subject of an English phrase using a passive construction.
The colossal workload of science, Our science, literature and arts are
literature, art public- overloaded with social and political prob-
political problems - character.
thorny line of our time.
The names "science", "literature", "art" with a verbal noun in the position of the subject "workload" by means of a passive turnover are transformed into the subject of the English sentence "science, literature and arts".
The use of a number of semantically "empty words" such as "attempt", "effort", "goal", "task", "step", etc. serves the same purpose. Let's give an example.
Transfer of ideological contradictions Attempts to glanders over ideological dif-
ferences into relations between states have
never leads to anything good. never been of any use.
In constructions with a name with a verbal noun in the "object" function, the verbal noun can be omitted in translation. The role of the subject in this case is played by the name itself.
The conclusion of a trade agreement with A trade agreement with Spain will Spain will contribute to the expansion of economic cooperation between the promotion of economic cooperation between our two countries, between our two countries.
A similar transformation takes place when the name in the position of the subject is expressed by nouns derived from verbs that do not have a specific meaning without their objects, such as "helping", "winning", "defeating", "influencing (services, pressure)" , "committing theft (crime, murder)". Such nouns form phraseologically related phrases with another name, the specific meaning of which is contained in the object.
The name can also be derived from verbs with the general meaning of "action", such as "conducting a search (analysis)", "organizing excursions (lectures, events)", "achieving independence (results)", "convening a conference (meeting)", " implementation of plans (programs) "," conclusion of an agreement "," provision of a loan (credit, independence) "," emergence of danger (war) "," creation of bases (zones) "1.
It is easy to see that in such phrases, the verbal noun, by its semantics, denies the existence of what is expressed by another name. In the above example, it is not the "conclusion of a contract" as an action that will contribute to the expansion of cooperation, but the contract itself. The verbal noun here plays the role of a formal element - it denies the existence at the moment of what is expressed by the name "contract".
From what has been said above, it does not at all follow that statements in which the function of the subject is performed by a verbal noun is generally alien to the English language. We are only talking about the lesser frequency of such statements in English publicistic texts, where the choice of a verb or verbal noun, apparently, depends on the degree of "objectivity" of the action.
One more circumstance should be noted. Translation practice shows that in some cases, most often due to the genre specifics of the English text (for example, the genre of an article on economics), a specific Russian noun in the position of a subject can be replaced by an English verbal noun.
I would like to note that every year the country of ex-Annual exports amount to 100-150 exports 100-150 million tons of oil, which million tons or about 20 per cent of the total is about 20% of the total additional output we have of black gold.
In the translation, the specific noun "country" is omitted, and the verbal noun "export" is used as the subject.
In addition to the function of the subject, Russian verbal nouns can perform the functions of secondary members of the sentence - additions, definitions and circumstances.
1 See Denisenko Yu.A. On the problem of functional (translation) correspondences in the English language of some types of Russian constructions with a verbal noun. Cand. diss. M., 1964.

In similar English statements, verbal nouns are also not uncommon. However, their frequent use leads to an oversaturation of the translation text with units that are not very characteristic of the English publicistic style.
As noted by the English stylists, when describing the processes, the English language prefers other linguistic means, such as the infinitive, participle, gerund and adjective. Their use, in turn, largely depends on the restrictions imposed by the rules of syntactic compatibility in force in it. Let us illustrate this position with a number of examples.
Verb names that perform the function of an object can be conveyed by an infinitive or a gerund.
The world has already developed vultures that There are already forces in the world are encouraging us to enter an era of peace, that prompt us to enter an era of peace.
This rule does not apply to all such nouns. The names of the process, meaning the transition to a qualitatively or quantitatively new state, such as "increase", "decrease", "reduction", "improvement", in English are most often conveyed using the comparative adjectives or the participle P.
Workers demanded higher wages,
bot board, reduced working shorter working hours and better
day, improvement of living conditions. (improved) housing.
This transformation belongs to the category of metonymic: the initial and final forms are correlated as a process and its result (due to an increase in wages).
Verbal nouns in the definition function are conveyed by means of a gerund, participle II or infinitive.
Russia supports the idea of ​​creating nu-
nuclear-free zones. clear-free zones.
Right-wing newspapers alerted their
readers to the danger of recognized post-
left-wing European borders. war European boundaries.
Academician Shatalin participated in
drafting the government's program to re-
NOMICS. pair the economy.
Verbal nouns acting in the position of circumstance undergo similar transformations.
The UN has done a lot in order to bring closer together - The United Nations has done a lot to establish positions in the Yugoslav conflict. bring the waning fractions in the Yugoslavian conflict closer together.

Finally, it should be mentioned that verb-nominal phrases, in the translation of which the verb name is omitted, are also found in
positions of minor members of the proposal.
Participants in the conference stressed
the need to establish uniform needs for T.U. unity,
state of trade unions.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. How is the selectivity of the Russian language manifested in relation to the attribute of objectivity in describing an action?
2. What is the essence of the translation technique called "expansion of the reduced predicate"?
Recommended translation rules
1) Having found an abstract noun in the position of the subject in the original text, the translator, relying on the context, replaces it with a concrete noun;
2) if the subject is expressed by a verbal noun with an unweakened meaning of objectivity, the translator retains such a subject;
3) if the meaning of objectivity in a verbal noun is weakened and the name with a verbal noun is a subject, the translator transforms the name into the subject of the entire English utterance, and the verbal noun into a verbal or nominal predicate;
4) if the name with a verbal noun is an object, the translator determines the subject of the statement on the basis of a wide context, transforming the verbal noun into a predicate, and the name with it - in addition;
5) if the search for a subject subject causes difficulty, the translator uses desemantized nouns of the type: "attempts", "efforts", "goals", "steps" as the subject of the English utterance;
6) if the subject is a verb-noun phrase, in which the specific meaning is expressed not by the verbal noun itself, but by the name with it in the function of the object, the translator transforms the name into the subject of the utterance, omitting the verbal noun;
7) if a verbal noun appears in the position of an object, definition or circumstance, the translator replaces the verbal noun with an infinitive, gerund, participle P or an adjective.

Exercise 15. SUBJECT-ABSTRACT NON-EXERCISE
1. It is this circumstance that obliges me to address not only you, members of the State Duma, but also all citizens of our country.
2. Since the future is always present in the present as a project, the significance of the speculative intellectual principle in Russian society was higher than concern for the vital.
3. In the future, the functions of the regulator will be transferred to the market.
4. The turn in foreign policy brought France to a noticeable rapprochement with Russia.
5. Salvation appears in the foggy monarchist-religious dream of theocratic order.
6. Our generation finally got the opportunity to learn about how the neighbors overseas live and what they think.
7. Internal processes cannot achieve their national goals without using the achievements of the surrounding world.
8. It's time to get rid of the naive thought that without additional investments, conversion will give the market a lot of necessary goods.
9. When these topics on the pages of the censored press turned out to be the monopoly of official literature, the general reader threw himself with genuine enthusiasm on new books.

Exercise 16. SUBJECT -
VERBAL NUN WITH UNWAITING OBJECTIVE VALUE
1. The degradation of rural literature is more sensitive for the cause of literature, since we are talking about more gifted and more socially worthy writers.
2. Over time, however, things began to change. This change is beginning. moose even before perestroika, but worsened with its onset.
3. The pro-Western development of Soviet society has led to an ever-growing conflict between rural literature and society.
4. Work on the book "The Development of Capitalism in Russia" went on more quickly.
5. Stratification and degradation of official literature, in fact, do not mean too much for the further development of literature.
6. The existence of semi-official literature in the nationalist camp looks rather ridiculous (after all, it seems to be praising internationalism).
7. The development of events demanded an immediate pooling of efforts by the peace-loving states in order to consolidate peace.

Exercise 17. SUBJECT-VERBING Noun
WITH WEAKENED VALUE OF SUBJECT. NAME WITH NUN - SUBJECT
1. The development of ferrous metallurgy in Siberia goes from west to east.
2. Today the burden of unemployment, inflation, untimely salary payments falls on the shoulders of engineers and technicians. Moreover, according to statistics, the rate of deterioration in the situation of knowledge workers is constantly increasing.
3. At the same time, the number of highly qualified specialists is growing. These are people without whom the development of the modern economy is simply impossible.
4. The efforts of the trade unions are constantly aimed at overcoming the existing split in the national trade union movement of miners, strengthening its unity.
5. The complication of the situation in Cyprus is associated with a new turn in relations between this island state and Turkey.
6. The basis of the nuclear nonproliferation regime is the Nonproliferation Treaty concluded by the UN members in the 70s.
7. The development of democracy in the post-Soviet space is carried out along the path of increasing the role of local government bodies.
8. And the degradation of rural literature today is not accidental.
9. Formally, Eden's visit to Moscow had an informational character.
10. The emergence of a dispute between Westernizers and Slavophiles is predetermined by the very position of Russia.

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Translation theory and practice

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Translation theory and practice

HISTORY OF SCIENCE ABOUT TRANSLATION

Among the many complex problems that modern linguistics studies, an important place is occupied by the study of linguistic aspects of interlingual speech activity, which is called "translation" or "translation activity".

Translation is undoubtedly a very ancient human activity. As soon as in the history of mankind groups of people were formed, the languages ​​of which were different from each other, there were also "bilinguals" who helped communication between "multilingual" groups. With the emergence of writing, such "interpreters" were joined by translators who translated various texts of an official, religious and business nature. From the very beginning, translation performed an important social function, making it possible for people to communicate across languages. The dissemination of written translations opened up wide access for people to the cultural achievements of other peoples, made it possible for the interaction and mutual enrichment of literatures and cultures. Knowledge of foreign languages ​​allows reading books in these languages ​​in the original, but not everyone succeeds in learning even one foreign language.

The first translation theorists were the translators themselves, who sought to summarize their own experience, and sometimes the experience of their fellows in the profession. It is clear that the most outstanding translators of all times presented their "translation credo" and, although the considerations expressed by them did not meet modern scientific and evidence requirements and did not add up to consistent theoretical concepts, a number of such considerations are still of undoubted interest today.

So, even the translators of the ancient world widely discussed the question of the degree of closeness of the translation to the original. Early translations of the Bible or other works considered sacred or exemplary were dominated by the desire to literally copy the original, which sometimes led to ambiguity or even complete incomprehensibility of the translation. Therefore, later some translators tried to theoretically substantiate the translator's right to greater freedom with respect to the original, the need to reproduce not the letter, but the meaning or even the general impression, the "charm" of the original. Already in these first statements about the goals that the translator should pursue, one can find the beginning of the theoretical disputes of our time about the admissibility of a literal or free translation, about the need to preserve in the translation the same effect on the reader that the original has, etc.

Later, individual translators tried to formulate some semblance of a "normative theory of translation", setting out a number of requirements that a "good" translation or a "good" translator had to meet. The French humanist, poet and translator Etienne Dole (1509-1546) believed that the translator should observe the following five basic principles of translation:

1.to perfectly understand the content of the translated text and the intention of the author whom he is translating;

2. to be fluent in the language from which he is translating, and equally excellent to know the language into which he is translating;

3. to avoid the tendency to translate word for word, for this would distort the content of the original and destroy the beauty of its form;

4. use common forms of speech in translation;

5. choosing and placing the words correctly, reproduce the general impression made by the original in the appropriate "tonality".

In 1790, in the book "Principles of Translation" by the Englishman A. Tytler, the basic requirements for translation were formulated as follows:

1. the translation must fully convey the ideas of the original;

2. the style and manner of presentation of the translation must be the same as in the original;

The foundations of the scientific theory of translation began to be developed only by the middle of the twentieth century, when translation problems attracted the attention of linguists. Until that time, it was believed that translation can in no way be included in the range of issues studied by linguistic science. The translators themselves believed that the linguistic aspects of translation play a very insignificant, purely technical role in the "art of translation". Of course, the translator had to be proficient in both the original language and the target language, but knowledge of languages ​​was only a prerequisite for translation and did not affect its essence. The role of such knowledge has often been compared to the role of knowledge of musical notation for a composer.

For their part, the linguists themselves saw no reason to include translation activity in the object of linguistic research, since it was not determined by linguistic factors. The focus of linguistics was the study of the specifics of the language, the disclosure of its unique, unrepeatable structure, features of the grammatical structure and vocabulary of each individual language, which distinguish it from other languages. All this constituted the originality of the language, its national "spirit" and presupposed the fundamental impossibility of the identity of two texts written in different languages. And since it was believed that the translation should comprehensively reproduce the original, the translation turned out to be fundamentally impossible for purely linguistic reasons, not to mention the impossibility to reproduce the unique originality of the creative manner of the outstanding poet or writer. The attitude of linguists to translation was clearly expressed by W. Humboldt in a letter to the famous German writer and translator August Schlegel: “Any translation seems to me to be an attempt to solve an impossible task. at the expense of the taste and language of their own people, or the originality of their own people at the expense of their original. " Such views, which later received the name "the theory of untranslability," were shared by many linguists, including those who themselves were many and very successful in the role of translators. The "untranslatable theory" did not, of course, have any impact on translation practice, as translators continued to perform the "impossible" task. However, this theory was one of the obstacles to the linguistic analysis of translation.

By the middle of the twentieth century, linguists had to radically change their attitude towards translation and begin to study it systematically. We already know that during this period the translation of political, commercial, scientific and technical and other "business" materials, where the features of the individual author's style, as a rule, are of little importance, began to come to the fore. In this regard, they began to realize more and more clearly that the main difficulties of translation and the entire nature of the translation process are due to discrepancies in the structures and rules of functioning of the languages ​​involved in this process. Well, if we are talking about some kind of correlation of languages, then, of course, linguists should be engaged in its study. In addition, the increased requirements for translation accuracy also emphasized the role of linguistic units. When translating materials of this kind, it was no longer possible to be content with the fidelity of the translation "as a whole", the same effect on the reader of the original and the translation. The translation was supposed to ensure the transfer of information in all details, down to the meanings of individual words, to be completely authentic to the original. The linguistic fundamental principle of the translation process became clearer and clearer. It was necessary to find out what the linguistic essence of this process is, to what extent it is determined by linguistic factors proper, to what extent such factors limit the accuracy of information transfer.

To meet the enormous need for translators, translation schools, faculties and institutes have been established in many countries. As a rule, the training of translators was carried out on the basis of educational institutions of universities and institutes where foreign languages ​​were studied, and the task of language teachers was to create rational programs and teaching aids for teaching translation. Linguistic specialists had to create the necessary scientific basis for building an effective course for the training of highly qualified translators.

The implementation of mass training of translation personnel revealed the inadequacy of the traditional formula for the qualification of a translator: "In order to translate, knowledge of two languages ​​and the subject of speech is required." It turned out that the factors indicated in this formula do not in themselves provide the ability to translate professionally, that one must not only know two languages, but know them "in translation", ie. in combination with the rules and conditions for the transition from units of one language to units of another.

SUBJECT, PROBLEMS AND METHODS OF TRANSLATION THEORY

In a broad sense, the term "translation theory" is opposed to the term "translation practice" and covers any concepts, provisions and observations regarding translation practice, methods and conditions for its implementation, various factors that have a direct or indirect impact on it. With this understanding, "translation theory" coincides with the concept of "translation studies".

In a narrower sense, "translation theory" includes only the strictly theoretical part of translation studies and is opposed to its applied aspects.

Translation is a complex multifaceted phenomenon, some aspects of which can be the subject of research in various sciences. Within the framework of translation studies, psychological, literary, ethnographic and other aspects of translation activities are studied, as well as the history of translation activities in a particular country or countries. Depending on the subject of research, one can distinguish psychological translation studies (psychology of translation), literary translation studies (the theory of literary or literary translation), ethnographic translation studies, historical translation studies, etc. The leading place in modern translation studies belongs to linguistic translation studies (translation linguistics), which studies translation as a linguistic phenomenon. Certain types of translation studies complement each other, striving for a comprehensive description of translation activities.

The theoretical part of the linguistics of translation is the linguistic theory of translation. In what follows, the term "translation theory" will be used in the meaning of "linguistic translation theory" without additional reservations. In this sense, translation theory distinguishes between "general theory of translation", "particular theories of translation" and "special theories of translation".

General theory of translation is a section of the linguistic theory of translation that studies the most general linguistic laws of translation, regardless of the characteristics of a particular pair of languages ​​involved in the translation process, the way this process is carried out and the individual characteristics of a particular act of translation. The provisions of the general theory of translation cover any kind of translation of any originals from any source language into any other language.

The general theory of translation forms part of the linguistic theory of translation, along with private theories of translation, which study the linguistic aspects of translation from one given language into another given language, and special theories of translation, which reveal the features of the process of translating texts of different types and genres, as well as the influence on the nature of this process. speech forms and conditions for its implementation. The general theory of translation provides a theoretical foundation and defines the basic concepts of particular and special theories of translation. Private and special theories of translation concretize the provisions of the general theory of translation in relation to certain types and types of translation.

Translation theory sets itself the following main tasks:

1.to reveal and describe the general linguistic foundations of translation, i.e. indicate what features of language systems and patterns of language functioning underlie the translation process, make this process possible and determine its nature and boundaries;

2. define translation as an object of linguistic research, indicate its difference from other types of linguistic mediation;

3. to develop the basis for the classification of types of translation activities;

4. to reveal the essence of translation equivalence as the basis of the communicative equivalence of the original and translated texts;

5. to develop general principles and features of the construction of private and special theories of translation for various combinations of languages;

6. to develop general principles for the scientific description of the translation process as the translator's actions to transform the original text into the translated text;

7. to reveal the impact of pragmatic and sociolinguistic factors on the translation process;

8. define the concept of "translation rate" and develop principles for assessing the quality of translation.

In addition to theoretical sections, translation linguistics includes the development of a number of applied aspects related to the methodology of teaching translation, the compilation and use of various reference books and dictionaries, the methodology for evaluating and editing translations, as well as various practical issues, the solution of which contributes to the successful performance of the translator's functions.

The linguistic theory of translation is, first of all, a descriptive theoretical discipline dealing with the identification and description of the objective laws of the translation process, which are based on the features, structures and rules of the functioning of languages ​​involved in this process. In other words, the theory of translation describes not what should be, but what is, what constitutes the nature of the phenomenon under study. At the same time, based on the description of the linguistic translation mechanism, it is possible to formulate some normative recommendations, principles and rules, methods and techniques of translation, following which the translator can more successfully solve the tasks facing him. In all cases, scientific analysis of observed facts precedes regulatory prescriptions.

Normative recommendations developed on the basis of linguistic and translation research can be used both in translation practice and in the preparation of future translators. The ability to use such recommendations, modifying them depending on the nature of the translated text, the conditions and tasks of a particular translation act, is an important part of translation skills. Knowledge of regulatory requirements does not imply a thoughtless, mechanical implementation of these requirements by the translator. Translation, in any case, is a creative thinking activity, the implementation of which requires the translator to have a whole range of knowledge, abilities and skills, the ability to make the right choice, taking into account the entire set of linguistic and extralinguistic factors. Consideration of such factors is largely intuitive, as a result of a creative act, and individual translators, to varying degrees, have the ability to successfully carry out the translation process. A high degree of this skill is called the art of translation.

Translation is a means to provide an opportunity for communication (communication) between people speaking different languages. Therefore, for the theory of translation, data of communicative linguistics about the features of the process of speech communication, the specifics of direct and indirect speech acts, about the relationship between the expressed and implied meaning in the statement and the text, the influence of the context and the situation of communication on the understanding of the text, other factors that determine the communicative behavior of a person are of particular importance. ...

An important research method in translation linguistics is comparative analysis of translation, i.e. analysis of the form and content of the translation text in comparison with the form and content of the original. These texts are objective facts available for observation and analysis. In the process of translation, a certain relationship is established between two texts in different languages ​​(the original text and the translation text). Comparing such texts, it is possible to reveal the internal mechanism of translation, identify equivalent units, and also detect changes in form and content that occur when the original unit is replaced with an equivalent unit of the translation text. It is also possible to compare two or more translations of the same original. Comparative analysis of translations makes it possible to find out how the typical translation difficulties associated with the specificity of each of the languages ​​are overcome, as well as which elements of the original remain untransmitted in translation. The result is a description of the "translation facts" that gives a picture of the actual process.

In the course of the development of the linguistic theory of translation, the incorrectness of the "theory of untranslability" was demonstrated. Consideration of the translation from the standpoint of linguistics clearly determined the impossibility of complete identity of the content of the original and the translation. The linguistic originality of any text, the orientation of its content towards a certain linguistic collective, possessing only its inherent "background" knowledge and cultural and historical features, cannot be completely "recreated" in another language. Therefore, translation does not imply the creation of an identical text and the absence of identity cannot serve as a proof of the impossibility of translation. The loss of some elements of the translated text during translation does not mean that this text is "untranslatable": such a loss is usually found when it is translated and the translation is compared with the original. The impossibility of reproducing some feature of the original in translation is only a particular manifestation of the general principle of non-identity of the content of two texts in different languages ​​(and if we talk about "absolute identity", then also of two texts in one language, consisting of an unequal set of linguistic units). The lack of identity does not at all prevent the translation from performing the same communicative functions for which the original text was created. It is known that the content of an utterance contains elements of meaning that do not matter for a given message, but are "imposed" on it by the semantics of linguistic units. For example, the message A good student will not come to class unprepared clearly means not only students, but also female students, and the masculine word student is irrelevant for him. However, in Russian (as well as in French and German), you cannot use a noun without reproducing the meaning of the gender, although this would not be necessary for the message or even contradict its meaning, as in our example. If, in translation into English, the indication of the gender is lost, then from the point of view of communication, such a loss is not only insignificant, but even desirable. The absolute identity of the content of the original and the translation is not only impossible, but also unnecessary for the realization of the goals for which the translation is created.

In any act of speech, communication takes place between the Source of information (speaker or writer) and its Receptor (listener or reader). Although, given all the necessary conditions, it is possible to extract all the information it contains from a message, each individual Receptor extracts information of a different volume from the message, depending on its knowledge, the degree of interest in the message and the goal that it sets for itself by participating in communication. Therefore, each message exists, as it were, in two forms, which are not completely identical: the message transmitted by the sender (text for the speaker), and the message received by the recipient (text for the listener).

For the theory of translation, of particular importance is the fact that these forms of the same message are in relation to communicative equivalence, which is expressed in the following:

1. between them there is potentially a high degree of commonality, since they consist of the same linguistic units, representing, in general, the same information for all members of a given linguistic community;

2. between them, in fact, there is a sufficient degree of commonality to provide the necessary mutual understanding in the specific conditions of communication. (If such an understanding is not achieved, the communicants can exchange additional information, increasing the accuracy of the perception of the message);

3. both forms are combined in the act of communication into a single whole, and the differences between them turn out to be irrelevant for the communication participants who do not realize these differences, believing that the message received is what is transmitted, and vice versa. Thus, for communicants, there really is one single text, the content of which, in principle, can be accessible to everyone who speaks the language, with the help of which the message is transmitted and received.

Verbal communication can be carried out between communicants speaking different languages. In this case, there will be interlingual (bilingual) communication. Since the Receptor is not able to extract information from a text spoken or written in a language unknown to him, interlanguage communication is of an indirect nature. A prerequisite for communication between "multilingual" communicants is the presence of an intermediate link that carries out linguistic mediation, i.e. converting the original message into a linguistic form that can be perceived by the Receptor (in other words, transmitting this message in the language of the Receptor). The linguistic intermediary must extract information from the text of the original message ("original" or "original") and transmit it in another language. Therefore, this role can be performed only by a person with the required degree of bilingualism, i.e. fluent in two languages.

In addition to his intermediary role in the process of interlingual communication, the translator sometimes performs communication functions that go beyond language mediation. As a rule, this takes place in the process of interpretation, when the translator communicates directly with the participants in interlingual communication. In this case, the translator may be forced by the terms of communication or at the request of one of the communicants to act as an independent source of information, giving additional explanations, drawing conclusions from the content of the original, pointing out possible errors, etc. Both an interpreter and a translator can combine the performance of their duties with the activities of an informant, editor or critic of the original, etc.

The transfer of information contained in the original text can be carried out by a linguistic intermediary in different forms and with varying degrees of completeness, depending on the purpose of interlanguage communication. This goal can be determined both by the participants in the communication and by the linguistic mediator himself. There are two main types of language mediation: translation and adaptive transcoding.

Translation is a type of linguistic mediation that is entirely focused on a foreign language original. Translation is considered as a foreign language form of existence of the message contained in the original. Interlanguage communication, carried out through translation, reproduces the process of direct speech communication to the greatest extent, in which the communicants use the same language.

Just as in the process of verbal communication in one language, texts for the speaker and for the listener are recognized as communicatively equivalent and combined into a single whole, so the translation text is recognized as communicatively equivalent to the original text. The task of translation is to provide a type of interlanguage communication in which the created text in the language of the Receptor (in the "translating language" - TL) could act as a full-fledged communicative replacement of the original (in the "original language" - IL) and be identified by the Receptors of the translation with the original in functional, structural and content.

The functional identification of the original and the translation consists in the fact that the translation is, as it were, attributed to the author of the original, published under his name, discussed, cited, etc. as if it were the original, only in another language.

The structural identification of the translation with the original lies in the fact that the Receptors of the translation believe that the translation reproduces the original not only as a whole, but also in particulars. It is assumed that the translator accurately conveys the structure and order of presentation of the content in the original, does not allow himself to change anything, exclude or add from himself. The number and content of sections and other divisions of the text in the original and the translation must match. If in the original some idea is expressed at the beginning of the second section, then in the translation it should be found in the same place, etc. If the translator allows himself to make some deviations with regard to particular details of the structure of the text, it is only in order to more accurately convey the content of the original.

Thus, translation can be defined as a type of linguistic mediation, in which a text is created in the TL that is communicatively equivalent to the original, and its communicative equivalence is manifested in its identification by the Receptors of translation with the original in a functional, content and structural sense. For those who use the translation, it replaces the original in everything, and is its full-fledged representative. A communicative approach to translation is the guiding principle of modern translation theory.

The translator, as a participant in a complex type of speech communication, simultaneously performs several communicative functions. First, it acts as the original receptor, i.e. participates in the act of verbal communication in the FL. Secondly, he acts as the creator of the text in the TL, i.e. participates in the act of verbal communication in the TL. Thirdly, we noted that the translator creates not just a text on the TL, but the translation text, i.e. a text that, in functional, semantic and structural terms, acts as a full-fledged replacement for the original. And this means that the translator combines speech acts in the EL and the TL, of which he is a participant. He analyzes the segments of speech in the original and the units of the FL, of which these segments are composed, finds equivalent units in the TL, builds from them equivalent speech works, compares them with the original ones, chooses the final version of the translation. Choosing a speech work in TL as a translation of a certain unit of the original, the translator thereby asserts the communicative equality of two pieces of text in different languages. Thus, the translation process and its result entirely depend on the communicative capabilities of the translator, his knowledge and skills.

As in communication using one language, in the process of translation, interlanguage communication is carried out by combining in the act of communication two forms of message, which are considered by communicants as communicatively equivalent. However, there is also a very significant difference. In the process of "monolingual" communication, the invariance of the transmitted and received message is ensured by the fact that both communicants use the same language system, with the same set of units with a more or less stable meaning, which they interpret in the same way. In translation, the situation is more complicated. Here, as quasi-identical forms (hypostases) of the same message are texts created on the basis of different linguistic systems from units that do not coincide either in form or in content. Therefore, the discrepancy between these hypostases is determined not so much by the individual differences of the communicants as by the differences between the languages. Of course, individual differences also exist, but they recede into the background. Therefore, the very possibility and patterns of translation are determined, first of all, by the ability of multilingual texts to act as communicatively equivalent in the process of communication.

The most important task of translation theory is to identify linguistic and extralinguistic factors that make it possible to identify the content of messages in different languages. The commonality of the content (semantic proximity) of the texts of the original and the translation is called the equivalence of the translation (original). The study of the real relationship between the content of the original and the translation makes it possible to establish the limits of this community, i.e. the maximum possible semantic closeness of multilingual texts, as well as determine the minimum closeness to the original, at which this text can be recognized as an equivalent translation.

Fully or partially equivalent units and potentially equivalent statements objectively exist in FL and TL, however, their correct assessment, selection and use depend on the knowledge, skills and creative abilities of the translator, on his ability to take into account and compare the entire set of linguistic and extralinguistic factors. In the process of translation, the translator solves the difficult problem of finding and correctly using the necessary elements of a system of equivalent units, on the basis of which communicatively equivalent statements in two languages ​​are created and which is not given directly, but is found only in the course of theoretical research when comparing many originals with their translations.

The entire activity of the translator has an objective-subjective character, and his actions are never reduced to mechanical substitution of units PY instead of units of FL. The existing opinion that "the translation begins where the dictionary ends", which erroneously suggests that in the presence of a dictionary match, the task of the translator is reduced to the mechanical transfer of such a match into the translation text. With this approach, translation creativity is reduced only to non-trivial unique solutions required in such "exotic" cases as the translation of images, puns, jargon, etc. In fact, the main theoretical and practical problems of translation are not associated with peripheral phenomena, but with the use of all the resources of the language to achieve the tasks of interlanguage communication.

When describing translation activities, the theory of translation takes into account that, as a language intermediary, a translator can carry out not only translation, but also different types of adaptive transcoding.

Adaptive transcoding is a type of linguistic mediation, in which not only transcoding (transfer) of information from one language to another (which takes place during translation) occurs, but also its transformation (adaptation) in order to present it in a different form, determined not by the organization this information in the original, and a special task of interlingual communication. The specificity of adaptive transcoding is determined by the orientation of linguistic mediation to a specific group of translation receptors or to a given form of transformation of information contained in the original.

Thus, adaptive transcoding, like translation, is a special representation of the original content in a TL, but unlike translation, the created text is not intended to fully replace the original.

Translation is the main type of language mediation. The communicative equivalence of the original and translation texts presupposes a high degree of similarity between the related units of these texts. The possibility of achieving such a similarity depends on the ratio of systems and rules for the functioning of the FL and the FL. Therefore, translation, more than other types of linguistic mediation, is determined by linguistic factors. Adaptive transcoding of a foreign language original has a para-translation character and can be represented as a combination of two consecutive transformations: translation and a given adaptation of the translated text. Different types of adaptive transcoding to varying degrees exhibit certain features of similarity with the translation. All of them are united with the translation by their communicative secondary nature: it is always this or that representation of the original in another language.

Adaptive transcoding, focused on a given volume and nature of information, is carried out by drawing up annotations, abstracts, summaries and other forms of information transfer related to the selection and rearrangement of information contained in a foreign language text. For each of these forms, an approximate volume and rules for presenting the material are set to facilitate the perception of the transmitted information.

TYPES OF TRANSLATIONS

A systematic analysis of translation practice and the conceptual sphere of modern translation studies allows us to build a unified typology of translations that summarizes the various aspects of preparation, implementation, presentation and functioning of translation and correlated with other main components of translation activity.

The typology of translations is carried out according to the following parameters:

1. by the ratio of the types of the target language and the source language;

2. by the nature of the subject of translation activity and his attitude towards the author of the translated text;

3. by the type of translation segmentation and the method of processing the translated material;

4. according to the form of presentation of the translation text and the original text;

5. by the nature of the correspondence of the translation text to the original text;

6. by genre and stylistic peculiarities and genre belonging of the translated material;

7. by the completeness and type of transmission of the semantic content of the original;

8. by main functions;

9. according to the primary text of the original;

10. by the type of adequacy.

1) Translations distinguished by the ratio of types of target language and source language:

Intralingual translation - interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of the same language:

Diachronic (historical) translation (translation into modern language of a historical text written in the language of a previous era);

Transposition (translation of text from one genre or functional style into another genre or functional style).

interlanguage translation is the transformation of a message expressed by means of any one sign system into a message expressed by means of another sign system:

Binary translation (translation from one natural language to another);

Intersemiotic translation (translation from natural to artificial language or vice versa);

Transmutation (translation from any artificial language into another artificial language).

2) Translations distinguished according to the general characteristics of the subject of translation activity and in relation to the subject of the translated text:

traditional (human, manual) translation - human translation:

Translation performed or performed by a translator who is not at the same time the author of the translated text;

Machine (automatic) translation - translation performed or performed by a computer;

Mixed translation - translation using a significant proportion of traditional (or machine) text processing.

3) Translations performed by the type of translation segmentation of the text and by the used translation units:

Pomorphic translation - translation performed at the level of individual morphemes without taking into account their structural links;

Word-by-word translation is a translation performed at the level of individual words without taking into account semantic, syntactic and stylistic connections between words;

Phrasal translation is a translation performed at the level of individual sentences or phrases, translated one after the other in succession;

Paragraph-phrase translation - translation carried out at the level of individual sentences or paragraphs, translated sequentially one after another;

Full-text translation - translation of a whole text, without highlighting individual words, sentences or paragraphs as separate translation units.

4) Translations distinguished by the form of presentation of the translation text and the original text:

written translation - translation made in writing:

Written translation of a written text (translation of a written text made in writing);

Written translation of the oral text (translation of the oral text made in writing).

oral translation - translation performed orally:

Oral translation of an oral text (translation of an oral text performed orally):

Simultaneous translation (oral translation carried out almost simultaneously with the pronunciation of the original text);

Consecutive translation (a type of oral translation carried out after listening to a certain unit of the text, in the pauses between these units);

One-way translation (oral translation carried out in only one direction, i.e. from a given language into any other language);

Two-way translation (consecutive interpretation of the conversation, carried out from one language to another and vice versa);

Oral translation of a written text (translation of a written text performed orally).

5) Translations distinguished by the nature and quality of the correspondence of the translation text to the original text:

Free (free) translation (a translation that reproduces the basic information of the original with possible deviations - additions, omissions, etc.; is carried out at the text level, therefore, the categories of equivalence of linguistic units are irrelevant for it):

Interpretation (a type of translation based on an appeal to non-linguistic activity, in contrast to the translation itself, carried out according to the given rules of transition from means of expression belonging to one language system to means of expression belonging to another language system);

Adequate translation (translation corresponding to the original and expressing the same communicative attitudes as the original);

Exact (correct) translation (translation, characterized by the property of semantic accuracy, i.e. semantically complete and correctly conveying the plan of the original content);

Authentic translation (translation of an official document that has the same legal force with the original; according to international law, the text of the treaty can be developed and adopted in one language, but its authenticity is established in two or more languages);

Certified translation (translation, the compliance of which with the original is legally confirmed).

6) Translations distinguished on the basis of genre and stylistic characteristics of the material being translated and genre affiliation:

Scientific and technical translation (translation of scientific and technical texts and documentation);

Socio-political translation (translation of socio-political texts);

Literary translation (translation of literary texts);

Military translation (translation of texts on military topics);

Legal translation (translation of legal texts);

Household translation (translation of texts of a colloquial and everyday character).

7) Translations distinguished on the basis of completeness and method of conveying the semantic content of the original:

full (continuous) translation - a translation that conveys the semantic content of the original without gaps and abbreviations.

incomplete translation - a translation that conveys the semantic content of the original with gaps and abbreviations:

Abbreviated translation (translation that conveys the semantic content of the text in a collapsed form, i.e. with an abbreviation);

Fragmented translation (translation of not the whole text, but only a separate passage or excerpts);

Aspect translation (translation of only a part of the text in accordance with any given selection criterion (aspect));

Annotation translation (translation, which reflects only the main theme, subject and purpose of the translated text);

Abstract translation (translation, which contains relatively detailed information about the refereed document - its purpose, topic, research methods, results obtained).

8) Translations performed on the basis of the main pragmatic function:

practical translation - translation intended for practical use as a source of information:

Working (informational) translation (unedited translation, mostly suitable for practical use, but not prepared for publication):

Consultative translation (a type of informational translation, usually carried out orally, includes elements of annotation, summarization and selective sheet translation, is performed, as a rule, in the presence of the customer, who clarifies the aspects of the content of the original text that are of interest to him during the translation);

Publishing (printed) translation (written translation, replicated by means of mass reproduction and intended for wide distribution);

educational translation - translation used in the educational process to train translators or as one of the methods of teaching a foreign language;

experimental translation - translation made for research purposes;

master translation - an exemplary translation used for comparison with a qualifying translation.

9) Translations distinguished according to the primary / non-primary character of the original text:

direct (primary, direct) translation - translation made directly from the original;

indirect (secondary, indirect) translation - a translation made not directly from the original text, but from its translation into some other language;

reverse translation - an experimental or educational translation of an already translated text into the original language.

10) Translations distinguished by the type of adequacy:

semantically-stylistically adequate translation - a semantically complete and accurate and stylistically equivalent translation, corresponding to the functional-stylistic norms of the target language;

pragmatically (functionally) adequate translation - a translation that correctly conveys the main (dominant) communicative function of the original;

desirably adequate translation - a translation that fully and correctly answers the consumer's information request and does not necessarily convey the full semantic content and leading communicative function of the original.

EQUIVALENCE OF TRANSLATION

One of the main tasks of the translator is to convey the content of the original as completely as possible, and, as a rule, the actual commonality of the content of the original and the translation is very significant.

It is necessary to distinguish between potentially achievable equivalence, which is understood as the maximum commonality of the content of two multilingual texts, allowed by the differences in the languages ​​in which these texts were created, and translation equivalence - the real semantic proximity of the original and translation texts achieved by the translator in the process of translation. The limit of translation equivalence is the maximum possible (linguistic) degree of preservation of the content of the original during translation, but in each individual translation, the semantic closeness to the original in different degrees and in different ways approaches the maximum.

Differences in the systems of FL and PL and the peculiarities of creating texts in each of these languages, to varying degrees, can limit the possibility of completely preserving the content of the original in translation. Therefore, translation equivalence can be based on the preservation (and, accordingly, loss) of different elements of meaning contained in the original. Different levels (types) of equivalence differ depending on what part of the content is conveyed in the translation to ensure its equivalence. At any level of equivalence, translation can provide inter-lingual communication.

Any text performs some kind of communicative function: it communicates some facts, expresses emotions, establishes contact between communicants, requires some kind of reaction or action from the Receptor, etc. The presence of such a goal in the communication process determines the general nature of the transmitted messages and their language design. Let's compare such segments of speech as: There is an apple on the table; How I love apples!; Please give me an apple; Do you hear what I said ?. In each of these statements, in addition to the meanings of individual words and structures and the specific content of the entire message, one can also find a generalized functional content: statement of fact, expression, motivation, search for contact. A text can sequentially or simultaneously perform several communicative functions - the above statements can form a single coherent text - but it cannot but have a functional task (communication goal) in its content, without losing its communicativeness, i.e. without ceasing to be the result of the act of verbal communication.

Part of the content of the text (utterance), indicating the general speech function of the text in the act of communication, constitutes its purpose of communication. It is a "derivative" ("implied" or "figurative") meaning, which is present in it, as it were, in a latent form, deduced from the entire utterance as a semantic whole. Individual linguistic units participate in the creation of such a meaning no longer directly through their own meaning, but indirectly, constituting with other units a meaning-word whole, which serves as the basis for expressing additional meaning with its help. Perceiving a statement, the Receptor must not only understand the meaning of linguistic units and their relationship with each other, but also draw certain conclusions from the entire content, extract additional information from it, which informs not only what the Source says, but also why he says it, " what does he mean by that. "

The equivalence of translations of the first type consists in preserving only that part of the original content, which is the purpose of communication:

1. Maybe there is some chemistry between us that doesn "t mix. - It happens that people do not agree in character.

2. That "s a pretty thing to say. - I would be ashamed!

3. Those evening bells, those evening bells, how many a tale their music tells. - Evening bells, evening bells, how many thoughts he leads.

In example (1), the purpose of communication was to convey a figurative meaning, which is the main part of the content of the utterance. Here, the communicative effect is achieved through a kind of artistic depiction of human relations, which are likened to the interaction of chemical elements. Such an indirect description of this information was recognized by the translator as unacceptable for the TL and was replaced in translation by another, somewhat less figurative statement, which, however, provides the necessary communicative effect.

In example (2), the purpose of communication is to express the emotions of the speaker who is outraged by the previous statement of the interlocutor. To reproduce this goal in translation, the translator used one of the stereotypical phrases expressing indignation in the Russian language, although the linguistic means that make up it do not correspond to the units of the original.

And finally, in example (3), the general function of the original, which the translator strives to preserve by all means, is poetic influence based on sound writing, rhyme and meter. For the sake of reproducing this information, the original message is replaced by another one that has the necessary poetic qualities.

As can be seen from these examples, the goal of communication is the most general part of the content of the utterance, characteristic of the utterance as a whole and determining its role in the communicative act.

1.incomparability of the lexical composition and syntactic organization;

2. impossibility to connect the vocabulary and structure of the original and the translation by the relations of semantic paraphrasing or syntactic transformation;

3. the absence of real or direct logical connections between the messages in the original and the translation, which would make it possible to assert that in both cases "the same is reported";

4. the least commonality of the content of the original and the translation in comparison with all other translations recognized as equivalent.

Thus, in this type of equivalence, the translation seems to say “not at all” and “not at all about” what is in the original. This conclusion is true for the entire message as a whole, even if one or two words in the original have direct or indirect correspondences in translation. For example, the translation of She lifted her nose up in the air can be attributed to this type - She measured it with a contemptuous glance, although the subjects of these sentences are directly related.

Translations at this level of equivalence are performed both in cases where a more detailed reproduction of the content is impossible, and when such reproduction will lead the Translation Receptor to wrong conclusions, cause him to have completely different associations than the original Receptor, and thereby interfere with the correct transmission goals of communication.

The English proverb A rolling stone gathers no moss describes a situation that is easily conveyed in Russian translation, for example: A rolling stone does not collect moss (or: it does not overgrow with moss). However, from this situation, the Translation Receptor will not be able to extract the purpose of communication that is contained in the original. For him, the situation itself does not indicate clearly enough how to treat it, "good" or "bad" that there is no moss. At the same time, it is clear for the English Receptor that in this situation moss personifies wealth, goodness, and that its absence is a negative phenomenon. Thus, the situation described by the English proverb implies the conclusion that one should not wander around the world, but sit at home and save up goods. An equivalent translation will be a Russian phrase that has the same emotive attitude and maximally reproduces the stylistic (poetic) function of the original (the form of a proverb). Since the description of the same situation does not provide the desired result, it is necessary to use a message describing a different situation. An attempt to satisfy the specified requirements gives an approximate translation: Whoever does not sit still, he will not make good.

In the second type of equivalence, the common part of the content of the original and the translation not only conveys the same goal of communication, but also reflects the same extra-linguistic situation. A situation is a set of objects and connections between objects described in a statement. Any text contains information about something, correlated with some real or imaginary situation. The communicative function of the text cannot be carried out otherwise than through a situationally-oriented message. It is impossible to imagine a coherent text that would be "about nothing," just as thought cannot exist without the object of thought.

The second type of equivalence is represented by translations, the semantic closeness of which to the original is also not based on the commonality of the meanings of the linguistic means used. Here are some examples of this type of translation:

He answered the telephone. He picked up the phone.

You are not fit to be in a boat. “You mustn't be allowed into the boat.

You see one bear, you have seen them all. - All bears are alike.

In the multilingual utterances equated in these examples, most of the words and syntactic structures of the original do not find a direct correspondence in the translation text. At the same time, it can be argued that there is a greater commonality of content between the originals and translations of this group than with the equivalence of the first type. Let's compare, for example, translations:

1) That "s a pretty thing to say. - I would be ashamed!

2) He answered the telephone. He picked up the phone.

In (1), we are talking about completely different phenomena, between which it is impossible to discern any real connection. The commonality of the original and the translation lies only in the fact that in both cases it is possible to draw the same conclusions about the speaker's emotional attitude to the previous remark of his interlocutor. In (2), the incomparable language means of the original and translation actually describe the same act, indicate the same reality, since you can speak on the phone only by picking up the receiver. Both texts speak of different things, but "the same thing." It is often said about such statements in everyday life that they "express the same thought in other words."

The relationship between originals and translations of this type is characterized by:

1) incomparability of the lexical composition and syntactic organization;

2) the impossibility of linking the vocabulary and structure of the original and the translation by relations of semantic paraphrasing or syntactic transformation;

3) preservation of the goal of communication in translation, since, as we have already established, preservation of the dominant function of the utterance is a prerequisite for equivalence;

4) preservation in translation of an indication of the same situation, which is proved by the existence of a direct real or logical connection between multilingual messages, allowing one to assert that in both cases "the same is reported."

The widespread use of equivalence of the second type in translations is explained by the fact that in each language there are preferable ways of describing certain situations, which turn out to be completely unacceptable for other languages. In English they say: We locked the door to keep thieves out, but in Russian it seems ridiculous to describe this situation in this way (to lock the door to keep the thieves outside), but it is quite possible to say: so that thieves do not enter the house. Emphasizing the impossibility for himself of any actions, the Englishman will say: I am the last man to do it. In Russian it is impossible to reproduce such a message, calling someone the last person to do something.

We will have to describe this situation in translation in another way, for example: I, in any case, will not do this. The need to establish equivalence at the level of the situation in translation may also be related to the fact that in many cases, members of the language community constantly use only one way of describing a certain situation. This is especially the case in standard speech formulas, warning notices, generally accepted wishes, expressions of condolence, etc. Hearing a request to call someone to the phone, in Russian they will ask: Who asks him ?, and in English: Who shall I say is calling? To indicate in which direction the door opens, you need to in English with the inscription Pull or Push, and in Russian - To yourself or From yourself. Theoretically, you can warn about a freshly painted object in different ways, but in Russian they will definitely write: Caution, painted, and in English - Wet paint.

If the situation described in the original must be transmitted to the TL in only one strictly defined way, the choice of the translation option occurs, as it were, regardless of the way of describing this situation in the original text, and the structure of the message in the translation turns out to be predetermined. Naturally, in this case, the corresponding messages in the original and in the translation can have the same structure only in exceptional cases when the mandatory ways of describing a given situation in both languages ​​coincide. In most cases, the obligation or preference of a certain way of describing the situation in the GL is associated with the replacement of the way of describing it in the original, with the establishment of the second type of equivalence in the translation. Here are some examples of such replacements from translations of books by English and American authors:

Stop, I have a gun! (R. Bradbury). - Wait, I'll shoot.

Reduction on taking a quantity. (J. Galsworthy). - Discount for wholesale buyers.

Peter "s face muscles tightened. (A. Honey)." Peter gritted his teeth.

He left the ship on Tuesday. (J.K. Jerome). - He went ashore on Tuesday.

Refusal to reproduce in translation the situation described in the original, i.e. the use of equivalence, not of the second, but of the first type, is conditioned only by the need to preserve the goal of communication during translation in cases where the described situation is not associated with the necessary associations in the translation receptors. In J. Brain's novel "A Place Above," the hero, contemptuously describing the appearance of a young man "from the bottom", says, in particular, that he has the face behind the requests on Forces Favorites, ie. the face of the person who submits requests to be performed on the radio in a concert for military personnel. Such a situation is unlikely to be perceived by the reader of the Russian translation as a derogatory characteristic. Therefore, the translators (T. Kudryavtseva and T. Ozerskaya) preferred to establish equivalence with a completely different situation: you see such faces on posters.

Especially important is the ability of a certain situation to evoke in the Receptors of one linguistic community some additional associations, on the basis of which they come to strictly definite conclusions and conclusions. In other words, different situations can receive, within the framework of the culture of a given collective, a special meaning that differs from the meaning that these situations have for members of other linguistic communities. It is known that in some peoples a nod of the head means affirmation, while in others it means denial. It follows that the description of this gesture can be understood in different ways by representatives of different peoples. The message that someone drove on the right side of the street indicates a violation of the rules for the English Receptor and seems trivial for an inhabitant of a country where right-hand traffic is accepted.

The third type of equivalence can be characterized by the following examples:

Scrubbing makes me bad-tempered. - Washing the floors spoils my mood.

London saw a cold winter last year. - Last year the winter in London was cold.

That will not be good for you. “It could end badly for you.

Comparison of originals and translations of this type reveals the following features:

1. lack of parallelism of the lexical composition and syntactic structure;

2. the impossibility of linking the structures of the original and the translation by relations of syntactic transformation;

3. preservation in the translation of the purpose of communication and identification of the same situation as in the original;

4. preservation in translation of general concepts, with the help of which the description of the situation in the original is carried out, i.e. preservation of that part of the content of the original text, which we called the "way of describing the situation".

A comparative analysis of translations shows that the following types of this variation are most often noted:

1.degree of detail in the description;

2. the way of combining the described features in the message;

4. distribution of individual features in the message.

The level of detail in the description. The description of the situation in a chosen way can be carried out in greater or lesser detail. It may include a direct indication of a different number of details specific to a given situation. As a result, synonymous messages will differ in the degree of explicitness. Some signs in some messages will be named, while in others they will remain only implied, easily deduced from the message, but not included directly in its composition. Such signs can be considered redundant.

He knocked and entered. - He knocked and entered the room.

I can't move it. - I can't budge him.

She was sitting back in her chair. She sat back in her chair.

In the examples given, the choice of greater or lesser explicitness of the message was entirely dependent on the Source. However, the ratio of explicit and implicit in a message is often determined by the peculiarities of the functioning of a given language system. As an illustration, one can note the greater implicitness of the English language in comparison with Russian. In this regard, in English-Russian translations, a greater explicitness of the translation is most often observed in comparison with the original. Here are some examples from the translation of J. Galsworthy's novel "The End of a Chapter" (translated by K. Korneev and P. Melkova):

I saw there was a question asked. - I saw in the newspapers that there was a request.

They lay watching. - They lay and watched the Queen.

"Will you come here, my - Miss?" Jean went. - "Please, come here, mi ... miss." Jean followed him in.

People went into rooms as if they meant to stay there. - Everyone settled in their room as if they were going to settle in it forever.

The greater explicitness of the English original is observed relatively less frequently. As a rule, the omission of some details in the translation is optional and can be explained by the translator's desire to achieve greater brevity of the presentation:

He opened a desk drawer, took out cigarettes and offered them to Christine. - ... and taking out cigarettes from the table, offered Christine.

The translators found it possible not to translate the part of the original that expresses the obvious idea (to get something out of the box, you need to open it).

A method for combining the described features in a message. The concepts that generalize the selected signs of the situation are combined in the message according to certain rules for its construction. Along with the phenomena common to all languages, each language imposes its own restrictions on the possibility of combining individual concepts in the composition of the message.

The difference in the patterns of constructing messages often makes the structure of a message in one language seemingly "illogical" from the point of view of speakers of another language, causing the need for semantic rephrasing during translation. So, in the English sentence He was thin and tentative as he slid his birth certificate from Puerto Rico across the desk, the connection of the thin and tentative by the compositional union is unusual for the Russian language, especially in connection with the subordinate tense - He was thin and uncertain when he held out ... English proverbs like It is a good horse that never stumbles; It is an ill wind that blows nobody good, the meaning of which can be imagined as a Horse that does not stumble, is so good that there are no such horses and the Wind that blows no one good is so bad that such a wind does not happen, it is very pretentious, and, from the point of view of the Russian Receptor, they express the content similar to the Russian messages Horse about four legs and then stumbles and There is a silver lining.

The direction of the relationship between features. When describing a situation from different points of view, synonymous messages can be linked by convergence relations: Professor takes an exam from students - Students pass an exam to a professor. An extreme case of such a difference is the relationship of opposition, when the synonymy of two messages is based on the affirmation of a sign in one of them and the denial of the opposite sign in the other: He always remembers this - He never forgets about it; We sit at home all the time - We don't go anywhere; This task is difficult - This task is not easy, etc.

A similar relationship is often found between originals and translations of the type in question. Often, conversion paraphrasing is not mandatory, but is chosen by the translator for stylistic reasons:

He drove on. They had their backs to the sunlight now. - He drove the car on. Now the sun was shining on their backs.

Do I look all right? - Do I look decent?

Will you marry me, Lady Aline? “Do you want me to be your husband, Lady Elin?”

This type of relationship is especially often noted when translating messages in which inanimate objects act as subjects of verbs, the meaning of which usually refers to an animated person, for example: The lounge had been redecorated since his last visit, and had acquired several facilities.

This way of describing a situation is much more often used in English than in Russian. As a result, the message in translation has a different vectoriality:

Last year witnessed a sharp increase in production in this country. - Last year, there was a sharp increase in production in our country.

As well as within the same language, equivalent messages can contain opposite signs, for example:

The American Railroad Union excluded Negroes from its membership. The railway workers' union did not accept blacks into its ranks.

"You" ll make yourself ill "said Betsey," and you know that will not be good either for you or for my god-daughter. " it may end badly both for you and for my goddaughter (translated by A. Krivtsova and E. Lanna).

Distribution of individual signs in the message. Equivalent messages referring to the same way of describing the situation may differ from each other and the distribution of features in individual parts of the message. The possibility of combining and the sequence of describing features is sometimes not the same in different languages. In such cases, the order of the signs in the translation text may be different than in the original, for example:

Remarkable constitution, too, and lets you see it: great yachtsman. (J. Galsworthy). - He is an excellent yachtsman, superbly complex and knows how to show it. (Translated by Y. Korneev and P. Melkova).

Of particular note is the possibility of redistributing features between adjacent messages. The description of many individual features is potentially nonlocal. In a coherent text, a number of statements, as a rule, describe situations that together make up larger segments of reality. Therefore, in addition to choosing the signs that will be mentioned in the message, the Source often has the opportunity to select a message in the text, where one or another sign will be indicated. Although the connection between individual signs is preserved, it is possible to move some signs from one statement to another within the framework of describing a more complex situation.

Marina did not come for a long time. Svetlana was waiting for her in the laboratory. Finally, she returned. = Marina did not come. Svetlana has been waiting for her for a long time. Finally, she returned to the laboratory.

The ability to move features in adjacent messages is often used in translation for stylistic purposes, for example, in order to achieve simplicity and naturalness of colloquial speech:

I haven "t had a joint with you, old man, since we went up to Carmarthen Van in that fog before the war. Remember? (J. Galsworthy). Remember how we climbed Carmarthen Van in the fog right after the war?" This was our last walk with you, old man (translated by K. Korneev and P. Melkova).

As can be seen from the above examples, semantic paraphrasing is often complex in nature, simultaneously changing the way of combining features, the starting point of description, the order and distribution of features, etc.

In the three types of equivalence described above, the commonality of the content of the original and the translation consisted in the preservation of the basic elements of the content of the text. As a unit of verbal communication, the text is always characterized by communicative functionality, situational orientation and selectivity of the way of describing the situation. These features are also preserved in the minimal unit of the text - the utterance. In other words, the content of any utterance expresses some goal of communication through a description of a situation, carried out in a certain way (by selecting some features of a given situation). In the first type of equivalence, only the first of the specified parts of the original content (the purpose of communication) is preserved in the translation, in the second type - the first and second (the purpose of communication and the description of the situation), in the third - all three parts (the purpose of communication, the description of the situation and the way of its description ).

The expression "part of the content" does not mean "part of the statement" or "the content of the part of the statement". The indicated parts of the content are not arranged linearly in the statement, one after the other, so that one part of the statement would contain the purpose of communication, and the other - a description of the situation. They are expressed by the entire composition of the utterance, one through the other, forming a kind of semantic pyramid: information about the distinctive features of a certain set of interconnected objects gives a description of the situation, and the description of the situation performs a certain function.

The presence in the content of the utterance (text) of information about the purpose of communication, the situation and the method of its description reflects the specifics of speech communication, its inextricable connection with the purposeful activities of people, the surrounding reality and the form of reflection of this reality in human thinking. This connection is universal for verbal communication in all languages, and its universality largely determines the possibility of communicative equating of multilingual texts. Although, as shown above, linguistic selectivity sometimes prevents the translation of the way of describing the situation or even requires replacing the situation in order to convey the purpose of the original communication, there is a fundamental possibility in any translation to ensure the identity of one, two or all three important parts of the original content.

Equivalence of translation when transferring semantics of language units

The functional and situational aspects of the content of an utterance do not constitute all the information it contains. The content of two statements may be different, even if they convey the same goal of communication, describe the same situation using the same general concepts. For complete identity of their content, it is also necessary that their constituent lexical units (words) and syntactic relations between these units completely coincide. Any message is built from linguistic units, each of which represents certain information, has its own meaning. The content of an utterance does not exist apart from the meanings of the linguistic units of which it is composed, although it is often not completely reducible to a simple sum of such meanings. In addition to the fact that linguistic units in an utterance jointly express the functional and situational aspects of its content, they add to this content and additional meaning, which is also included in the transmitted message. In various communication conditions, individual semantic elements of statements may come to the fore, and then the choice of a particular word or syntactic structure acquires an important role in the content of the entire message.

If in the first three types of equivalence it was a question of transferring elements of meaning, the preservation of which is possible with a significant mismatch of the linguistic means through which this meaning is expressed in the original and the translation, now it is required to find equivalent correspondences to the meanings of the language units of the FL. Since the meanings of units of different languages ​​do not completely coincide, the elements of the original and the translation that replace each other, as a rule, are not identical in meaning. Nevertheless, in many cases, the translation manages to reproduce a significant part of the information contained in the original language means. In the next two types of equivalence, the semantic commonality of the original and the translation includes not only the preservation of the goal of communication, an indication of the situation and the way of describing it, but also the maximum possible closeness of the meanings of the correlated syntactic and lexical units. Here information is already stored not only "for what", "what" and "what" is said in the original text, but partly also "how it is said."

In the fourth type of equivalence, along with the three components of the content that are stored in the third type, a significant part of the meanings of the syntactic structures of the original is reproduced in the translation. The structural organization of the original represents certain information included in the general content of the translated text. The syntactic structure of an utterance determines the possibility of using words of a certain type in it in a certain sequence and with certain connections between individual words, and also largely determines that part of the content that comes to the fore in the act of communication. Therefore, the maximum possible preservation of the syntactic organization of the original during translation contributes to a more complete reproduction of the original content. In addition, the syntactic parallelism of the original and the translation provides a basis for correlating individual elements of these texts, justifying their structural identification by communicants.

Comparative analysis reveals a significant number of translations that have syntactic parallelism with respect to the original. The use of similar syntactic structures in translation ensures the invariance of the syntactic meanings of the original and the translation. It is especially important to ensure such parallelism when translating texts of state or international acts, where the translation often receives the legal status of the original, i.e. both texts are equally authentic and authentic. The desire to preserve the syntactic organization of the text is easily revealed when comparing with the original translations of works of a different type, including fiction. For example, here is a small excerpt from Mark Twain's novel "The Connecticut Yankees at the Court of King Arthur" and its translation (translated by N. Chukovsky):

One thing troubled me along at first - the immense interest which people took in me. Apparently the whole nation wanted a look at me. It soon transpired that the eclipse had scared the British world almost to death; that while it lasted the whole country, from one end to the other, was in a pitiable state of panic, and the churches, hermitages and monkeries overflowed with praying and weeping poor creatures who thought the end of the world has come. Then had followed the news that the producer of this awful event was a stranger, a mighty magician at Arthur "s court; that he could have blown the sun like a candle, and was just going to do it when his mercy was purchased, and he then dissolved his enchantments, and was now recognized and honored as the man who had by his unaided might saved the globe from destruction and its people from extinction.

One thing worried me at the beginning - that extraordinary curiosity with which everyone treated me. It seemed that all the people wanted to look at me. Soon it became known that the eclipse scared the whole of Britain to death, that while it lasted, the whole country from end to end was gripped by boundless horror and all churches, monasteries and monasteries were filled with praying and crying people, confident that the end of the world had come. Then everyone learned that this terrible misfortune was sent by a foreigner, a powerful wizard living at the court of King Arthur, that he could extinguish the sun like a candle, and was going to do it, but he was begged to dispel the spell, and that now he should be honored as a person who with his power he saved the universe from destruction, and nations from destruction.

The translation of this segment was made by a highly qualified translator who skillfully uses the wealth of means of expression in the Russian language. The narrative unfolds easily and freely, it is difficult to see in it some kind of constraint, subordination to a foreign language form, etc. And, despite this, one can notice a significant commonality of the syntactic organization of the original and the translation. The total number of offers is the same. The related sentences belong to the same type, the arrangement, the order of the main and subordinate clauses is the same. If in the original there are homogeneous members in the sentence, then the same member of the sentence is repeated in the translation. In the overwhelming majority of cases, each member of the sentence in the original corresponds to a single-type member of the sentence in translation, located the same in relation to other members, etc.

Thus, the relationship between originals and translations of the fourth type of equivalence is characterized by the following features:

1) a significant, albeit incomplete, parallelism of the lexical composition for most of the words in the original, you can find the corresponding words in translation with a similar content;

2) the use in translation of syntactic structures similar to the structures of the original or related relations of syntactic variation, which ensures the maximum possible transfer in the translation of the meaning of the syntactic structures of the original;

3) preservation in the translation of all three parts of the original content that characterize the previous type of equivalence: the purpose of communication, an indication of the situation and the way of describing it.

If it is impossible to completely preserve syntactic parallelism, a somewhat lesser degree of invariance of syntactic meanings is achieved by using structures in translation that are associated with a similar structure by relations of syntactic variation. In the fourth type of equivalence, there are three main types of such variation:

1) the use of synonymous structures linked by relationships of direct or reverse transformation;

2) the use of similar structures with a change in word order;

3) the use of similar structures with a change in the type of connection between them.

Each language has synonymous structures that can be derived from the original ("nuclear") structure or, on the contrary, reduced to it by means of certain transformations (syntactic transformations). Such structures have a commonality of basic logical-syntactic connections, and at the same time, each of them has its own syntactic meaning, which distinguishes it from the meanings of other structures of such a transformational (synonymous) series. Thus, from the initial structure with the basic meaning "doer - action", a number of structures can be deduced that preserve this basic meaning and differ only in additional syntactic meanings: a boy reads - a boy reading - a boy reading - a boy read, etc.

The differences between synonymous structures are heterogeneous. These can be differences between the meanings of opposing forms within the same syntactic category or one type of sentence: The boy threw a stone. - The stone was thrown by a boy. That he went there was a mistake. It was a mistake that he went there. It can be different types of structures, united by a common meaning, for example, a prepositional phrase (When describing a given theory ...), an adverbial phrase (Describing a given theory ...), a subordinate clause (When a given theory is described ...), etc.

In all such cases, the content of the statement has significant generality, differing only in the additional information contained in each separate structure. Sometimes this information can be of no small importance for the content of the utterance, especially when it indicates the predominant use of this structure in a certain area of ​​communication, i.e. determines its stylistic markings. So, in Russian, the use of a passive construction with a short participle is usually typical for bookish and business speech: He was born under the sultry sun of the south; It was presented for an award, etc. Similarly, in English, a non-union conditional clause refers to the formal business style, for example: Had a positive decision was taken at the General Assembly. On the contrary, a similar non-union sentence in Russian is used mainly in colloquial speech: If you came an hour earlier, everything would be all right.

In most cases, replacing one member of a synonymous series of structures with another does not entail a significant change in the general content of the utterance. Therefore, the use of a synonymous structure in translation within the framework of the fourth type of equivalence with sufficient completeness preserves the meaning of the syntactic structure of the original:

I told him what I thought of her. - I told him my opinion of her.

He was never tired of old songs. - The old songs never bothered him.

It is very strange this domination of our intellect by our digestive organs. - It is strange to what extent the digestive organs dominate our minds.

The use of a similar structure in translation is often possible only if the order of words in this structure is changed. It is clear that we are not talking about such cases when the change in word order is associated with a radical transformation of subject-object relations such as Tanks closed bushes and Bushes closed tanks, but about structurally identical sentences with the same way of describing the situation.

The word order in an utterance can perform one of three main functions: serve as a means of formalizing a certain grammatical category, provide a semantic connection between parts of an utterance and between neighboring utterances (serve as a means of communicative division of an utterance and a text), and indicate the emotional nature of the utterance. The discrepancy between the ways of expressing any of these functions in the FL and the TL can lead to a discrepancy in the word order in equivalent statements with a similar syntactic structure. Let's compare the translations of two English sentences:

A meeting in defense of peace was held in Trafalgar Square yesterday.

The meeting in defense of peace in Trafalgar Square condemned the apartheid policy in South Africa.

In both sentences, the word order is fixed by the rules for constructing English sentences of this type. To indicate the nature of the communicative division of a statement, English uses the difference in the meaning of the definite and indefinite articles. In the first sentence, the subject has an indefinite article indicating that it is the remy, the center of the part of the message that contains the "new" information. In Russian, with a non-emphatic narrative, such a communicative center of the message gravitates towards the end of the sentence. Therefore, in translation, the equivalent statement will have a different word order:

A peace rally was held in Trafalgar Square yesterday.

In the second sentence, the definite article with the subject indicates that the communicative center of the message is not the subject, but the predicate group that makes up the final part of the utterance. Therefore, the word order in the translation can be preserved:

A peace rally in Trafalgar Square condemned the apartheid policy in South Africa.

The relatively free order of words in the Russian language makes it possible to widely use changes in the sequence of individual parts of the utterance in accordance with its communicative division to transfer the logical development of the transmitted thought from the known to the new.

A similar change in the order of words also provides a logical connection between adjacent statements:

Experience changed the ideas of this British officer. American airmen started the process of "brain-washing". He saw them machine-gun a road full of refugees.

If, when translating these sentences into Russian, the word order is preserved, the result will be a listing of a number of isolated messages that do not constitute a single narrative:

Experience changed the mindset of this English officer. American pilots initiated the "epiphany" process. He saw them firing machine guns at a road clogged with refugees.

An equivalent translation can only be achieved by changing the word order in the second sentence:

Experience changed the mindset of this English officer. The process of "enlightenment" was initiated by American pilots. He saw them firing machine guns at a road clogged with refugees.

Due to the fixed word order in the English language, there are relatively rare cases of inversion, i.e. deviations from the usual ("direct") order of the members of the sentence are used as an effective way of expressing the emotional characteristics of the utterance. The frequent use of inversion in Russian to indicate the communicative center of a message makes it an insufficiently effective means of expressing emotionality. Therefore, in such cases, the "reverse" word order of the original may not be reproduced in translation, and other means, including lexico-phraseological ones, can be used to convey emotional characteristics:

Mine is a long and a sad tale. - My story is long and sad.

Open flew the gate and in came the coach. - The gates were thrown wide open, and the carriage was already in the yard.

Him I have never seen. - I have never seen him.

Changing the word order in such cases may be accompanied by some structural rearrangements:

Ernest Pontifex, yours is one of the most painful cases I have ever had to deal with. “Ernest Pontifex, I’m unlikely to have ever faced a case more deplorable than yours.

The use in translation of structures similar to those of the original may be accompanied by a change in the type of connection between structures within a larger syntactic whole. Here you can vary between simple, complex and complex sentences. The distinction between the types of sentences has a certain communicative significance. For example, the difference in the meanings of sentences such as It started to rain. We went home; It started raining and we went home; We went home because it started raining, it lies in the unequal nature of the causal relationship between the two events, in the degree of their independence, in the degree of expressiveness of presentation, etc. The semantic and stylistic functions of the same types of sentences in different languages ​​may not coincide, as a result of which equivalence in translation will be established between sentences of different types, but with an identical internal structure. In other words, changes in the type and number of independent sentences will be noted in the translation:

There might be some small pickings left, from those who would be willing to continue, and later it would be necessary to decide if they were worth while. - Something else will probably remain for him - from those who want to continue the business. And then you will have to decide whether it is worth doing it.

The style of English newspapers and journalistic materials is characterized by the combination in one sentence of heterogeneous, relatively independent thoughts. Such "stringing" in one expression of thoughts, weakly connected logically, is unusual for the Russian language. Retention of the type of sentence during translation in such cases leads either to the loss of the true meaning of the statement, or to the creation of cumbersome phrases that are unacceptable for the Russian language. In translation, such a statement often corresponds to several independent sentences, for example:

A police Advisory Board composed of twelve representatives from police authorities, nine from the Federation, three representing superintendents, and eight representing Chief Officers with the Home Secretary or Home Office representative in the chair, has a general consultative and advisory function on police matters but the Home Secretary need not accept its advice.

This proposal includes at least three independent thoughts: (1) the composition of the advisory bureau, (2) the role of the Minister of the Interior in the work of the bureau, (3) the functions and powers of the bureau. The last thought is further broken down into two, relatively independent ideas. In Russian translation, this statement will correspond to at least three independent sentences:

There is also a Police Advisory Bureau, composed of twelve police officials, nine Federation officials, three delegates from senior police officers and eight representatives from chief constables. The office is chaired by the Minister of the Interior or a representative of the ministry. The Bureau has general advisory functions in police matters, but the Minister of the Interior is not obliged to accept its recommendations.

In the fourth type of equivalence, the change in the number and type of sentences in translation can be carried out in the opposite direction, i.e. towards a decrease in the number of independent proposals:

Despite all opposition these sections have organized a powerful trade-union movement. The mass of the Civil Servants have successfully established important political rights for themselves. - Despite all the opposition, these layers of civil servants organized a powerful trade union movement, and most of the civil servants won significant political rights for themselves.

Sometimes a change in the type of connection between structures occurs in both directions and leads to a grammatical and semantic redistribution of the elements of the statement:

For five years Sandino conducted a heroic struggle in the jungles against the very much better equipped United States marines. Finally, unconquered, he agreed to a peace conference. “For five years, Sandino fought a heroic fight in the thicket against the much better armed US Marine Corps and was not defeated. Finally, he agreed to peace talks.

Syntactic variation within the framework of the fourth type of equivalence can be complex in nature, when the syntactic structures, word order, and the type of the syntactic whole change simultaneously during translation:

And so, with sentinel in each dark street, and twinkling watch-fires on each height around, the night has worn away, and over this fair valley of old Thames has broken the morning of the great day that is to dose so big with the fate of ages yet unborn. (J.K. Jerome). “Sentinels stood all night on every dark street, and watchfires flickered on every hill around the city. But then the night passed and over the beautiful valley of the old Thames came the morning of a great day, fraught with such great changes for the unborn generations. (Translated by M. Salie).

In the last, fifth type of equivalence, the maximum degree of similarity between the content of the original and the translation, which can exist between texts in different languages, is achieved. This type of equivalence is found in the following examples:

I saw him at the theater. - I saw him at the theater.

The house was sold for 10 thousand dollars. - The house was sold for 10 thousand dollars.

He was sure we should both fall ill. “He was sure we were both going to get sick.

The relationship between originals and translations of this type is characterized by:

1) a high degree of parallelism in the structural organization of the text;

2) the maximum correlation of the lexical composition: in the translation, you can indicate the correspondences to all the significant words of the original;

3) preservation in translation of all the main parts of the original content.

To the four parts of the original content, preserved in the previous type of equivalence, the maximum possible commonality of separate semes is added, which are included in the meanings of the correlated words in the original and the translation. The degree of such commonality is determined by the possibility of reproducing in translation of individual components of the meaning of the words of the original, which, in turn, depends on how one or another component is expressed in the words of FL and PL and how, in each case, the need to convey other parts affects the choice of a word in translation. content of the original.

The semantics of the words included in the utterance is the most important part of its content. The word as the main unit of the language fixes in its meaning a complex informative complex, reflecting various signs of the designated objects (the subject-logical meaning of the word), the attitude of the members of the speaking community towards them (the connotative meaning of the word) and the semantic connections of the word with other units of the vocabulary of the language (intra-linguistic meaning of the word). The information that makes up the semantics of a word is heterogeneous, and qualitatively different components can be distinguished in it. Taken by itself, any of these components can be reproduced by means of another language, but often the simultaneous transfer of all the information contained in the word in translation turns out to be impossible, since the preservation of some parts of the semantics of the word in translation can be achieved only through the loss of others. parts. In this case, the equivalence of translation is ensured by reproducing the communicatively most important (dominant) elements of meaning, the transmission of which is necessary and sufficient in the context of this act of interlanguage communication.

Some information losses that do not interfere with the fifth type equivalence relations are noted in each of the three main aspects of the semantics of the word: subject-logical (denotative), connotative and intra-linguistic. It often turns out that the meanings of equivalent words in the original and the translation contain a different number of elementary meanings (sem), since they reflect the unequal features of the designated class of objects.

The direct meanings of Russian error and English error are often equivalent in translation, but error implies a deviation from any rule, principle or law and this additional feature differs both from an error, where there is no such restriction, and from a mistake, which also means an error, but is usually associated with an accidental misunderstanding, misunderstanding or oversight.

English kill, assassinate, murder, slay are equivalent to Russian to kill, but kill means to end the existence of both animate and inanimate objects (compare: to kill an article, and plan, injustice, war, etc.), assassinate implies the treacherous murder of an official , murder - intentional murder with a criminal motive, slay - intentional and violent, but not necessarily criminal, etc.

When naming the process of swimming in English using the verbs to swim or to sail, it is necessarily assumed that the floating object moves on its own in the water, and not just floats with the current, which is identical to the meaning of the verb to float. In the Russian translation, the boat is sailing on the lake of English The boat is sailing in the lake, this feature of the meaning of the English word is lost, and the translation can be interpreted as a reproduction of the English The boat is drifting (floating) in the lake. When translating the verb to swim from Russian into English, you will inevitably have to indicate in the translation a sign of independence or non-independence of movement, which is absent in the semantics of the Russian word. When translated into Russian, the missing feature is usually added to the message by the meaning of other words. So, in Russian translations, He swims in breaststroke style and the Log swims, half submerged in the water, it is clearly visible that in the first case it swims equivalent to the English swims, and in the second - floats. Additional signs that distinguish the description of this phenomenon in the original necessarily follow from the meanings of the words style and log, although these signs are absent in the word floats itself.

Fixing in the meanings of words different signs of designated objects, each language, as it were, creates its own "picture of the world." If in English the fly "stands" on the ceiling (A fly stands on the ceiling), then in Russian the motionless position of the fly will be described in a different way: the fly sits on the ceiling. As a result, in general, the overlapping semes in the meanings of words in different languages ​​may differ in the nature and number of objects, which are indicated by pointing to this feature. Russian wearing can refer to garments, beards, mustaches, hairstyles, etc., but does not apply to cosmetics, unlike its English equivalent to wear (for example, She was wearing a new kind of perfume). Boiled (boiled) water and milk can be both in Russian and in English, and eggs only in English (boiled eggs), in Russian they should be called boiled.

The meaning of any word is part of the semantic system of the language, and it depends not only on what features of the designated objects are directly reflected in it, but also on the presence of other words denoting the same objects. The Russian horse is not identical to the English horse, just because it shares information about this object with the word horse. The English dog is not identical to the Russian dog, since it also encompasses the content of the Russian dog, etc.

The English head and the Russian head denote in their direct meanings the same part of the body, but for an Englishman, the semantics of this word contains an indication that the head contains teeth, eyes and tongue, which is absent in Russian. This makes it possible to use expressions in English such as: You are not expected to say anything here and you can "t keep too quiet a tongue in your head. I could hear his teeth rattle in his head. I" ve got an eye in my head! I could bring down a running rabbit at fifty paces without a blink. When translating such statements, you will have to abandon the use of the closest equivalent of the word head, and in Russian translation the tongue and teeth will not be in the head, but in the mouth, and the eyes will be on the face.

Due to the differences in the norm and usage of FL and PY, the refusal to use in translation the closest correspondence to the original word in meaning is noted regularly, preventing the full realization of the fifth type of equivalence. Here are some examples: She knew that he had risked his neck to help her. Neck is, of course, the neck, but in Russian it is not the neck that is at risk, but the head. The children clapped hands with joy. In Russian, children should clap their hands. They sat in the dock, their faces held high. In Russian, they sit with their heads held high or holding their heads high. She slammed the door into his face. In Russian, you can only slam the door in someone's face.

Quite often it is quite possible to use the closest match, but another option turns out to be more conventional. In the English originals, they usually wash dishes after meals (wash dishes), scrub floors (scrub floors), wash teeth (wash teeth). All these combinations are possible in Russian as well, but in Russian translations, as a rule, they correspond to the more common ones: washing dishes, washing floors and brushing teeth.

The equivalence of individual words in the original and in the translation presupposes the maximum possible closeness of not only the subject-logical, but also the connotative meaning of the correlated words, reflecting the nature of the speakers' perception of the information contained in the word. The greatest role in conveying the connotative aspect of the semantics of the original word is played by its emotional, stylistic and figurative components.

The emotional characteristic of the meaning of a word can be positive or negative. In any language, there are words that coincide in their subject-logical meaning, but differ in the presence or nature of the emotional component in the semantics of the word. In the following pairs of English and Russian words, the first word is neutral, and the second is emotionally marked: dog - doggie; cat - pussy; womanly - womanish; to attack - to accost; smell - fragrance; cat - kitty; bourgeois - bourgeois; childish - childish; sit - sit down. The general character of emotionality, as a rule, can be fully preserved during translation. It is usually possible to pick up a word in PY that expresses the same approving or disapproving attitude towards what is described as expressed in the word FL:

Sometimes I feel I "m here all by myself, no one else on the whole damn planet."

The transfer of an emotional characteristic, like other components of the connotative meaning of a word, is facilitated by the fact that the implementation of this meaning in an utterance extends the corresponding characteristic to the entire utterance: it makes the utterance emotional, stylistically colored or figurative. Therefore, in translation, this element of content can be reproduced non-locally, i.e. elsewhere in the statement, in the semantics of a completely different word:

Sometimes I feel about eight years old, my body squeezed up and everything else tall. - And sometimes it will seem that I am an eight-year-old boy, myself tiddly, and everything around is hefty.

The preservation of the emotional characteristic of the utterance in translation by using words with the appropriate connotative meaning is extremely important for achieving equivalence. Failure to comply with this requirement may render the translation completely inequivalent:

Tom was in agony. At last he was satisfied that time had ceased and the eternity began. (M. Twain). - Tom was going through excruciating moments. In the end he felt with pleasure that time had disappeared ... (Translated by K. Chukovsky).

The incorrectly conveyed emotional characteristic of the verb to satisfy, used in the original in the neutral meaning not to doubt, to be quite sure, distorted the whole meaning of the statement. Of course, terrified to death, Tom Sawyer could not take pleasure in the thought that his torment would never end.

Equivalence of the fifth type presupposes that the translation also preserves the stylistic characteristics of the original. Perceiving a word, those using the language evaluate it as a carrier of additional information about the appropriateness of using the word in a certain type of speech: colloquial, book or poetic. A significant number of words in any language are stylistically neutral, i.e. used in a wide variety of types of speech. Neutral stylistic characterization is also regarded by speakers as a component of the connotative meaning, on the basis of which the word turns out to be appropriate or inappropriate in the corresponding utterances. And here you can find pairs of words that have the same subject-logical meaning, but different stylistic characteristics: to end - to terminate; to begin - to commence; to go (to a place) - to repair (to a place); bloody sanguinary final - ultimate; wife - spouse; husband - consort; to sleep - to rest; go - walk; to sit - to sit; listen - listen; voice - voice; owner - owner; order - command; small - miniature; respected - highly respected, etc.

The greatest degree of equivalence is noted in cases where the word in the translation, which corresponds to the translated word in other components of the content, also has the same stylistic characteristic. This is often achieved when translating terms that have terminological correspondences in the TL: radiation - radiation; cathode-ray tube - cathode-ray tube; ionizing event - the act of ionization; precipitations - atmospheric precipitation; feed-back - feedback, etc. However, equivalent words belonging to the same style of speech can be found among the common vocabulary: aforesaid above; bearer - bearer; bark - shuttle; to slay - slay; to repose - to rest; steed - horse; to bolt - dodge; to show off draw; to funk - to be cowardly; gluttony - gluttony, etc.

However, words of two languages ​​that correspond to each other in their basic content often belong to different types of speech, and the stylistic component of the meaning of the original word is lost in translation. As an example, we can point to a number of English-Russian correspondences, in which the first word is stylistically marked, and the second is stylistically neutral: slumber - sleep; morn - morning; serge - sergeant; to swap - change; twist - to marry; skillfully - skilfully, etc. When using such correspondences, the equivalence of the stylistic characteristics of words in the original and the translation is violated. Such a violation can be easily compensated for, since, like an emotional characteristic, the stylistic component of the meaning of a word stylistically colors not only the word itself, but also the statement as a whole as belonging to a certain type of speech. Therefore, this component can be reproduced in the translation of another word within the utterance or even in one of the neighboring utterances, providing the necessary degree of stylistic equivalence. This kind of compensation is often used by translators of fiction, where it is especially important to preserve the stylistic features of the original. Here are some examples of such stylistic compensation in translation.

Here is a translation of the opening phrase from a letter to The Times, traditionally written in the refined style of official English documents:

You will pardon me, I trust, this intrusion upon your space. (J. Galsworthy). - I flatter myself with the hope that you will forgive my importunity. (Translated by K. Korneev and P. Melkova).

In this translation, there are a number of stylistic deviations in the transmission of the meanings of individual words. The stylistic characteristic of the verb to pardon (cf. to excuse) is not conveyed, Russian importunity does not reproduce an indication of the strictly official nature of the phrase intrusion upon your space. However, these deviations are not communicatively relevant, since the belonging of the utterance to the official style is quite clearly conveyed in the translation of the verb to trust by the bombastic combination of flattering myself with hope.

In M. Twain's novel "A Yankee from Connecticut at the Court of King Arthur," the hero, trying to make a strong impression on others, utters a formidable and solemn tirade:

Go back and tell the king that at that hour I will smother the whole world in the dead blackness of the midnight; I will blot out the sun and he shall never shine again; the fruits of the earth shall rot for lack of light and warmth, and the peoples of the earth shall famish and die to the last man!

This phrase is replete with words, in the semantics of which there is an indication of their use in solemn, poetically uplifted speech. These are the words smother, blackness, famish, combinations he (the sun) shall, the fruits of the earth, lack of light, etc. In N. Chukovsky's translation, the stylistic characteristic is reproduced in the translation of only some of the elements of the original that have a similar characteristic. However, this turns out to be enough to ensure the stylistic equivalence of the translation:

Go to the king and tell him that tomorrow at noon I will cover the whole world with the dead darkness of midnight; I will put out the sun and it will never shine again; earthly fruits will die from lack of light and warmth, and people on earth, everyone, to the last person, will die of hunger!

Due to the relative independence of the stylistic component of the semantics of the word, stylistic equivalence in translation can be achieved in completely different ways of expression than in the original. It can be another part of speech, a stylistic characteristic can be expressed by a special morpheme or at the root of the word together with other components of the word meaning.

When a stylistic characteristic is transmitted in translation partially and non-locally, individual words of the original, in the semantics of which there is a stylistic component, will correspond to words PYa, devoid of a similar stylistic coloration. Such correspondences should be stylistically neutral, i.e. not contain a stylistic characteristic other than that of the word being translated. Otherwise, the original and the translation will be stylistically unequal.

The equivalence of the connotative meaning of the correlated words in the original and in the translation also presupposes the reproduction in the translation of the associative-figurative component of this meaning. The semantics of some words include additional information associated with certain associations in the minds of the speakers. For residents of many countries, snow is not just a type of precipitation, but also a standard of whiteness, with which it is customary to compare other white (snow-white) objects (hair, sugar, linen, etc.). Chalk is also white, but only the color of a pale face can be compared with it. The Russian sliver is used for a figurative description of a person's thinness, and in the semantics of the word needle, which means a much more subtle thing, there is no component that causes such associations.

In the semantics of words with a similar component of meaning, some feature is emphasized, which for some reason stands out in the object of thought. In Russian, a bath is not only a special room where people wash themselves, but also a very hot place, while the English bath lacks such a characteristic. The English rake - rake - is something very thin (thin), and the hallmark of the peacock (peacock) is pride. The fox is associated with cunning, and the lion is associated with courage. Such a feature of the meaning of a word indicates the presence of a word of imagery, fixed in its semantics by speech practice.

Various associations are fixed in the meanings of some words in connection with the peculiarities of their use in oral folklore and literary works, widely known in a given language community. Similar associations are associated with Russian names Plyushkin, Mitrofanushka, Derzhimorda, English Humpty-Dumpty, Mr. Hide, Sir Galahad, etc.

Due to the figurative component of the meaning, the word has a special effect on the Receptor, its semantics is perceived more readily, attracts attention, evokes an emotional attitude. Preserving the imagery of the original can be a prerequisite for achieving translation equivalence. Three different degrees of similarity between figurative words of the two languages ​​can be noted here:

1) The corresponding words in FL and TL may have the same associative-shaped characteristics. So, in English and Russian, in the meanings of the words snow and snow, a sign of whiteness stands out, stone and stone are cold, and day and day are something clear. In both English and Russian, a person turns pale as a sheet (as a sheet), fights like a lion (like a lion), calls something unattainable green grapes (sour grapes). In such cases, when translating, the highest degree of equivalence is achieved in conveying this component of the semantics of a word:

She was dressed in white, with bare shoulders as white as snow. - She was all in white with bare shoulders, white as snow.

And pride so moved within her that even her heart felt cold as stone. And pride was so stirred in her that even her heart became as cold as a stone.

Oh, it "s all getting just bright as day, now. - Well, now everything becomes clear as day.

2) The corresponding associative-figurative characteristic is possessed by different words, which in the original and in the translation are not equivalent to each other. So, in English and Russian there are words used to express extreme thinness, great strength or great stupidity, but these words have different subject-logical meanings. Wed thin as a rake - thin as a splinter; strong as a horse - strong as a bull; stupid as and goose - stupid, like a traffic jam, etc. In such cases, the reproduction of the figurative component of meaning is achieved, as a rule, by replacing the image:

I have never seen such an avid ostrich for wanting to gobble everything. - I have never seen such a greedy shark - everything is ready to swallow.

3) The feature highlighted in the figurative component of the word in the original is not highlighted in the words of the PYa. It often happens that in the IL there is no image at all on the basis on which it was created in the IL. In such cases, the reproduction of this part of the meaning of the word is possible only partially, at a lower level of equivalence:

Want, colder than charity, shivering at the street corners. - Need, frozen to the marrow, trembled at the crossroads of the streets.

Sometimes the reproduction of this component of meaning turns out to be impossible, and in translation the image is lost:

"Cat". With that simple word Jean closed the scene.

In English, cat is used to describe an angry or grumpy woman. The Russian word cat does not have such a component of meaning, and in translation you will have to abandon the image:

Badass, ”Jean retorted, and that simple word ended the scene.

A special place in the relationship between the units of the original and the translation in the fifth type of equivalence is occupied by the intra-linguistic meaning of the word, due to its position in the language system. Any word is in complex and diverse semantic relations with other words of a given language, and these connections are reflected in its semantics. So, the Russian word table is semantically related to other general and specific names of pieces of furniture: furniture, furnishings, chair, armchair, etc. Another type of connection is found between this word and other words that can be combined with this word in speech: wooden, round, stand, cover, etc. The third type of semantic connection reveals the common elements of the meaning of the word table with such words as canteen, eat, table, etc., which are united by the common root morpheme. The connection between the individual meanings of a polysemous word is also linguistically determined. In Russian, one can hardly find any commonality between the meanings of the words advice and board, but in English they correlate as meanings of the same word board.

The nature of the reproduction of intra-linguistic meaning in translation differs from the transmission of denotative and connotative meanings described above. First of all, in most cases, the equivalence of the words of the original and the translation does not depend on whether the intra-linguistic meaning of the translated words is preserved. This meaning, "imposed" on the word by the system of language, contains information, the transmission of which is usually not included in the intentions of the Source and to which the communicants do not pay attention, considering it an element of thought formation, and not the thought itself. The need to reproduce the components of the intra-linguistic meaning of a word in translation arises only when this meaning comes to the fore in the original, when special attention is drawn to it, and thus its components become communicatively important, dominant elements of the content. In this case, the transmission of such values ​​becomes a prerequisite for achieving equivalence.

One of the components of the intra-linguistic meaning of a word is the reflection in the semantics of the word of the meanings of the individual morphemes that make up this word. A word can be a complex formation composed by merging several significant parts (morphemes). The meaning of a word as a whole is rarely reduced to the meanings of its morphemes. As a rule, a certain combination of morphemes takes on special meaning, acting as a whole. The meaning of words such as steamboat, airplane, writer, woodman, machine-gun, aircraft, beatnik, etc. is not reduced to the sum of the values ​​of their constituent parts. However, these meanings are always present in the semantics of the word as a whole and, if desired, can be highlighted.

Since the morphemic (derivational) component of the semantics of a word turns out to be communicatively irrelevant in most cases, the equivalence between the words of the original and the translation can be established regardless of their morphemic composition:

In it would be a priceless old chestnut-wood wardrobe and a four-poster bed of an excellent period. “It contained a priceless old walnut wardrobe and a very venerable four-poster bed.

Equivalence relations are equally established here both between words of the same morpheme structure (bed - bed; priceless priceless) and between structurally different units (old - antique; wardrobe - wardrobe; four-poster - with a canopy; chestnut-wood - walnut) ...

However, the morphemic structure of a word can play a semantic role in the original and form part of the content that needs to be reproduced in translation. An equivalent reproduction of this element of meaning will be possible only if the structure of the corresponding words in the FL and the TL coincides:

He looked surprisingly young to Eric, who had always assumed that the nation "s elders were really old."

The achievement of equivalence is ensured here due to the fact that the English elder and the Russian elder have in their structure equivalent root morphemes: old (eld) - old.

When a play on words, based on the meaning of the morphemes included in the word, constitutes the main content of the utterance, in order to achieve equivalence in translation, it is reproduced by playing around the morphemic composition of other units in the TL. This is due to the loss in reproduction of other elements of meaning, so that equivalence is ensured only in relation to the most important part of the original content:

By-and-by, he said: "No sweethearts I b" lieve? "" Sweetmeats did you say, Mr. Barkis? "(Ch. Dickens).

In this passage, the carter Barkis asks little Davy if the servant Pegotti has a beloved, but the boy perceives the word sweetheart as sweetmeat - candy. The boy's entire answer makes sense only because of the coincidence of morphemes in the English words sweetheart and sweetmeat. This commonality can be conveyed in translation only by rejecting the use of direct correspondences, since in the structure of Russian words beloved and candy there is nothing in common. At the same time, not root, but affixal morphemes may coincide in the translation, for example:

Doesn't she have a friend? - Pie, Mr. Barkis?

Another way to convey the derivational meaning of the original word is to reproduce the meanings of the constituent morphemes in the form of separate words in the translation. This makes it possible to convey the necessary information that is absent in direct correspondence with the English word. In J. Galsworthy's novel The White Monkey, Michael Mont speaks with the man he wants to get a job at his publishing house:

"Do you know anything about books?" "Yes, sir, I" m a good bookkeeper. "" Holy Moses! Our job is getting rid of them. My firm are publishers. "(J. Galsworthy).

The usual correspondence with the word bookkeeper - the bookkeeper does not contain a morpheme with the meaning of book, and therefore the use of such a correspondence in the translation will make Michael's answer meaningless. The greatest degree of equivalence can be achieved by translating each part of the English word separately:

Do you know anything about books? - Yes, sir, I can keep office books. - Oh, my God! Yes, we should not keep books, but get rid of them. After all, we have a publishing house. (Translated by R. Wright-Kovaleva).

As can be seen from the above examples, the transmission of this component of the word meaning is often associated with certain losses.

Similar restrictions also exist in the transfer in translation of the connection between the individual meanings of a polysemantic word. Usually the word is used in the original only in one of its meanings. After the Receptor has chosen from the meanings that the word possesses, the one that is reproduced by the Source in this case, the presence of other meanings in the word becomes irrelevant. In the translation of the sentence The Board decided to expel him - the Council decided to exclude it on the degree of equivalence of the words Board and the Council does not affect the existence of these words of other meanings that are not equivalent to each other.

The task of reproducing the polysemy of the original word arises only when this polysemy is used by the Source to convey some additional information:

He says he "ll teach you to take the boards and make a raft of them; but seeing that you know how to do this pretty well already, the offer-seems a superfluous one on his part. (JK Jerome). - He screams , which will show you how to take boards without asking and make a raft out of them, but since you already know how to do it perfectly, this proposal seems overkill to you.

The words in the original belong to the owner of the boards, who threatens to teach a lesson to the person who took these boards without asking. The verbs to teach and to show are used both literally and figuratively. Equivalence in translation is ensured due to the existence of similar meanings for both English and Russian words. Under this condition, the indication of the polysemy of the word is reproduced with sufficient completeness.

If our cannon balls were all as hot as your head, and we had enough of them, we should conquer the earth, no doubt. (B. Shaw). “If our cannonballs were all as hot as your head, and if we had plenty of them, we would undoubtedly conquer the whole world. (Per. O. Kholmskoy).

The existence of the Russian word hot figurative meaning allows you to convey both meanings of the English hot, realized in the combinations hot balls and hot head.

A significantly lower degree of equivalence is achieved when the corresponding word in the TL does not have the required polysemy. In this case, one has to either refuse to reproduce this component, or reproduce it in the semantics of another word, i.e. due to less accurate rendering of other components of the original content. Translations of works of art are characterized by the desire to achieve the greatest possible equivalence with the last of the mentioned methods:

He said he had come for me, and informed me that he was a page. "Go" long, "I said," you ain "t more than a paragraph." (M. Twain).

The Russian word page has no meanings (or homonym) associated with the title of any part of the book. Therefore, the only way to convey the play on words of the original is to use another word in the translation, which could be attributed both to the page boy and to part of the book. This is how the translator N. Chukovsky solved this problem:

He said that he was sent for me and that he was the head of the pages. - What a chapter you are, you are one line! - I told him.

REGULATORY ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

The general theory of translation reveals the concept of a translation standard, on the basis of which the quality of translation is assessed. Translation linguistics includes both theoretical (descriptive) and normative (prescriptive) sections. The theoretical sections of linguistics of translation (i.e. linguistic theory of translation) investigate translation as a means of interlingual communication, as an objectively observable phenomenon that can be described and explained. In the normative sections of the linguistics of translation, on the basis of the theoretical study of translation, practical recommendations are formulated aimed at optimizing the translation process, facilitating and improving the quality of the translator's work, developing methods for evaluating translations and teaching methods for future translators.

In order to consciously and correctly perform his functions, the translator must clearly understand the purpose of his activity and the ways to achieve this goal. This understanding is based on a deep acquaintance with the basics of translation theory, both general and special and specific, in relation to the field and combination of languages ​​with which the translator deals. It presupposes knowledge of the system of correspondences between these languages, techniques and methods of translation, the ability to choose the necessary correspondence and apply the most effective translation technique in accordance with the conditions of a specific context, taking into account pragmatic factors that affect the course and result of the translation process.

To ensure the high quality of the translation, the translator must be able to compare the text of the translation with the original, evaluate and classify possible errors, and make the necessary corrections. A large number of people who analyze the results of translation work are also involved in evaluating the quality of translation, identifying and classifying errors: editors, critics, customers, translation teachers, etc. Practical recommendations for a translator and translation assessment are interrelated and interdependent. If a translator has to fulfill certain requirements, then the assessment of the results of his work is determined by how fully and successfully he fulfilled these requirements. Both the translator himself and other persons assessing the quality of the translation, directly or indirectly, proceed from the premise that the correct translation must meet certain requirements. The set of requirements for translation quality is called the translation standard. The quality of the translation is determined by the degree of its compliance with the translation norm and the nature of involuntary or deliberate deviations from this norm.

Regulatory requirements are formulated in the form of translation principles or rules. Regulations can be general or specific, cover specific, specific cases, or relate to a specific type of translation or translation in general. They can be formulated as a single rule or be accompanied by indications of the conditions in which this rule is applicable, or more or fewer cases of its inapplicability (exceptions to the rules). Let us compare, for example, the different degrees of generalization of such normative recommendations as the rules for the transfer of non-equivalent vocabulary, the rules for the transfer of proper names, the rules for the transfer of Indian names such as the Sly Fox, the Great Serpent, and the rule on the preservation of the traditional names of kings in translation: Louis, Henry, Karl, etc. In each case, the normative recommendations apply to a certain range of phenomena.

The results of the translation process (translation quality) are determined by the degree of semantic similarity of the translation to the original, the genre and stylistic belonging of the original and translation texts, and pragmatic factors influencing the choice of the translation option. All these aspects of translation are directly normative in nature, determine the strategy of the translator and the criteria for evaluating his work. The concept of a translation standard includes the requirement for the translator to use the target language in a normative manner, as well as the need for the results of the translation process to comply with generally accepted views on the goals and objectives of translation activities, which are guided by translators in a certain historical period. Thus, the translation rate is formed as a result of the interaction of five different types of regulatory requirements:

1. norms of translation equivalence;

2. genre and stylistic norms of translation;

3. norms of translation speech;

4. pragmatic norms of translation;

5. conventional translation norms.

The equivalence of the content of the original and the translation serves as the basis of their communicative equivalence, the supposed presence of which makes the given text a translation. The translation equivalence rate is not an immutable parameter. It means the need for the greatest possible commonality of the content of the original and the translation, but only within the limits compatible with other regulatory requirements that ensure the adequacy of the translation. In each specific case, the type of equivalence is determined both by the ratio of the units of the FL and the PY, and taking into account the pragmatic factors affecting the act of transfer. Violation of the norm of equivalence can be absolute, when the translation is recognized as non-equivalent, does not convey the content of the original at least at the lowest level, or relative, if it is established that the rest of the regulatory requirements could have been met at a higher level of equivalence than the one that was actually achieved. in translation. In the first case, the translation should be recognized as unsatisfactory, and in the second, it can be considered quite acceptable if the maximum possible semantic similarity is not necessary for successful interlanguage communication.

The genre-stylistic norm of the translation can be defined as the requirement for the translation to correspond to the dominant function and the stylistic features of the type of text to which the translation belongs. The choice of this type is determined by the nature of the original, and the stylistic requirements that the translation must meet are the normative rules characterizing the texts of a similar type in the target language. The genre-stylistic norm largely determines both the required level of equivalence and the dominant function, the provision of which is the main task of the translator and the main criterion for assessing the quality of his work. It should be emphasized that just as the norms of correct speech can be established only taking into account the stylistic and sociolinguistic differentiation of the language, so the normative requirements for the quality of translation make sense only in relation to a certain type of texts and certain conditions of translation activity. It would be fundamentally wrong to use the same criteria for evaluating the translation of a tabloid novel and a highly artistic literary work, translation of an opera libretto and a patent certificate. In practice, criticism of translations is mainly based on an intuitive idea of ​​the genre and stylistic norm. Translation of a work of fiction is assessed by its literary merits, technical translation - by terminological correctness, which provides an understanding of the essence of the matter and the possibility of using the translated text in technical practice, translation of advertising - by its effectiveness, etc.

The text of the translation is a speech work in TL, and the rules of the norm and usage of this language are mandatory for it. However, these rules are not the same for all cases of language functioning. They vary both in different functional styles and depending on the variety of general literary language. Among the latter, the language of colloquial speech (informal communication) and the language of fiction are usually distinguished. In the linguistic literature, the opinion was expressed that the language of science also constitutes a special kind of language. The "secondary" nature of translated texts, their focus on a foreign language original, distinguishes such texts from other speech works in the same language. The set of translated texts of any language constitutes a special variety of this language, intersecting its functional styles and other varieties. Orientation towards the original inevitably modifies the nature of the use of linguistic means, leads to "loosening" (in other words, to the development) of the linguistic norm and especially the usus. The contact of two languages ​​in the process of translation inevitably leads to a wider use of similar forms, to a relative assimilation of linguistic means. Many words, phrases, and ways of describing the situation are at first characteristic of the translation language, and only then partially penetrate into the language of the original works or become just as common in it. Thus, the norm of translation speech can be defined as a requirement to comply with the rules and regulations of the FL, taking into account the usual features of translated texts in this language. These features are implemented by translators intuitively in their practice.

The pragmatic translation norm can be defined as the requirement to ensure the pragmatic value of the translation. It is not a "norm" in the full sense of the word, since the pragmatic overarching task of a translation act may be individual and not peculiar to translation in general. However, the modification of the results of the translation process for pragmatic purposes is a fairly common phenomenon, without which a normative assessment of translations is impossible. The desire to fulfill a specific pragmatic task is a kind of superfunction that subordinates all other aspects of the translation norm. Solving such a problem, the translator can refuse the maximum possible equivalence, translate the original only partially, change the genre of the text during translation, reproduce some formal features of the translation, violating the norm or usage of the GL, etc. The pragmatic conditions of the translation act may force a complete or partial refusal to comply with the translation norm, replace the actual translation with a retelling, an abstract, or any other type of transmission of the original content that does not claim to be comprehensively represented.

It should be borne in mind that in a language community at a certain historical stage there may be strictly defined views on the goals and objectives of translation and ways to achieve these goals. In certain periods of the history of translation, the requirements of literal adherence to the original, the "improvement" of the original during translation ("corrective translation"), the "freedom" of the translator in relation to the original, which was recognized as fundamentally "untranslatable", and so on, prevailed alternately.

Previously, translations of religious texts reflected the admiration of translators not only for the meaning, but also for the letter of the original. And today the requirements for a Bible translator include the "incomprehensibility" of the translation in order to provide the necessary impact on believers. In the 18th century, French translators considered it their main task to reshape the original when translating, bringing it closer to the requirements of "good taste". Without such a rework, translations would be unacceptable to criticism and readers. In other words, during certain periods of the development of society, violations of various aspects of the translation norm became the norm. It is clear that in any historical period the normative requirements for translation were formulated on the basis of this kind of "conventional norm".

At present, the conventional translation standard can be defined as the requirement of maximum closeness of the translation to the original, its ability to fully replace the original, both in general and in details, performing the tasks for which the translation was carried out. In practice, this requirement is realized by fulfilling all or some of the indicated aspects of the translation norm.

In practical terms, there is a hierarchy between the various aspects of the translation norm. The translator and those using the translation first of all pay attention to the pragmatic value of the translation, to the success of the solution of the pragmatic "super task", if such a task was set before the given translation act. The existence of a pragmatic overarching task is not so frequent, and in many cases the requirements of a pragmatic norm are satisfied by ensuring a sufficiently high level of translation equivalence.

As for the norm of translation speech, then, as already indicated, the assessment of the fulfillment of its requirements is largely determined by the genre and stylistic affiliation of the translation text and it is assumed that the translator is fluent in the type of speech that is characteristic of his field of activity.

For many professional translators specializing in translating materials of a certain type, the genre-stylistic norm also turns out to be set for most of the translations performed and does not require re-analyzing the stylistic features of the original every time.

The conventional translation standard remains unchanged over a long period of time and determines the general approach of the translator to his work, the degree of his desire to achieve maximum equivalence.

Finally, the rule of equivalence is the final regulatory requirement that must be met, provided that all other aspects of the translation rule are met. Undoubtedly, the completeness of the transfer of the original content in translation is the most important characteristic of interlanguage communication, the equivalence norm is the most "proper translation" normative requirement for translation. It is completely determined by linguistic factors, and the degree of its observance can be established with the utmost objectivity. The equivalence of the translation to the original is also the most objective criterion for characterizing the results of the translator's activity. As a result, this very criterion is widely used both in editing professional translations and in the process of training future translators.

Thus, compliance with all normative rules, except for the equivalence norm, is more general and is something taken for granted, and the degree of fidelity to the original turns out to be the variable that most determines the level of professional qualifications of the translator and the assessment of the quality of each individual translation.

As we have already noted, the semantic-transformational model of translation uses the well-known procedure of component analysis in linguistics, with the help of which the meanings of linguistic units can be divided into elementary meanings. This procedure can be applied to the general characterization of translation quality. Recall that the equivalent translation reproduces that part of the elementary meanings that are relevant for the given message. In addition, additional elementary meanings may appear due to the structure of the TL. The English sentence I had come contains five elementary meanings: 1) "speaking", 2) "arrival", 3) "past tense", 4) "having a connection with another moment or action", 5) "having a connection with another moment or action in the past. " In the Russian translation I have already received six such elementary meanings - three of them coincide with the elementary meanings of the original, and three arise in connection with the peculiarities of the structure of the Russian language: 1) "speaking", 2) "masculine", 3) "arrival", 4) "on foot", 5) "past tense", 6) "completed, one-time action".

The equivalence of the content of the original and the translation will be the greater, the more elementary meanings in them coincide. At the same time, not all elementary meanings in the original turn out to be relevant (communicatively significant) for the message, and the loss of irrelevant meanings does not make the translation inequivalent. A literal translation will be a translation that reproduces irrelevant elementary meanings of the original in violation of the norms of the Russian language: I arrived in the past at a moment preceding another moment or action in the past (?!). In a free translation, the elementary meanings of the original will not be transferred or changed, and optional additional meanings will be added: And your humble servant is already here. And with this approach, a literal translation is incomprehensible and unacceptable, and a free translation unjustifiably departs from the original.

It is directly related to the assessment of the quality of the translation and the definition of the translation unit as the minimum linguistic unit of the original text, which is translated as a whole, in the sense that it can be matched in the translation text, but cannot be found in the translation of the units of the PL that reproduce the meaning of the constituent parts of the given units, if any. In other words, such units have correspondences in the TL, but their parts, taken separately, are "untranslatable", i.e. in the text of the translation, no correspondences can be established to them, even if in the FL these parts have their own, relatively independent meaning. The allocation of such units is directly related to the quality of the translation, since the translator's attempt to translate individual elements included in a larger whole with a single meaning violates the equivalence of the translation. Since, as is known, translation correspondences can be found in relation to units of any level of the language system, translation units of this type can also be classified according to their belonging to a certain level of the language. The choice of translation correspondences should be carried out at the level of those units of the FL that make up individual translation units and should be translated as a whole. If this requirement is violated, the translation is not equivalent.

It follows that an equivalent translation is a translation made at the level of translation units of the original in the specified sense, i.e. such a translation, in which, with the help of correspondences, precisely those and only those units of IL of different levels are transferred, whose meanings should be reproduced in the translation as a whole. This presupposes the ability of the translator to highlight in the translation text the units of IL, which act as translation units.

With this approach, a literal translation will be a translation made at a lower level of the language hierarchy than the one to which the given translation unit belongs in the original. If the English phrase is a member in the sentence The terrestrial globe is a member of the solar system is translated as a member, then such a translation will be literal, because in order to correctly convey the meaning of this phrase, while observing the lexical norms of the Russian language, it is required to choose not a word as a translation unit , and the phrase, i.e. find a match at a higher level - enter into. At the same time, the rest of this sentence can be translated at the level of the word: The earth is part of the solar system. Likewise, if an English sentence (warning sign) Keep off the grass! translate as Keep away from the grass, then the translation will be literal, since it is made at the word level, while for the correct transfer of the meaning, while observing the norms of the Russian language, a translation at the sentence level is necessary here: Do not walk on the lawns. As indicated, a literal translation either distorts the information contained in the original, or violates the rules of the TL, or both. Literal translation is by definition not equivalent; individual elements of literalism in generally equivalent translations are quite common in practice, but should be considered as translation errors. These are the common translations of sweet pea as sweet pea (correct: sweet pea), delicate balance as delicate balance (correct: unstable balance), cold-blooded murder as cold-blooded murder (correct: brutal murder). In the latter case, the translation of cold-blooded as cold-blooded is carried out at the level of morphemes: cold - cold, blood- - blood-, -ed - n-, while for the correct transfer of the meaning of this English word, translation is required at the level of the whole word as a whole rather than its constituent morphemes.

FEATURES OF THE TRANSLATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL AND NEWSPAPER INFORMATION MATERIALS

Revealing the specifics of a particular translation subspecies, special translation theory studies three series of factors that should be taken into account when describing translations of this type. First, the very fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on such an original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such linguistic means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, the actual translation features can be detected, associated with both common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with special conditions and tasks of the translation process of this type. In other words, special translation theory studies the impact on the translation process of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the analogous functional style in the FL and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.

Within the framework of each functional style, some language features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are the lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special character of headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, each language has a similar functional style and specific language features.

The characteristic features of the scientific and technical style are its informativeness (meaningfulness), consistency (strict consistency, clear connection between the main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity, and the clarity and intelligibility arising from these features. Individual texts belonging to this style may have these features to a greater or lesser extent. However, all such texts show the predominant use of linguistic means that contribute to meeting the needs of this sphere of communication.

In the field of vocabulary, this is primarily the use of scientific and technical terminology and the so-called special vocabulary. A term is usually understood as a word (or a group of words) that within a given industry or specialization have a specific and unique meaning, excluding any possibility of anything different from the understanding or interpretation provided by the author.

So, for example, the following words and word groups are terms:

1. cost - costs;

2. stock exchange - commodity exchange;

3. computer-aided design system - computer-aided design system;

4. very high-speed integrated circuit - ultra-high speed integrated circuit;

5.light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation quantum mechanical amplification or light generation.

It can be seen from the examples given that a term can be one-word and consist of a keyword (1), or it can be a terminological group, which includes a keyword or a core of a group, one (2) or several (3), (4) left definitions , and one or more right or prepositional definitions (5), clarifying or modifying the meaning of the term.

In general, the structural diagram of the term can be represented as:

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