Blogger Donna Julietta writes: “Today I was looking at various retro photographs that depict the history of people’s lives and then I thought it would be nice to look at photos that related to fashion, to see how it changed, how interesting fashion girls dressed then. And I decided, why not make a review regarding fashion for decades. I’ll make a reservation right away that I will not cite as an example women who were popular at a certain time, it is better to pay special attention to them. Let's just discuss fashion."

(Total 43 photos)

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Source: Journal/ make-your-style

Let's start with the 10s of the XX century.

1. Corsets have held back women for years, making their figures much more beautiful and graceful, and making life harder. The impossibility of inhaling and exhaling once again, constant illnesses due to too tightly tightened "shells" - all this made the corset, although a significant object of the era, but very unpleasant.
Therefore, in 1906, women all over the world literally exhaled - a couturier named Paul Poiret for the first time suggested wearing dresses of a simple cut, without corsets. Very soon, such dresses came into fashion - that is why the tenth years were remembered as the years of "liberation" of women from the oppression of one of the most uncomfortable toilet items, and Paul Poiret became a real deliverer for the ladies of high society.

2. In the 1910s, Russian chic was in fashion - the Russian Seasons, which the famous Sergei Diaghilev brought to Paris, were a huge success. Ballet, opera, art, exhibitions - all this was accompanied by a huge number of receptions at which our ladies could adopt the art of haute couture among Parisians.

3. It was then that all the familiar attributes of a “chic life” in the wardrobe began to come into fashion - women bared their shoulders, began to wear very boudoir-looking toilets, decorating them with a huge number of feather fans, precious jewelry and shiny accessories.

Smooth transition to the fashion of the 20s

4. During this period, sports, sports figures of the male type came into fashion with confident steps, and female forms began to gradually lose their relevance and popularity. The ideal is a thin lady with narrow hips, without the slightest hint of a bust or other roundness. The famous Gabrielle Chanel can be called the reformer and revolutionary of fashion of this period. Along with her, in these times, fashionable clothes were created in such fashion houses as Nina Ricci, Chanel, Madame Paquin, Jean Patou, Madeleine Vionnet, Jacques Doucet, Jacques Heim, Lucille”, fur fashion house “Jacques Heim” and others.

5. Egyptian motifs began to come into fashion in the 1920s. Designers' models were decorative, with an abundance of jewelry, zig-zag embroidery. This style was called "art deco", and came from the name of the exhibition of modern decorative and industrial art in Paris in 1925.

6. It was the style of decorating and embellishing things. Decor elements were present on furniture, kitchen utensils, and women's dresses.

7. Shoes trimmed with embroidery or appliqués, decorated according to the taste of popular couturiers of that time, came into fashion. "Art Deco" is an eclectic style in which African abstract exoticism is mixed with the geometric forms of cubism; non-traditional inexpensive and simple materials are mixed with expensive traditional materials of good quality.

8. Such a combination of incongruous, mixed in one style.

9. As a result of the fashion features of the 20s:

- the main elements of clothing are, of course, dresses, straight-cut suits;
- pleating is in fashion;
- fashionable coat of straight cut tapering to the bottom and with a fur collar;
- pajama pants and pajamas are in fashion, in which at that time they went to the beach;
- the first bathing suits for women appeared - a revolution in beach fashion;
- clothes were sewn from more affordable fabrics and knitwear became a discovery;
- sports style is in fashion, not only trousers appear, but also shorts;
- the appearance of Chanel's classic little black dress;

Fashion of the 30s

10. In these times, the cut of clothes has become more complicated. The quality of mass-produced ready-to-wear clothing has improved markedly. Hollywood is a trendsetter in the US. But even here, firms began to appear that traded with the help of catalogs sent by mail. These firms distributed new fashion models in millions of copies.

11. Long skirts became the fashion standard in the crisis times of the thirties. In 1929, Jean Patou was the first to offer long dresses and skirts, the waist line of which was in its place. After this innovation, all fashion houses lengthened their models in two stages. At first, the length of dresses and skirts reached the middle of the calf, and a little later it dropped almost to the ankle. Ladies, following fashion trends, lengthened their clothes on their own. They sewed wedges and various frills.

12. A very popular clothing of the 30s was a women's street suit, which existed in a wide variety of versions. Outerwear - coats and jackets were distinguished by their extraordinary elegance and variety of styles.

13. Each type of clothing, including the costume, was characterized by a wide variety of shaped lines and finishes. The cut of costumes became more complicated, began to rely on geometry, which gives clarity to the silhouette.

14. Decorative details and decorations were widely used in the costume. Hat, handbag, gloves and shoes - that's what should have been in the same color scheme. Accessories were selected very strictly. As a rule, they were black or brown, and in summer they were white.

15. Accessories chosen in this way easily matched any dress or suit, which was relevant during the crisis. In the fashion of the 30s, accessories played a huge role. After all, most women of those years, except for a hat or handbag, could not afford anything else.

40s fashion

16. The dominant fashion trend of the early 40s was layered long skirts, huge bows on clothes, sometimes with the addition of a vertical strip, puffed sleeves. It is worth noting that at that time, striped clothing was the most popular. The war began, and the world moved to a paramilitary position, so the fashion of the 40s has undergone significant changes. Women no longer have time to think about makeup and replenishing their wardrobe.

17. During this period, the appearance of outfits was greatly simplified to minimalism in everything. Natural fabrics are no longer used for civilian purposes. Clothing for women began to be produced and sewn from acetate silk and viscose.

18. Floral designs are back in fashion: ornaments, small flowers have become the main decoration of the fabric and dresses sewn from this material. It became impossible to sew blouses and shirts from white fabric, so cuffs and collars began to take root in fashion. The military style, which is still popular today, became the discovery of the war period.

19. At the same time, they released a new model of shoes: shoes with stiletto heels.

20. Also an innovation was the production of turtleneck blouses, these models with a high collar under the throat deservedly received the recognition of fashionistas of those times.

50s fashion

22. In the post-war years, social differences became noticeably sharper. Wives have again turned into a symbol of the well-being of their spouses, as a kind of showcase for others. A mandatory ritual for every woman has become a visit to a hairdressing salon, applying makeup. The ideal woman, even if she did not work anywhere and was a housewife, should have been fully armed already in the early morning: with a perfect haircut, high heels and makeup, standing by the stove or vacuuming the carpet.

23. Even in the Soviet Union, in which the way of life was significantly different from the Western one, it was customary to do hair styling at a hairdresser or a perm at least once a week, which also began to come into fashion with particular swiftness.

24. The 50s style contrasted the hourglass silhouette with the crisp, flared shoulder silhouette that was popular during the war years. Thus, there were special requirements for the figure: sloping shoulders, a thin waist, rounded feminine hips and lush breasts.

25. To meet these standards, women wore tight corsets, lined their bras with cloth or cotton, and tightened their bellies. The images of beauty of those times were: Elizabeth Taylor, Lyubov Orlova, Sophia Loren, Clara Luchko, Marilyn Monroe.

26. Among the young population, the standards were Lyudmila Gurchenko and others. A fashionable and stylish woman of the style of the 50s was like a flower in silhouette: a fluffy floor-length skirt, under which they wore a multi-layered petticoat, high heels with stilettos, nylon stockings with a seam. Stockings are a must-have accessory to complete the look and were extremely expensive. But what women did not just go to look attractive and feel like beauties who follow fashion trends. It was problematic to buy fabrics at that time, they were released into one hand no more than a certain amount, approved by the norms of those times. To sew one skirt under the "new silhouette", it took from nine to forty meters of material!

Fashion 60s

The legendary 60s is the brightest decade in the history of world fashion, free and expressive, the period of the solemn procession of the so-called youth fashion. The new style needed new hairstyles. Once again, London was ahead of Paris in terms of innovative ideas. In 1959, the French film Babette Goes to War starring Brigitte Bardot was released. A casually whipped hairstyle with a pile, despite the fact that fashionistas take a lot of time to create it, is becoming super popular.

27. Accessories became very popular: beads made of large beads, voluminous jewelry, macro glasses that covered the floor of the face.

28. In London, the most scandalous clothing of the sixties was born - a miniskirt, a symbol of emancipation and the sexual revolution. In 1962, the legendary Mary Quant showed the first mini-length collection. The new style, called "London style", very quickly conquered the youth of the whole world.

29. 60s - the era of synthetics and everything artificial. Synthetic fabrics are widely used in mass fashion - they are considered the most comfortable and practical, as they do not wrinkle and are easily washed, in addition, they are cheap.

30. The fashion of that time is supportive of unnaturalness - false eyelashes, wigs, hairpieces, jewelry. High women's boots with low heels, with a narrow or wide rounded toe made of leather or synthetic material, called go-go (go go) are becoming super popular. Boots became widespread with the advent of mini-length fashion and the dance style of the same name.

The fashion of the late 1960s is influenced by the hippie movement. The youth opposed social and class distinctions, racial discrimination and war. With their appearance, hippies emphasized the denial of the norms of official culture. Their clothes are deliberately casual and even sloppy - torn jeans, beaded bracelets, fabric bags-bags over their shoulders. Sexlessness of appearance is emphasized, long hair symbolizes freedom.

70s fashion

31. In the 1970s, fashion became even more democratic. And, despite the fact that many call the 70s the era of bad taste, it can be said that it was in those years that people had more means for self-expression through fashion. There was no single style direction, everything was fashionable: ethnic, disco, hippie, minimalism, retro, sports style.

32. The motto of the 70s was the expression "Everything is possible!". For the choice of progressive and active young people, the couturiers presented several styles, none of which could be called dominant. The most fashionable element of the wardrobe was jeans, which were originally worn only by cowboys, and then by hippies and students.

33. Also in the wardrobe of fashionistas of that time were trapeze skirts, flared trousers, tunics, overalls, blouses with a large bright print, turtleneck sweaters, A-line dresses, shirt dresses.

34. In addition, it should be noted that clothing has become more comfortable and practical. The concept of a basic wardrobe has appeared, consisting of the required number of things that are combined with each other. As for shoes, platform shoes have gained popularity.

35. Of the designers in the 70s, Sonia Rykiel was singled out, who was called the new Chanel. Sonya Rykiel created comfortable, comfortable clothes: sweaters, cardigans, dresses made of woolen knitwear and mohair.

80s fashion

36. In the fashion of the 80s, retro images intertwined, rethought by designers, as well as born by youth subcultures, music and dance trends, and the ongoing boom in sports.

37. Hip-hop, gothic, post-punk, rave, house, techno, breakdance, snowboarding, skateboarding, rollerblading, step aerobics - all these phenomena were reflected in the style of the decade.

38. The list of iconic items of the decade of stylistic revelry is impressive - padded shoulders, banana trousers, military-style and safari-style clothes, kimono, batwing and raglan sleeves, leggings with bright patterns, black fishnet tights, worn denim, so-called varenka, black leather jackets, lurex, massive jewelry, jewelry buttons on jackets, voluminous hairstyles or styling with the effect of "wet hair", cascading haircuts, spiral perms, hair of decorative colors, such as "eggplant", highlighting "feathers". A lot of cosmetics of deliberate shades with sparkles and mother-of-pearl were used.

Massive 1980s can be described as excessive. Everything, as it were, is "too" - too narrow, too voluminous, too catchy, too bright. In the 80s, designers who thought outside the box and created unusual clothes with original decor elements were successful: Vivienne Westwood, John Galliano, Jean-Paul Gaultier.

90s fashion

39. The style of the 90s in clothing, which has become universal, is better called not a style, but a new approach to choosing clothes. Because in the fashion of the 90s, the very principle of creating one’s image is changing, as well as the principle used in creating a costume. The main call of the nineties is “be who you are!” In those days, denim clothes were of particular importance - only the lazy did not go in it. Avid fashionistas managed to wear jeans with denim shirts, bags and boots. So the style of the 90s can be safely called "denim", since every person had such a thing in more than one copy.

40. In the nineties, unisex fashion spreads around the world: jeans with a T-shirt or loose-fitting trousers with a sweater, complemented by comfortable shoes.

41. The nineties are the time of sneakers and flat shoes. This unisex style is very fond of large Italian and American firms such as Banana Republic, Benetton, Marko Polo. Costumes strive for simplicity and functionality, which, however, revives the traditions of partnership art, when, along with strict asceticism, the costume contains deliberate theatricality with a bright range of colors. Fashion changes depending on the social orientation and territoriality, as in Europe the bohemian prefers conceptual designer clothes.

42. The main fashion emphasis of the nineties is not on clothes, but on its owner. A fashionable image is created by a slender figure with tanned or milky white skin. The culture of the body flourishes as in the days of ancient Greece. Fashionistas and women of fashion visit not only sports clubs, but also beauty parlors and even use the services of plastic surgery. Supermodels from fashion catwalks become role models, a significant contribution to this was made by television and fashion magazines.

43. Well then. This concludes my review. I would like to say that of all times, the 30s, 50s and 70s are closer to my preferences. In general, everything new is a long forgotten old.

The Soviet government saw one of the most important tasks in the field of culture in eliminating the cultural backwardness of the population. A new culture management system was formed. The leadership of the entire spiritual life of society was transferred to the hands of the People's Commissariat of Education. It was headed by A. V. Lunacharsky, a prominent figure in the RCP(b), literary critic and publicist. Departments of public education were created under the local Soviets. Later, an agitation and propaganda department was organized under the Central Committee of the RCP (b). His duty was the party leadership of the development of culture.

From the first days of the existence of the People's Commissariat of Education, one of the directions of its activity was the work on the protection of artistic and historical values. The State Council was created to manage the museums and palaces of the republic. His duty was to control the activities of museums, of which there were more than 150 in the country. Many famous artists were involved in the work of the council, in particular the artists A. N. Benois, A. M. Vasnetsov and V. D. Polenov, architects R. I. Klein and V. A. Schuko. With their participation, the nationalization of private art collections, theaters, enterprises of the photo-cinema industry was carried out. The Winter Palace (Hermitage), the Tretyakov Gallery, the Museum of Fine Arts were declared state museums. Private publishing houses were closed and a state publishing house was created (1919), which published educational literature, works of Russian classics, etc.

The revolutionary events of 1917 and the civil war did not stop the processes of artistic development. They had a profound and ambiguous impact on all spheres of creative activity. In the field of culture, new trends have emerged. Previously emerged groups of Futurists and Imagists declared themselves representatives of revolutionary art. From the pages of the newspaper The Art of the Commune, the Imagist poets called for the destruction of the literary "junk", for the dictatorship of the "left art". In many cities, the proletarian cult movement spread. Proletkult (proletarian culture) was a cultural, educational, literary and artistic organization that arose in the autumn of 1917. The leaders of Proletkult (A. A. Bogdanov, V. F. Pletnev and others) saw the main goal of its activity in creating a proletarian culture, opposing its entire previous artistic culture. Circles and studios of Proletkult introduced the broad masses of working people to literature, theatrical and fine arts, and identified future poets, writers, artists, and actors among them. The proletarians published their own magazines - "Beeps", "Proletarian Culture", etc. Collections of poems by proletarian poets were published; for example, the books by A. K. Gastev “The Poetry of the Working Strike” and V. T. Kirillov “The Dawns of the Future” were published. In 1920, about 400 thousand people participated in the proletarian movement.

Other literary groups were created and quickly disintegrated. So, for example, during 1917-1918. the Scythians group operated, in the ranks of which were M. M. Prishvin, N. A. Klyuev, S. A. Yesenin. The poets A. A. Blok (the poem "The Twelve") and V. V. Mayakovsky (the poem "Mystery Buff"), the artists K. S. Petrov-Vodkin (the painting "1918 in Petrograd" tried to comprehend the events that had taken place in their work ) and K. F. Yuon (“New Planet”).

A notable phenomenon in the artistic life of the first post-revolutionary years was monumental propaganda. The decree on monumental propaganda adopted in 1918 provided for the destruction of monuments built before 1917 "in honor of the tsars and their servants" and the erection of monuments to revolutionaries, figures of Russian and world culture. The authors of the new monuments were famous sculptors N. A. Andreev (Obelisk of the Soviet Constitution in Moscow), S. D. Merkurov (monuments to A. Timiryazev and F. M. Dostoevsky), L. V. Sherwood (monument to A. N. Radishchev ).

Representatives of the Russian intelligentsia perceived the revolutionary events of 1917 and the subsequent political and socio-economic changes in different ways. The intelligentsia, which accounted for 2.2% of the total population of the country, was heterogeneous in terms of their social status and socio-political views. The question of the essence of the revolution, the fate of the cultural heritage, and the attitude to the new government was considered in different circles in its circles. The dispersal of the Constituent Assembly, the system of emergency situations alienated many representatives of culture from the Bolsheviks. The writers I. A. Bunin and D. S. Merezhkovsky, the aircraft designer I. I. Sikorsky and the academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, chemist P. I. Walden, could not stand the hardships or did not accept the new regime and left Russia. At the same time, part of the radical left-wing intelligentsia supported the new government, embarked on the path of professional cooperation with it (naturalist K. A. Timiryazev, poets V. V. Mayakovsky and V. Ya. Bryusov). The leaders of the country understood the need for joint work with scientists and artists and took measures to involve them in government bodies.

Conditions for the development of culture in the years of NEP

With the end of the civil war and the transition to the NEP, new trends in the development of culture emerged. In the context of the liberalization of the public sphere, the activity of the intelligentsia increased. Public debates were held on the role of religion, on the fate of the intelligentsia in the new Russia. The activities of previously created scientific societies (philosophical, historical) revived. New public associations arose - scientific, creative, cultural and educational. Thousands of people participated, for example, in the work of the International Organization for the Relief of the Fighters of the Revolution (IOPR), in patronage workers' organizations, the society of friends of the radio, etc.

Private and cooperative publishing houses (Byloe, Ogni, Grzhebin's publishing house, etc.) operated in large cities. Non-state publishing houses, which numbered over 200 in 1922, published philosophical and economic journals, literary almanacs and collections, books for children and educational literature. Part of the entertainment enterprises was denationalized. Collectives and individuals were transferred to about 30% of the total number of operating cinemas, theaters, art schools.

The process of liberalization of public life was inconsistent and contradictory. The leaders of the country feared that freedom of opinion could lead to the expansion of the activities of opponents of the Soviet regime. In order to oppose bourgeois ideology, political schools, Soviet party schools, and communal universities were organized[i]. The Society of Militant Materialists was founded in 1924 to propagate Marxist philosophy and combat philosophical idealism. From the mid-20s, the work of private publishing houses, as well as public organizations, began to be limited. Control was established over the press, the activities of publishing houses, the repertoire of cinema and theaters.

Education and science

One of the central directions of policy in the field of culture was the work to eliminate illiteracy among the population. On the eve of October 1917, approximately 3/4 of the entire adult population of Russia could neither read nor write. There were especially many illiterates in rural areas and ethnic regions.

From the end of 1918, the reorganization of the public education system began. Gymnasiums, real schools, parochial and zemstvo schools were liquidated. In their place, a single labor school for the whole country was created from two stages (with a training period of five years and four years). Tuition has been cancelled.

At the end of 1919, the government adopted a decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of Russia." The law obligated all citizens aged 8 to 50 who could not read and write to learn to read and write in their native language or Russian. Those who evade this duty could be prosecuted.

The All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created. Together with the People's Commissariat of Education, she led the work that was unfolding in the country to teach the population to read and write. Educational centers were set up in cities and rural areas to teach the illiterate to read and write. However, this work was complicated by a lack of financial resources, a weak material base, and a shortage of teaching staff. Under these conditions, public organizations rendered great assistance in the fight against illiteracy. In 1923, the Down with Illiteracy society was founded. More than 1.2 million people united urban patronage organizations designed to help the countryside in the rise of culture.

Under the NEP, appropriations for the development of education and for the elimination of illiteracy were increased. In 1925, the government passed a law providing for the introduction of universal primary education in the country and the expansion of the network of schools. The All-Union population census conducted in 1926 recorded a significant increase in the number of people who could read and write. The number of literate people over the age of 9 reached 51.1% (in 1897 - 24%). The gap in the level of literacy between the inhabitants of the city and the countryside has somewhat narrowed.

The transformations affected higher education. New rules for admission to universities were introduced. Students were enrolled without exams and without secondary education documents. Young workers and peasants enjoyed the advantages in entering universities. In 1919, workers' faculties (workers' faculties) were created in order to improve general education for students entering universities. The reform of higher education was supposed to contribute to the creation of a new, worker-peasant intelligentsia.

Attention was paid to restoring the scientific potential of the country. New research institutes were opened. Among them are the Physico-Chemical, Physico-Technical (now named after A. F. Ioffe), Central Aerohydrodynamic (TsAGI) institutes that are still operating. Well-known scientists took part in the organization of new research centers: a major theorist in the field of aviation N. E. Zhukovsky, physicist A. F. Ioffe and others. Institute of Scientific Information on Social Sciences - INION). In conditions of civil war, famine and lack of resources, the return on the work of research institutes was small. The government made attempts to improve the life of scientists by introducing natural rations and increased salaries. But these measures were episodic and could not change the plight of the scientific cadres. Only after the end of the civil war did the conditions for the formation of science appear. Vyli founded new institutes in the system of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which since 1925 became known as the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

Literature and art

The artistic life of the 1920s developed in a complex way, in the struggle of artistic views and systems. Literary groupings of futurists, Lefists, and constructivists came forward with their declarations. What they had in common was a view of art as a means of transforming the world. Writers and poets who broke with Proletcult (M. P. Gerasimov, V. V. Kazin, I. N. Sadofiev, and others) organized the literary association "Forge" (after the name of the magazine of the same name). The group declared itself the only organization expressing the interests of the revolutionary working class.

In the early 1920s, Russian and Moscow proletarian writers' associations (RAPP and MAPP) arose. The leaders of both organizations saw one of the tasks of the writers they united in influencing the reader "in the direction of the communist tasks of the proletariat."

Identical processes took place in the sphere of musical life. The Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM) advocated reflecting in the work of composers themes related to the creation of a new society. The associations showed intolerance towards the so-called non-proletarian writers and composers. The struggle for the "purity" of proletarian art was led by the Russian Association of Proletarian Artists (RAPH).

The musicians, writers, and artists who were part of the proletarian creative groups sought to reflect contemporary reality in their work. The paintings “Heavy Industry” by Yu. I. Pimenov and “Tachanka” by M. B. Grekov were shown at art exhibitions. The political operetta "White and Black" by V. Schmidthof and S. Timoshenko was staged in theaters; "Mystery-buff" by V. Mayakovsky. Artists sought to establish agitation and propaganda forms on the theater stage. The search for a new spectacular theater was most fully reflected in the productions of director V. E. Meyerhold.

Many writers and playwrights of the 1920s turned to the historical past of the country (A.P. Chapygin's novels Razin Stepan and O.D. Forsh Dressed in Stone). The theme of the past civil war occupied a large place in the work of the writer M. A. Bulgakov (the novel The White Guard, the play The Run) and the playwright K. A. Trenev (the play Love Yarovaya).

Internal restructuring took place in the poetry of S. A. Yesenin and N. N. Aseev. The theme of everyday life has firmly entered into their works.

By the end of the 1920s, a new theme was firmly defined in the work of the vast majority of the artistic intelligentsia. There has been a departure from the former negative attitude towards all previous art.

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Introduction

The relevance of this topic is fully justified: the history of Russia in the first decades of the twentieth century is a dramatic period that became a turning point in the history of the fatherland, in the fate of individuals, generations, and people.

Goals and objectives of the topic: an impartial analysis of the economic state of Russia in the early twentieth century, because modern knowledge is politicized.

During the period from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century (until the beginning of the First World War), Russian industry went through a significant development path: industrial booms followed by sharp economic crises, as well as economic depression, war and revolution.

If we briefly characterize the essence of the Stolypin agrarian reform, we can say that it consisted in abolishing the remaining redemption payments, giving all peasants the right to freely leave the community and secure allotment land in inherited private property. At the same time, it was understood that only economic methods could induce the landlords to sell their land to the peasants, as well as to use state and other lands to allocate them to the peasants.

A lot of textbooks have been written about the history of Russia in the twentieth century, for various schools (authors: A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina, V. P. Dmitrenko, V. D. Esakov, I. D. Kovalchenko), many encyclopedias (

1. Ekonomics of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

In the first years of the twentieth century. in Russia, the rapid rise of the basic branches of heavy industry continued - coal, oil, metallurgical, machine-building. The high profitability of new industries, the cheapness of labor attracted foreign capital to the country (from Belgium, France, Germany, England and other countries). He rushed in a wide stream into a number of advanced industries, as well as into the sphere of banking capital.

Banks increasingly invested their funds in production, contributing to the development of new forms of economic organization - monopolies (trusts, syndicates). The five largest banks each had up to a hundred branches, including those in Paris and London. By 1913 they had concentrated up to half of the financial resources of all Russian banks. As the positions of Russian banks strengthen, their place in the country's economy also changes - they begin to crowd out foreign capital, securing the role of the main investors in the domestic industry.

The process of merging the interests of the state with the interests of monopolies, which was called state-monopoly capitalism, which took place in all industrial countries, turned out to be facilitated for Russia. Thus, the government, for example, was actively involved in the regulation of sugar production, taking this step under the influence of persistent requests from the largest sugar producers.

The entry of Russian banks onto the path of financing industry marked the beginning of the merging of banking and industrial capital and the emergence of financial capital. This process was most active in heavy industry. So, under the auspices of the St. Petersburg International Bank, the Kolomna-Sormovo and Naval-Russud trusts arose; in the sphere of interests of the Russian-Asian Bank turned out to be a military-industrial concern, the organizational center of which was the Putilov plant.

With the support of science, the technical re-equipment of industry and other branches of the national economy was accelerated. Mechanization also affected everyday life (Singer sewing machines).

The trend towards concentration and specialization intensified in the country's economy. New large industrial centers were created in the regions of Donbass, Baku, the North Caucasus, and on the territory of Poland. There were zones for the production of export products (the Baltic states, the Black Sea region, Siberia).

One of the features of Russia's economic development was the presence of a huge public sector of the economy. Its core consisted of the so-called state-owned factories, which primarily satisfied the military needs of the state. At the beginning of the twentieth century. about 30 largest factories belonged to various departments and were financed by the state. Among them are Tula, Izhevsk, Sestroretsk, Obukhovsky, Izhorsky and others.

All these enterprises were excluded from the sphere of the market economy, from the elements of free competition. The only customer and buyer of the products of state-owned factories was the state, and they were managed by government officials. The emergence of such enterprises was associated not with some new phenomena due to industrialization, but with traditional economic relations coming from the state manufactories of Peter I.

In addition, the state owned over two-thirds of the railway network, a huge area of ​​land and forest land.

The state economy grew rapidly: in 1900, income from it, together with the wine monopoly, amounted to 0.8 billion rubles, and in 1913 - 2 billion, which accounted for 47% and 60% of state budget revenues, respectively.

The state actively intervened in all spheres of economic activity of private enterprises, stimulated railway construction, the development of ferrous metallurgy, and the coal industry. The government forcibly regulated prices, protected the young Russian industry from competition by imposing high customs duties. The state distributed government orders to private companies and firms, provided them with loans through the State Bank.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. the state also assumed the function of creating favorable conditions for attracting foreign capital to the country. It was for this purpose that the financial reform was carried out in 1897, which introduced the gold backing of the ruble, its free convertibility.

Russia was particularly interested in the influx of foreign capital. This was explained by the fact that the country bore a huge burden of unproductive expenses: for the maintenance of the royal court, the police, the army and navy, and the huge bureaucratic state apparatus. Foreign capital entered the country through direct investment in the form of government loans, the sale of securities in the financial markets. Foreign investment in the Russian economy accounted for almost 40% of all investment. German entrepreneurs preferred to create branches in Russia of large firms operating in Germany. Their favorite areas of activity were electrical engineering, chemical production, metallurgical and metalworking industries, and trade. French capital was sent to Russia mainly through banks. They operated mainly in the coal and metallurgical industry of Donbass, metalworking and mechanical engineering, oil production and refining. English capital settled in the oil industry, mining and smelting of non-ferrous metals.

Thus, the most advanced branches of industry, which determined the face of industrialization, developed, as a rule, with the participation of foreign capital. However, this did not lead to the creation of foreign zones of influence, to the complete or even partial dependence of Russia on foreign companies and states. Foreign firms, companies, banks did not conduct an independent economic policy in Russia, they did not have the opportunity to influence the political decisions made.

The influx of foreign capital was accompanied by a process of merging it with domestic capital, thereby creating real prerequisites for Russia's inclusion in the world economic system. At the same time, the widespread penetration of foreign capital had its drawbacks: part of the savings, which could increase the national wealth of the country, expand the possibilities of investment in the economy, and raise the living standards of the population, went abroad in the form of profits and dividends.

The face of St. Petersburg was changing. On the outskirts of the capital, large enterprises of shipbuilding and mechanical engineering arose. The city played an increasingly active role in foreign trade, in the sphere of financial capital. Banks and insurance companies proliferated. Moscow also strengthened its position as the largest commercial and industrial center. Along with the traditional industries (textile, food), mechanical engineering, chemistry, metalworking, and printing developed rapidly. The appearance of the city has also changed. A rapid construction of large shops, restaurants, insurance companies, banks, mansions of wealthy entrepreneurs, tenement houses began. The first "skyscrapers" were built - houses with 6-10 floors. A wide water supply and sewerage network was created, electricity was used for street lighting.

In the context of the emergence of new trends in the economy, the need for self-organization of all classes and social strata, their political consolidation, increased. Early 20th century in Russia marked by the emergence of political parties.

At the end of the nineteenth - the beginning of the twentieth century. European countries were shaken by a powerful economic crisis. The way out of it was painful and difficult, but at the same time it demonstrated the high adaptive capacity of capitalist production. The answer of the capitalist economy to the destructive consequences of crises caused by free competition was the creation of monopolistic associations. And if the European individualized consciousness with great difficulty perceived new phenomena in the economy, then in Russia this process took on a kind of natural character. The Russian economic system, due to its specific features (traditionally strong positions of the public sector, initially high level of concentration of production, wide penetration of foreign capital, etc.), turned out to be very susceptible to monopolistic tendencies.

The first monopolistic associations and unions appeared in Russia as early as the 1980s. nineteenth century And at the beginning of the twentieth century. they become the basis of the industrial life of the country. Monopoly unions agree on the conditions for the sale of goods, terms of payment, determine the quantity of products produced, set prices, divide markets and raw materials among themselves, and distribute income and profits among enterprises. In accordance with their main functions, monopolies have various forms: syndicates, cartels, trusts, concerns.

Syndicates were the predominant form of monopoly unions in Russia. They were created in the form of joint-stock companies, congresses and societies of manufacturers and breeders, offices for the sale of goods, etc. However, before the First World War, trusts began to be created in many industries, mainly with the participation of foreign companies.

The monopolies that arose in Russia immediately waged a struggle for the complete subjugation of the leading branches of the economy to their domination. Thus, the Prodamet syndicate, which in 1901, at the time of its inception, united 12 metallurgical plants in the south of Russia, in 1904 controlled the sale of 60%, and in 1912 - about 80% of the country's metallurgical products. The Prod-Coal syndicate controlled almost the entire coal industry, the Prodvagon and Gvozd syndicates controlled from 90 to 97% of the corresponding products produced in Russia, the Nobel-Mazut cartel reigned supreme in the oil industry.

At the same time, entire layers of Russian economic life found themselves outside the zone of modernization. We are talking about that handicraft, handicraft and trade Russia, which existed, as it were, in parallel with factory production, being, in fact, an appendage of agriculture. And although large-scale factory industry occupied a leading position on the whole (the value of gross output was 7.3 billion rubles, the number of enterprises was 29.4 thousand), small industry had a stable position in the Russian economy. 150,000 enterprises employed 600,000 artisans and handicraftsmen, producing products worth 700 million rubles a year. And in the winter months, another 3.5-4 million people were engaged in crafts. In such industries as baking, footwear, construction, clothing, and leather, the products of small establishments predominated.

A significant proportion of pre-capitalist forms of industry was due to the specifics of agricultural production, the country's natural and climatic conditions. A short cycle of agricultural work made it inevitable to combine peasant labor with trade and handicraft. And the insufficient level of development of factory production supported a steady demand for products of handicraftsmen and artisans.

2. Stolypin agrarian reform

Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin was born (April 5, 1862 - September 5, 1911) in Dresden. He spent his childhood and early youth mainly in Lithuania. Stolypin married early. Olga Borisovna, Stolypin's wife, was formerly the bride of his older brother, who was killed in a duel. With the murderer of his brother, Stolypin fought a duel, being wounded in his right hand, which has since acted poorly. Father-in-law of Stolypin B.A. Neigardt, honorary guardian of the Moscow Presence of the Board of Trustees of Empress Maria's Institutions, was the father of a large family. Subsequently, the Neigardt clan played an important role in Stolypin's career.

Stolypin was buried in the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. The Octobrists and Right-wing Cadets highly appreciated Stolypin's work. And the extreme Black Hundreds were still irreconcilable. In subsequent years, monuments to Stolypin were erected in different cities.

agrarian reform.

Goals of the reform:

1) Socio-political goals of the reform.

The main goal was to win wide sections of the peasantry to the side of the regime and prevent a new agrarian war. To do this, it was supposed to contribute to the transformation of the majority of the inhabitants of their native village into a “strong, wealthy peasantry imbued with the idea of ​​property,” which, according to Stolypin, makes it the best bulwark of order and tranquility.” Carrying out the reform, the government did not seek to affect the interests of the landowners. In the post-reform period and at the beginning of the 20th century. the government was unable to protect the noble landownership from reduction, but the large and small landed nobility continued to be the most reliable support for the autocracy. To push him away would be suicidal for the regime.

2) Socio-economic goals were closely related to socio-political ones. It was planned to liquidate the land community, its economic land distribution mechanism, on the one hand, which formed the basis of the social unity of the community, and on the other, hindered the development of agricultural technology. The ultimate economic goal of the reforms was to be the general rise of the country's agriculture, the transformation of the agrarian sector into the economic base of the new Russia.

Preparing for reform. Preparation of reform projects before the revolution began with the Conference on the needs of the agricultural industry under the leadership of S.Yu. Witte, in 1902-1903. In 1905-1907 The conclusions formulated by the Meeting, primarily the idea of ​​the need to destroy the land and turn the peasants into land owners, were reflected in a number of projects of state officials (V.I. Gurko.). With the beginning of the revolution and the active participation of the peasants in the destruction of the landed estates, Nicholas 2, frightened by the agrarian uprisings, changed his attitude towards the landed peasant community.

The Peasant Bank was allowed to issue loans for peasant plots (November 1903), which actually meant the possibility of alienating communal lands. Stolypin in 1906, having become prime minister, supported the landlords, who did not affect the interests. Gurko's project formed the basis of the Decree of November 9, 1906, which marked the beginning of the agrarian reform.

Fundamentals of the direction of the reform. The change in the form of ownership of peasant land, the transformation of peasants into full-fledged owners of their allotments, was envisaged by the law of 1910. to carry out, first of all, by "strengthening" allotments into private property. In addition, according to the law of 1911. it was allowed to carry out land management (reduction of land into farms and cuts) without “strengthening”, after which the peasants also became landowners.

The peasant could sell the allotment only to the peasant, which limited the right to land ownership.

Organization of farms and cuts. Without land management, the technical improvement and economic development of agriculture was impossible in the conditions of the peasant striping (2/3 peasants of the central regions had allotments divided into 6 or more strips in various places of the communal field) and were far away (40% of the peasants of the center had to pass weekly from their estates to allotments of 5 or more miles). In economic terms, according to Gurko's plan, fortifications without land management did not make sense. Therefore, the work of state land management commissions was planned to reduce the strips of the peasant allotment into a single area - a cut. If such a cut was far from the village, the estate was transferred there and a farm was formed. Resettlement of peasants to free lands. To solve the problem of peasant shortage of land and reduce agrarian overpopulation in the central regions, the resettlement policy was intensified. Funds were allocated to transport those wishing to new places, primarily to Siberia. Special ("Stolypin") passenger cars were built for the settlers. Beyond the Urals, the peasants were given lands free of charge, for raising the economy and landscaping, and loans were issued.

The sale of land to peasants in installments through a peasant bank was also necessary to reduce the lack of land. Loans were issued on the security of allotment land for the purchase of state land transferred to the Bank's fund, and land that was sold by landlords

The progress of the reform.

Legal basis, stages and lessons of the reform. The decree of November 9, 1906, after the adoption of which, the implementation of the reform began, became the legislative basis for the reform. The main provisions of the decree were enshrined in the law of 1910, approved by the Duma and the State Council. Serious clarifications were made to the course of the reform by the law of 1911, which reflected the change in the emphasis of government policy and marked the beginning of the second stage of the reform.

In 1915-1916 In connection with the war, the reform actually stopped. In June 1917 the reform was officially terminated by the Provisional Government. The reform was carried out by the efforts of the main department of land management and agriculture, headed by A.V. Krivoshein, and Stolypin's Minister of the Interior.

The transformation of peasants into landowners at the first stage (1907-1910) in accordance with the decree of November 9, 1906. went in several ways.

Strengthening striped plots in the property. Over the years, 2 million plots have been strengthened. When the pressure of local authorities ceased, the strengthening process was sharply reduced. In addition, most of the peasants, who only wanted to sell their allotment and not run their own household, have already done this. After 1911 only those who wanted to sell their land applied. In total in 1907-1915. 2.5 million people became “fortified” - 26% of the peasants of European Russia (excluding the western provinces and the Trans-Urals), but almost 40% of them sold their plots, for the most part, moving beyond the Urals, leaving for the city or replenishing the layer of the rural proletariat .

Land management at the second stage (1911-1916) according to the laws of 1910 and 1911 made it possible to obtain an allotment in the property automatically - after the creation of cuts and farms, without submitting an application for strengthening the property. In the “old-hearted” communities (communities where there have been no redistributions since 1861), according to the law of 1910. peasants were automatically recognized as owners of allotments. Such communities accounted for 30% of their total number. At the same time, only 600,000 of the 3.5 million members of the boundless communities requested documents certifying their property.

Land management. Organization of farms and cuts. In 1907-1910. only 1/10 of the peasants, who strengthened their allotments, formed farms and cuts. After 1910 the government realized that a strong peasantry could not emerge on multi-lane sections. For this, it was necessary not to formally strengthen the property, but the economic transformation of allotments. The local authorities, who sometimes resorted to coercion of the community members, were no longer recommended to "artificially encourage" the strengthening process. The main direction of the reform was land management, which now in itself turned peasants into private property. monopoly cooperation Stolypin agrarian

Now the process has accelerated. Total by 1916. 1.6 million farms and cuts were formed on approximately 1/3 of the peasant allotment (communal and household) land purchased by the peasants from the bank. It was the beginning. It is important that in reality the potential scope of the movement turned out to be wider: another 20% of the peasants of European Russia filed applications for land management, but land management work was suspended by the war and interrupted by the revolution.

Resettlement beyond the Urals. By decree of March 10, 1906. the right to resettle peasants was granted to everyone without restrictions. The government allocated considerable funds for the costs of settling settlers in new places, for their medical care and public needs, and for laying roads.

Having received a loan from the government, 3.3 million people moved to the new lands in “Stolypin” wagons, 2/3 of which were landless or land-poor peasants. 0.5 million returned, many replenished the population of Siberian cities or became agricultural workers. Only a small part of the peasants became farmers in the new place.

The results of the resettlement campaign were as follows. First, during this period, a huge leap was made in the economic and social development of Siberia. Secondly, the population of this region increased by 153% during the years of colonization. If before resettlement to Siberia there was a reduction in sown areas, then in 1906-1913 they were expanded by 80%, while in the European part of Russia by 6.2%. In terms of the rate of development of animal husbandry, Siberia also overtook the European part of Russia.

Community destruction. For the transition to new economic relations, a whole system of economic and legal measures was developed to regulate the agrarian economy. The Decree of November 9, 1906 proclaimed the predominance of the fact of sole ownership of land over the legal right to use it. The peasants could now allocate the land that was in actual use from the community, regardless of its will. The land allotment became the property not of the family, but of the individual householder. Measures were taken to ensure the strength and stability of working peasant farms.

Purchase of land by peasants with the help of a peasant bank. The bank sold 15 million state and landowner lands, of which 30% were bought by installments by peasants. At the same time, special benefits were provided to the owners of farms and cuts, who, unlike others, received a loan in the amount of 100% of the cost of the acquired land at 5% per annum. As a result, if before 1906 the bulk of the buyers of land were peasant collectives, then by 1913 79.7% of the buyers were individual peasants.

cooperative movement. The cooperative movement developed rapidly. In 1905-1915, the number of rural credit partnerships increased from 1680 to 15.5 thousand. The number of production and consumer cooperatives in the countryside increased from 3 thousand. (1908) up to 10 thousand (1915)

Many economists came to the conclusion that it is cooperation that represents the most promising direction for the development of the Russian countryside, meeting the needs of modernizing the peasant economy. Credit relations gave a strong impetus to the development of production, consumer and marketing cooperatives. The peasants, on a cooperative basis, created dairy and butter artels, agricultural societies, consumer shops, and even peasant artel dairy factories.

Conclusion

By the beginning of the twentieth century. Russia was a medium-developed country of the "second echelon" of capitalist development. Unlike the countries of the "first echelon" (England, France), it entered the path of capitalism much later - only in the middle of the nineteenth century. Therefore, its economic development was of a catch-up character, manifested both in high rates and in a certain deformation of its phases and stages. One of the significant features was the leading role of the state and state regulation in the economic life of the country.

The main features that stimulate the recovery of the economy:

1. Russia was a country of young capitalism. It moved to industrialization later than other countries, so most of the industrial enterprises operating by the beginning of the 20th century were built in recent decades. These were new factories, equipped with new technology and, in accordance with the requirements of the time, they were large joint-stock enterprises.

2. Foreign capital poured into Russian industry. High protective duties prevented the import of foreign goods here, but it was possible to bring in capital, build enterprises here and sell the products of this enterprise, naturally, without duties. The bulk of foreign capital was invested in heavy industry.

3. Contributed to the rise and determined its features and state railway construction. Along the length of railways by the beginning of the twentieth century. Russia ranked second in the world. This achievement was, however, quite relative, given the territory. But the construction of railways gave a strong impetus to the development of heavy industries, providing orders for metal, coal, steam locomotives, that is, creating a sales market for the respective industries. After the industrial boom of the 90s in 1900-1903. a new economic crisis erupted in Russia. Its first symptom was a monetary crisis that began in the summer of 1899. Shares of industrial enterprises sharply depreciated, a number of banks went bankrupt, and credit was significantly reduced.

During the years of agrarian reform, the marketability of the peasant economy has increased significantly, largely due to farms and cuts. New farming systems and crops were introduced. From a third to a half of individual farmers participated in credit partnerships, which gave them funds for modernization. On the whole, a revolution in the agro-economy did not take place, but when evaluating economic results, it is important to take into account that the reform, designed for decades, has only managed to clarify the direction and gain momentum in a few years. In socio-political terms, the reform was a relative success. The community, as a body of self-government in the Russian village, was not affected by the reform, but the socio-economic organism of the community began to collapse. The number of communities decreased from 135,000 to 110,000. At the same time, almost no disintegration of the community was observed in the central regions. In the Center, communal traditions were the strongest, and agriculture was the most backward in socio-economic terms.

WITHlist of sources used

1. Avrekh A.Ya. "P.A. Stolypin and the fate of reforms in Russia" - M., 2003

2. Glagolev A. "Formation of the economic concept of P.A. Stolypin". "Economic Issues" No. 12, 2003

3. Dameshek L.I. Encyclopedia "History of Russia", - M., 2003

4. Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. "History of Russia - 20th century", Grade 9, 2003

5. Esakov V.D., Dmitrienko V.P., "History of the Fatherland - 20th century", Grade 11, 2003.

6. Kovalchenko D.I. "History of Russia", Moscow 2002.

7. Kuleshov S.V. "History of the Fatherland" - M., 2001.

8. Mironenko S.V. History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries - M., 2002.

9. Ostrovsky I.V. "P.A. Stolypin and his time". - Novosibirsk, 2002

10. Rumyantsev M. "Stolypin agrarian reform: background, objectives and results." "Economic Issues" No. 10, 2004

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In the first decades of the 20th century, Shchukin's tastes changed somewhat: he became interested in the post-impressionists - Cezanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin. Then Matisse, the founder of Fauvism, became his favorite, to whom he ordered two unique panels for his house - “Music” and “Dance”. Finally, in the prewar years, Shchukin saw Picasso as well. By this time, his collection had almost tripled: if in 1906 there were 80 paintings in it, then in 1913 there were 222 of them. Matisse introduced Shchukin to Picasso. Crespel names the first paintings acquired by the Russian collector from Picasso, and correctly points out that by 1917 there were already “no less than fifty” such acquisitions. However, at the same time, he is silent about the main thing: in the period from 1908 to 1914, Picasso was able to overcome poverty, gain recognition and rent a fashionable apartment on Montparnasse Boulevard only thanks to the money of Shchukin, who royally paid him for paintings that no one had bought before ...

Shchukin was not a businessman from art, and therefore it is hardly appropriate to write about him under the heading "Traders and Speculators". Being an ardent promoter of the new art, he turned his luxurious mansion into a museum, where he himself became a guide. Later, when, after October, the new government nationalized both his house and his collection, and he himself ended up abroad, Sergei Ivanovich uttered the noblest words, inaccurately conveyed by Crespel: “... I collected not only and not so much for myself, but for my country and of his people. Whatever is on our land, my collection must remain there.”

Speaking about the collection of Ivan Abramovich Morozov (1871–1921), one cannot fail to say a few words about his elder brother. Mikhail Morozov, who had the characteristic nickname "Gentleman", a pupil of the Moscow Imperial University, a person who is fond of, tried his hand not only in commerce, but also in the literary field. But his main passion was collecting paintings, which he took up from the age of twenty. Leading Russian painters met in his mansion, among them Vrubel, Serov, Korovin, Pasternak. Their canvases, as well as the works of Surikov, Golovin, Levitan, adorned the walls of Mikhail's rooms. Later, he became interested in the French - Manet, Degas, Renoir, Gauguin. In this environment, Mikhail's brother-weather Ivan grew up, in 1903 he took over the baton of gathering. In that year, he acquired the first painting by Sesley, then the collection began to grow rapidly. Morozov's main suppliers were the Parisian marshans Durand-Ruel and Vollard. In 1907-1908, Vollard sold eight paintings by Gauguin to a Russian collector, including their famous "Night Café in Arles", and later gave him his no less famous "Cubist" portrait by Picasso. Ivan Abramovich declared Cezanne his favorite artist, whose canvases he bought at every opportunity. Then, like his rival Shchukin, he became interested in Matisse. However, in fairness, it should be said that the word “rival” is hardly appropriate here: both collectors lived peacefully, never trying to infringe on each other, but rather complementing each other. If Shchukin chose “Music” and “Dance” by Matisse to decorate his mansion, then Morozov turned to Bonnard and Denis, the leaders of the “Nabids”, for the same purpose. And Denis decorated Morozov's house with a unique monument of decorative art - a set of twelve panels "The History of Psyche".

If you try to describe the style of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries in one word, then "luxury" will be the most accurate. The ideal woman of that time was the image of a living goddess, who was alien to worries and physical labor.

This was the era of the development of cameras, stereoscopes, phonographs, telephones and gramophones. They listened to arias from lyrical operas performed by Caruso, danced Strauss waltzes, polkas, mazurkas, quadrilles, lancers, country dances and gallops.

The cinema was still in the experimental stage, the first primitive films were being shot, the image twitched, as if it was raining on the screen.

Cars were a rarity, but there were many private carriages that served for trips during which women showed themselves and their toilets.

Sports took women a little time. Horseback riding, skating and rollerblading, tennis timidly crept into life, not crowding out the popular at that time cerso, croquet, golf.

The most attractive sight of these times was the woman herself. Preparing her person for this role cost the woman a lot of work. Daily combing of long hair, putting on and tying a corset, high shoes, a lot of wardrobe items - all this took a lot of time.

At the beginning of the 20th century, female beauty was cultized, trying to achieve perfection with the help of corsets and S-shaped silhouettes. The ladies slimmed down the figures, achieving the desired curves: emphasized chest, too narrow waist (the "correct" volume of which was inhuman 42-45 centimeters) and wide hips. The hourglass figure was created by wide bell-shaped skirts, later they became narrower at the hips and flared to the bottom, often with a train.

At that time, women changed outfits several times a day: it was believed that a dress for morning tea drinking was not suitable for a daytime walk, and in the evening a lady could only appear in society in a special, more elegant and "rich" suit. Changing clothes, given the complex cut of clothes, took a lot of time, but in an era when the main task of a woman was to strive for perfection, this was normal. Fashion designers often used glass beads, appliqués, lace and frills to decorate outfits. Feminine hairstyles completed the look: ladies of the turn of the century wore tight buns, and individual strands were curled with hot tongs and styled in large curls.

Callot Soeurs, day dress, "La Mode Artistique", 1901

Women with a full torso and a disproportionately thin waist were in fashion.In connection with fashion, various advertisements and advertisements in newspapers spread, reporting on ways to care for a magnificent bust. Even doctors convinced that any breast can be developed and rejuvenated by using appropriate patented remedies.

A special design narrowed the dress of this period at the knees to make the bulge at the back even more expressive; the hem of the dress, along with the tren, was laid out around the feet, like a fan.

Despite the large bust and sculpted thighs, the silhouette was light, and its airiness was emphasized by the rustle of folds and the strong smell of perfume.

Novelties in fashion appeared, of course, in Paris, in the spring, on the day of the vernissage, as well as at the famous races on the day of the Grand Prix in Longchamp.

Secular ladies, looking at the costumes of the artists demonstrating new models, ordered what they liked the very next day in the famous fashion houses: Doucet, Madeleine de Ruf, Worth, Felix, Poiret, Rebo, etc.

The female figure is pulled together by a corset, but in 1903 the ballerina Isadora Duncan dances in a loose, translucent dress called a peplos, without a corset and a whalebone. Black dresses, “falling from the shoulders in hopelessly sad folds” (as Gana Kvapilova characterizes the fashion of the end of the century), were replaced by the brilliant sparkling colors of the Fauvists.

The famous ladies of the demi-monde, who had open salons, were the authorities in the field of fashion in the Fraction. Parisian women accepted or rejected the new fashion, christening it mauvais gerne, gerne cocotte, etc. The rejected models usually did not come out of the actors' environment, sometimes taking root in the provinces or outside France.

In accordance with the fashionable ideal, shown in fashion magazines, on the stage of theaters and in the pages of tabloid novels, a woman was supposed to be weak and refined, but at the same time have a flowering skin and a vibrant blush.

A woman had to constantly pretend to cherish some vague ideals - this was prescribed for her by fashion. At home, forever weak and tormented by frequent migraines, such a woman in the dance showed an excess of strength.

The "decadent" girls achieved a languid look by using crushed coal instead of ink. The woman had to resemble a moth or a chrysanthemum, be flexible and dressed in flying undulating draperies.

Impressiveness was at that time one of the main roles of a woman who became a slave to fashion. She wore large hats with an abundance of feathers, bows, birds and flowers, she had to study facial expressions and gestures.

Just as Balzac defined the psychology of a woman by the manner in which she carried a handkerchief, in this period a woman was judged by the manner in which she maintained her dress: “Some women did it energetically and with their whole hand, others with two fingers, delicately, manneredly, unnaturally. the skirt was of such great importance at that time and was always more beautiful than the dress ... "(Boen).

"The Ladies" Field, 1903. Ladies' sportswear is still not much different from secular dresses. The suit is trimmed with fur, lace sleeves, the toilet is complemented by a hat decorated with feathers; only the skirt is somewhat shorter.

"The Lady's Field", 1903. The material for secular toilets is more pretentious than the fabric for evening wear; these dresses are embroidered and trimmed with lace and fur; hats are decorated with feathers.

Fashionistas of the early twentieth century generally adored rich decor. They were decorated with furs, feathers, luxurious fabrics, bows, and an abundance of jewelry. Hair on the head fit into the lush "labor-intensive" hairstyles. The process of dressing turned into a real art, and the process of undressing into overwork. Jean-Philippe Worth, the son of a famous fashion designer, once said: "Undressing a woman is a process comparable to taking a fortress."

The Lady's Field, 1903. In evening dresses, the heavy satin of the skirt is combined with lace and tulle. The neckline and dressing skirt on the right are embroidered with large star-shaped flowers.

Photograph of a lady of that time attending the races. She is wearing a two-piece dress, a fur cape, a hat with feathers, a purse and an umbrella in her hands.

Ladies' suits, 1912 Women's jackets take on the style of a classic men's jacket.

Ladies' suits, 1912. Two variants of a simple, close-fitting ladies' suit.

"G. Bushmann's new ladies' dresses". Afternoon dresses.

"G. Bushmann's new ladies' dresses". Home dresses, one-piece.

Art Nouveau jewelry by Sarah Bernhardt. From the book "Paris, the end of the century" (Paris, fin de siecle).

"Ulk" (Ulk), Berlin, 1910 "How can you wear an Art Nouveau skirt and move forward at the same time!"

Poiret adhered to positions in art that were opposite to those of Picasso, but both of them were prompted to work by similar circumstances. The main thing is that both of them strove to work in a completely different way than their predecessors. Picasso's group, under the name "Bato-Lavoie", referred for the first time to the art of the primitivists, while Poiret's fantasy was nourished in the old way by exoticism and antiquity.

The glory of Poiret and his style were more short-lived. After the First World War, he ceased to be fashionable, his models were too pretentious for this time; Poiret failed to adapt to the democratization of fashion.

The process of "liberation" of the female body has already begun. A significant role in this was played by the famous Isadora Duncan, who made a revolution not only in choreography, but also in women's fashion. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century, she danced in a transparent shirt of antique cut, "decorated" with only one shawl. Costumes by 1910 begin to acquire strict lines and free forms. A new stage of "naked fashion" began. Transparent light fabrics were worn from above, and cuts were made from below, exposing the legs. Isadora Duncan

Since 1909, there has been a wave of interest in the harem theme, generated by the success of "Russian Seasons" by S.P. Diaghilev in Pariscostumes and scenery for which creates Leon Bakst. A young fashion designer, more an artist than a tailor, Paul Poiret, who first worked for Bort, follows all these impulses very carefully and finally enters the streets of Paris with toilets bearing the imprint of history - offering a dress in the form of a tunic and peplos - and imprint of the East. His sketches alternate Japanese kimono, Persian embroidery, colorful batik and oriental turbans with fur and brocade.

The costumes, created according to the sketches of Bakst, stunned the audience with their colorfulness and exoticism. Arab harem pants, Greek chitons, sandals, bright saturated color opened the charm of antiquity and the East for Europe. Rich embroidery and transparent smoky muslins are in fashion.

Sketches by Leon Bakst.

Fashion abandoned corsets and drew attention to phlegmatic half-naked round women reclining on ottomans. The object of adoration was full forms with plump, well-fed arms and legs. Fashion designer P. Poiret was the first to pick up this new trend and brought into fashion non-corset dresses, harem pants, pantaloons and transparent fabric.