This article will be affected by such a topic as space ships of the future: photos, description and specifications. Before moving directly to the topic, we offer the reader a short excursion to a story that will help assess the current state of the space industry.

Space in the period cold War There was one of the arens on which the confrontation between the United States and the USSR was conducted. The main incentive of the development of the space industry in those years was precisely the geopolitical opposition to the superpower. Huge resources were thrown on Space Development Programs. For example, to implement a project called "Apollo", the main purpose of which is the landing on the surface of the human moon, the government of the United States spent about $ 25 billion. This amount for the 1970s was just a giant. The Budget of the Soviet Union The Lunar Program, which was not destined, cost 2.5 billion rubles. 16 million rubles was worth the development of the Buran spacecraft. At the same time, he was destined to make only one space flight.

Program "Space Shuttle"

His American analogue was lucky much more. Space Shuttle made 135 launches. However, the "shuttle" this was not eternal. His last launch took place on July 8, 2011. Americans during the implementation of the program released 6 "shuttles". One of them was a prototype that did not carry out the cosmic flights. 2 others have suffered a catastrophe at all.

The program "Space Shuttle" from an economic point of view can hardly be considered successful. Much more economical turned out to be disposable ships. In addition, there was a doubt the safety of flights on the "shuttle". As a result of the two catastrophes that occurred during their operation, 14 astronauts became victims. However, the reason for such ambiguous travel results is not in the technical imperfection of ships, but the complexity of the concept of intended for reusable use of spacecraft.

The value of the Soyuz spacecraft today

As a result, the "Union", disposable space ships from Russia, which were developed as early as the 1960s, became the only devices exercising today manned flights to the ISS. It should be noted that this does not mean their superiority over Space Shuttle. They have a number of essential flaws. For example, the carrying capacity is limited. Also, the use of such devices leads to what the orbital garbage accumulates, which remains after their operation. Very soon, cosmic flights on the "Union" will become history. Today there is no real alternatives. Still under the development of space ships of the future, the photos of which are presented in this article. In the concept of reusable use of ships, enormous potential often even in our time remains technically unrealized.

Statement Barack Obama

Barack Obama in July 2011 stated that the main goal of astronauts from the United States for the next decades is flight to Mars. The Space Program "Constellation" has become one of the programs that NASA carries out as part of the flight on Mars and the Moon's mastering. For these purposes, of course, new space ships are needed. How is the case with their development?

Spaceship "Orion"

The main hopes are assigned to the creation of "Orion" - a new spacecraft, as well as carrier missiles "Ares-5" and "Ares-1" and the lunar module "Altair". In 2010, the United States government decided to collapse the program "Constellation", but, despite this, NASA was still the possibility of further development of "Orion". In the near future it is planned to implement the first test unmanned flight. It is assumed that the apparatus during this flight will be removed from the Earth for 6 thousand km. This is approximately 15 times more than the distance on which is from our MKS planet. The ship after the test flight will take the course to the ground. The new apparatus in the atmosphere may include, developing the speed of 32 thousand km / h. "Orion" in this indicator exceeds 1.5 thousand km / h legendary "Apollo". For 2021, the implementation of the first manned launch is scheduled.

In the role of launch vehicles of this ship, according to NASA plans, will be "Atlas-5" and "Delta-4". It was decided to abandon the development of "Ares". For the development of long-range space, the Americans design SLS - a new carrier rocket.

The concept of "Orion"

Orion is a partially reusable ship. It is conceptually closer to the "Union" than to the "Shuttle". Most of the spacecraft of the future are partially reusable. This concept suggests that the liquid capsule of the ship after landing on the ground can be used again. This will allow combining the economy of the "Apollo" and "Union" operation with the functional practicality of reusable ships. This solution is a transitional stage. Apparently, in the distant perspective, all the space ships of the future will become reusable. Such is the trend of the development of the space industry. Therefore, we can say that the Soviet Buran is a prototype of the spacecraft of the future, as well as the American Space Shuttle. They beat their time strongly.

CST-100

The words "prudency" and "practicality" seem to characterize Americans as it is impossible. The government of this country decided not to take the shoulders of "Orion" all cosmic ambitions. Today, by request, NASA, several private firms are developing their space ships of the future, which are designed to replace the devices used today. Boeing, for example, is developing CST-100 - partially reusable and manned ship. It is intended for short travel to the orbit of the Earth. Its main task will be the delivery of goods and crew to the ISS.

Planned launches CST-100

Up to seven people can make the carriage crew. During the development of CST-100, special attention was paid to the comfort of astronauts. A residential space was significantly increased compared to the ships of the past generation. Probably the launch of CST-100 will be made using Falcon Mare Rocket, "Delta" or "Atlas". "Atlas-5" is the most suitable option. With the help of airbags and parachute will land the ship. According to the plans of the company Boeing, CST-100 in 2015 is waiting for a whole series of test launches. The front 2 flight will be unmanned. The main task of them is to bring the device to orbit and test security systems. The piloted docking with the ISS is planned during the third flight. CST-100 In the event of successful tests, it will be very soon to replace "Progress" and "Union" - Russian ships, monopolizing the manned flights to the ISS.

Development of "Dragon"

Another private ship designed to carry out the crew and cargo delivery to the ISS will be developed by Spacex. This is a "dragon" - a monoblock ship, partially reusable. It is planned to build 3 modifications of this apparatus: autonomous, truck and pilotable. As with CST-100, the crew can be up to seven people. The ship in the cargo modification can take on board 4 people and 2.5 tons of cargo.

"Dragon" want to use in the future for flight to Mars. This creates a special version of this ship called "Red Dragon". The unmanned flight of this apparatus on the Red Planet will take place, according to the plans of the US Space Guide, in 2018.

Constructive feature of the "Dragon" and first flights

Repaid is one of the features of the Dragon. Fuel tanks and part of energy systems after the flight will be descended along with the residential capsule on the ground. Then they can be used again for cosmic flights. This constructive feature is favorably distinguished by the "Dragon" from most other promising developments. "Dragon" and CST-100 in the near future will complement each other and serve as a "safety net". If one of these types of ship will be able for some reason to perform tasks set in front of it, then some of its work will take on another.

For the first time "Dragon" was led into orbit in 2010. Successfully completed the test unmanned flight. And in 2012, May 25, this device docked to the ISS. By the time the automatic docking system was not provided on the ship, and had to use the space station manipulator for its implementation.

"Drim Chaser"

"Drim Chaser" is another name for the spacecraft of the future. It is impossible not to mention this project by SpaceDev. Also, 12 partners of the company, 3 NASA Universities and 7 NASA centers took part in its development. This ship is significantly different from other space developments. He reminds externally "Space Shuttle" in miniature and can land the same as an ordinary aircraft. The main tasks are similar to the tasks facing the CST-100 and the Dragon. The device is designed to deliver the crew and cargo to the near-earth orbit, and it will be output there with the help of "Atlas-5".

What about us?

And what can Russia answer? What are the Russian space ships of the future? RKK "Energia" in 2000 began designing the "Clipper" space complex, which is multipurpose. This spacecraft reusable, resembling something externally "shuttle", reduced in size. It is designed to solve various tasks, such as shipping, cosmic tourism, evacuation of the crew of the station, flights to other planets. Certain hopes pinned with this project.

It was assumed that the space ships of the future Russia would soon be designed. However, due to the lack of funding, it was necessary to say with these hopes. The project was closed in 2006. Technologies that have been developed over the years are planned to be used to design a PPTS, also known as the project "Rus".

Features of PPTS

The best space ships of the future, as experts believed from Russia, is PPTS. It is this space system that will be destined to become a new generation of spacecraft. It will be able to replace "progress" and "unions", rapidly obsolete. The development of this ship, as in the past "Cleper", is engaged in the Energy RKK today. PTK NK will become the basic modification of this complex. The main task of it, again, will be to deliver the crew and cargo to the ISS. However, in the remote future is the development of modifications that will be able to fly to the moon, as well as perform various research missions, last time.

The ship itself must become partially reusable. A liquid capsule will be reused after commissioning, but the motor-aggregate compartment will not be. A curious feature of this ship is the possibility of landing without a parachute. The reactive system will be used for braking and landing onto the earth's surface.

New cosmodrome

Unlike the "unions", which take off from the Baikonur space located in Kazakhstan, the new ships are planned to be launched from the "East" cosmodrome conjugated in the Amur region. 6 people will make a crew. The device can also take the load weighing up to 500 kg. The ship in the unmanned version can deliver cargo to 2 tons weight.

Problems facing the developers of PPTS

One of the main problems facing the PPTS project is the lack of carrier missiles with the necessary characteristics. The main technical moments of the spacecraft today are worked out, however, in a very difficult position, its developers puts the lack of carrier missile. It is assumed that it will be close according to the characteristics of the "hangar", which was developed as early as the 90s.

Another serious problem, oddly enough, is the goal of designing PPTS. Almost Russia today can afford the implementation of ambitious programs for the development of Mars and the Moon, similar to those who implement the United States. Even if the space complex will be successfully developed, most likely, the only task will be the delivery of the crew and cargo on the ISS. Until 2018 postponed the beginning of the tests of the PPTS. Perspective devices from the USA by this time are likely to take on the functions performed today by Russian Progress and Soyuz's Russian ships.

Misty Perspectives of Space Flights

The fact is that the world today remains deprived of the romance of space flights. Of course, it is not about cosmic tourism and launch of satellites. You can not worry about these spheres of cosmonautics. Flights to the ISS are very important for the space industry, however, the term of the ISS itself is limited. In 2020, it is planned to eliminate this station. And the piloted space ships of the future are an integral part of a specific program. You can not develop a new apparatus in the absence of ideas about tasks facing it. Not only for the delivery of crews and cargoes of the ISS is designed by new space ships of the future in the United States, but also for flights to the moon and Mars. However, these tasks from everyday earth worries are so far that we are unlikely to expect significant breakthroughs in the field of astronautics in the coming years. Space threats remain fantastic, so there is no point in designing the combat spaceship for the future. And, of course, at the Power of the Earth, many other concerns, besides the struggle with each other for a place in orbit and other planets. The construction of such devices as military space ships of the future, therefore also inexpedient.

In 2011, the United States stopped operating the Space Transportation System complex with the Space Shuttle reusable ship, as a result of which the Russian ships of the Soyuz family became the only means of delivering astronauts to the International Space Station. For several next summer This situation will persist, and after the emergence of new ships that can compete with the "unions" are expected. New developments in the field of manned cosmonautics are created both in our country and abroad.

The Russian Federation"

Over the past decades, the Russian Space industry has several times attempts to create a promising piloted ship suitable for the replacement of the "Unions". However, these projects have not yet led to expected results. The newest and promising attempt to replace the Soyuz is the Federation of the Federation, which offers the construction of a multi-sized system in piloted and cargo execution.

Layouts of the ship "Federation". Photo Wikimedia Commons

In 2009, the Rocket and Space Corporation "Energia" received an order for the design of the spacecraft designated as "promising manned transport system". The name "Federation" appeared only in a few years. Until recently, RKK "Energia" was engaged in the development of the required documentation. The construction of the first new type ship began in March last year. Soon the finished sample will begin testing on stands and polygons.

In accordance with the latest expressed plans, the first space flight of the Federation will take place in 2022, and the ship will send goods into orbit. At the 2024th, the first flight with the crew on board is scheduled. Already after the required checks, the ship will be able to fulfill more bold missions. So, in the second half of the next decade, the unmanned and manned guests of the Moon can take place.

A ship consisting of a multi-sized returned cargo-passenger cockpit and a disposable aggregate motor compartment will be able to have a mass to 17-19 tons. Depending on the goals and payloads, it will be able to take up to six astronauts or 2 tons of cargo. When returning in the descent device, up to 500 kg of cargo may be. It is known about the study of several versions of the ship to solve various tasks. Having the appropriate configuration, the Federation will be able to send people or cargo to the ISS or work in orbit on their own. Also, the ship is supposed to be used in future flights to the moon.

The American Space Industry, several years ago, the remaining shuttles, laying great hopes for the prospective project of Orion, which is the development of the ideas of the Constellation closed program. The development of this project is attracted by several leading organizations, both American and foreign ones. Thus, the European Space Agency is responsible for creating an aggregate compartment, and Airbus will build such products. American Science and Industry are represented by NASA and Lockheed Martin.

ORION ship layout. Photo NASA.

The project "Orion" in its current form was launched in 2011. By this time, NASA managed to perform some of the works under the program Constellation, but it had to refuse. Certain developments switched from this project to the new one. Already on December 5, 2014, American experts managed to hold the first test launch of a promising ship in a unmanned configuration. New launches have not yet been carried out. In accordance with the established plans, the authors of the project must complete the necessary work, and only after that it will be possible to start a new stage of testing.

According to current plans, the new flight of the Orion ship in the space truck configuration will be held only in 2019, after the SPACE Launch System is appeared. The unmanned version of the ship will have to work with the ISS, as well as fly the moon. From 2023, astronauts will be present on board "Orion". On the second half of the next decade, manned flights of large duration are planned, including the flying of the moon. In the future, it is not eliminated the possibility of using the Orion system in the Martian program.

The ship with a maximum starting mass of 25.85 tales will receive a sealed compartment of a slightly less than 9 cubic meters, which will allow it to transport fairly large loads or people. In the orbit of the Earth, it will be possible to deliver up to six people. Lunny crew will be limited to four astronauts. The carriage modification of the ship will lift up to 2-2.5 tons with the possibility of a safe return of a smaller mass.

CST-100 Starliner

As an alternative to the Orion ship, the CST-100 Starliner device, developed by Boeing, as part of the NASA Commercial Crew Transportation Capability program, can be seen as part of the NASA CAPABILITY program. The project provides for the creation of a manned ship capable of delivering to orbit and return several people to Earth. At the expense of a number of design features, including those associated with one-time use of technology, it is supposed to equip the ship at once with seven places for astronauts.

CST-100 in orbit, so far only in the representation of the artist. Figure NASA.

Starliner is created since 2010 by Boeing and Bigelow Aerospace. Design took several years, and in the middle of the current decade was supposed to make the first launch of the new ship. Nevertheless, due to some difficulties, the test start was transferred several times. According to a recent NASA solution, the first start of the CST-100 ship with cargo on board should take place in August of the current year. In addition, Boeing has received permission to perform the piloted flight in November. Apparently, a promising ship in the very near future will be ready for testing, and new changes in the schedule will not be needed.

From other projects of promising piloted spacecraft of American and foreign development "StarLinener" differs in more modest purposes. According to the creators, this ship will have to deliver people to the ISS or other promising stations currently being developed. Flights outside the earth orbit are not planned. All this reduces the requirements for the ship and, as a result, allows you to achieve a noticeable savings. The smaller cost of the project and the abbreviated costs for the delivery of astronauts can be a good competitive advantage.

The characteristic feature of the CST-100 ship is quite large sizes. The inhabited capsule will have a diameter of just over 4.5 m, and the full length of the ship will exceed 5 m. Full weight - 13 t. It should be noted that large dimensions will be used to obtain the maximum internal volume. To accommodate equipment and people, a sealed compartment of 11 cubic meters has been developed. It will be possible to install seven seats for astronauts. In this regard, the Starliner ship is if he succeeds to walk to operation - can become one of the leaders.

Dragon V2.

A few days ago, NASA also identified the timing of new test flights of spacecraft from Spacex. So, for December 2018, the first test launch of the piloted ship type Dragon V2 was assigned. This product is a revised version of the Dragon truck already used, capable of transporting people. Project development began long enough, but only now he approaches the tests.

Dragon V2 DJ ship layout. Presentation time. Photo NASA.

Dragon V2 project provides for the use of a recycled cargo compartment adapted to transport people. Depending on the requirements of the customer, as stated, such a ship will be able to raise up to seven people into orbit. Like its predecessor, the new "dragon" will be reusable, and will be able to make new flights after a small repair. The project development is carried out over the past few years, but the tests have not yet begun. Only in August 2018, Spacex will first launch Dragon V2 into space; This flight will be held without astronauts on board. Full piloted flight, according to NASA guidelines, is scheduled for December.

Spacex is known for its bold plans for any promising projects, and the piloted spacecraft is no exception. First, Dragon V2 is supposed to be used only for sending people to the ISS. It is also possible to use such a ship in independent orbital missions to a duration of up to several days. In the remote future it is planned to send a ship to the moon. Moreover, with its help, they want to organize a new "route" of space tourism: apparatuses with passengers on a commercial basis will fly the moon. However, this is still a matter of a distant future, and the ship itself has not even had time to go through all the necessary tests.

With medium sizes, the Dragon V2 ship has a sealed compartment with a volume of 10 cubic meters and a 14-cubic compartment without sealing. According to the company-developer, he will be able to deliver a slightly more than 3.3 tons of cargo on the ICS and return 2.5 tons to the land. In the manned configuration in the cabin, it is proposed to install seven seats in the cabin. Thus, the new Dragon will be able to at least not to yield to competitors on the characteristics of carrying capacity. The advantages of an economic nature are invited to obtain from reusable.

Space ship of India

Together with the leaders of the space industry, other states are also trying to create their own options for piloted spacecraft. So, in the near future, the first flight of a promising Indian ship with astronauts on board can take place. The Indian Organization of Space Research (ISRO) has been working on its own project of the ship since 2006, and has already fulfilled part of the required work. According to some reasons, this project has not yet received a full designation and is still known as the "ISRO spacecraft".

Perspective indian ship and its carrier. Figure Timesofindia.indiaTimes.com.

According to famous data, the new ISRO project provides for the construction of a relatively simple, compact and light manned apparatus, similar to the first ships of foreign countries. In particular, there is a certain similarity with the American Mercury family technique. Part of the design work was completed a few years ago, and on December 18, 2014, the first launch of the ship with ballast cargo took place. When a new ship gives the first astronauts into the orbit - unknown. The timing of this event is displaced several times, and while the data on this score is missing.

The ISRO project offers the construction of a capsule weighing no more than 3.7 tons with an internal volume in several cubic meters. With it, it is planned to be delivered to the orbit of three astronauts. The autonomy is declared at the level of the week. The first mission of the ship will be associated with finding orbit, maneuvering, etc. In the future, Indian scientists plan paired launches with a meeting and docking ships. However, before that is still far away.

After mastering flights to the near-earth orbit, the Indian organization of space research involves creating several new projects. The plans to create a reusable ship of a new generation, as well as manned flights to the moon, which will probably be carried out in collaboration with foreign colleagues.

Projects and prospects

Perspective manned spacecraft are now created in several countries. At the same time, we are talking about different prerequisites for the emergence of new ships. So, India intends to develop the first own project, Russia is going to replace the existing "unions", and the United States needs domestic ships with the possibility of transporting people. In the latter case, the problem is manifested so clearly that NASA is forced to develop or accompany several projects of promising space technology at once.

Despite different prerequisites for creating, promising projects almost always have similar goals. All cosmic powers are going to put into operation new one's own manned ships, suitable, at least for orbital flights. At the same time, most of the current projects are created taking into account the achievement of new goals. After certain modifications, some of the new ships will have to go beyond the limits of the orbit and go, at least, to the moon.

It is curious that most of the first launches of new techniques are scheduled for the same period. From the end of the current decade and until the middle of the twenties, several countries intend to check their newest developments in practice. If the desired results are obtained, the space industry will change markedly by the end of the next decade. In addition, thanks to the prudency of developers of new techniques, the cosmonautics will be able to not only work in the orbit of the Earth, but also to fly to the moon or even prepare for more bold missions.

Perspective projects of manned spacecraft created in different countrieshave not managed to reach the stage of full tests and flights with the crew on board. Nevertheless, this year there will be several such launches, and in the future such flights will continue. The development of the space industry continues and gives the desired results.

According to the materials of sites:
http://tass.ru/
http://ria.ru/
https://energia.ru/
http://space.com/
https://roscosmos.ru/
https://nasa.gov/
http://boeing.com/
http://spacex.com/
http://hindustantimes.com/

In February, Space X was launched by the heavy rocket carrier Falcon Heavy. The chapter of the company, Ilona Mask, it is customary to be a genius and a "visionary", but even his fantasies on the colonization of Mars are fascinated compared to projects, work on which is already going on.

Mines on meteorite

Making money in space is a relatively new idea. It is difficult to count on the fact that a big business will be interested in purely scientific research, therefore the future of the space industry lies precisely in the increase in commercial projects - after all, the development of America's exposure was also dictated not so much to knowledge as thirst for accommodation.

The mining of resources on the asteroid is the most brave and ambitious of all possible ideas to get rich at the expense of extraterrestrial resources. The most vivid example of the nucleation of the new industry is the American Deep Space Industries companies and Planetary Resources, on the projects of which the Government of Luxembourg allocated $ 200 million.

According to existing projects, mining on asteroids will be held in several stages: the detection of potentially "interesting" celestial bodies, conducting remote analysis / sampling, and, in the event that the asteroid is recognized as "standing", mining on it.

Development of resources on meteorite is not just fantasy: Planetary Resources probe, Arkyd-6 at the beginning of the year was successful in the Earth orbit. He is a kind of module that will work out the technology of detection of potentially suitable for the development of celestial bodies. Further, the company plan to bring the Arkyd-100 apparatus to orbit - a full-fledged satellite, fully equipped to detect meteorites, after that Arkyd-200 and Arkyd-300 will be sent directly to the celestial body, the purpose of which will be intelligence in the immediate vicinity of the celestial body.

After these preliminary preparations, it is planned to be sent to the celestial body of mining ships operating in automatic mode. The first experience of cosmic drilling, according to Planetary Resources forecasts, humanity will be able to boast already for 2030.

What is the benefit of the industrial development of asteroids? First, they can produce water and water-containing substances - the necessary raw materials for the production of rocket fuel right in space.

And secondly, such celestial bodies may contain a lot of elements, extremely rarely found not land. For example, asteroid 2011 UW158, flew by our planet in 2015, contained platinum on $ 5 trillion.

Lunar funeral

A person is not eternal, and his way after life should be revised in the cosmic era. In any case, this is convinced of Elysium Space, which plans to offer the service of sending the dust of the spirits to the moon.

Instead of looking at her feet, remembering her loved ones and friends, we can raise a look up to the eternal wonders of the night sky, knowing that the expensive people are always with us, the company says on the company's website.

In order to take advantage of the unusual service, the company developed special mini-urns, where part of the dust is placed, which is then running into space.

Elysium Space offers two options for "cosmic funerals": the first, at a cost of $ 2500 called the "Falling Star", involves the withdrawal of the Earth's orbit, where he will spend about two years and will be available to track real time using the smartphone application. The second is the delivery of dust on the moon, where he will rest "all eternity."

Star II ship launch date, which will bring mini-urns into orbit, is not specified, while Lunar I probe must rush to the Earth's satellite already in 2019.

Dron and submarine on Saturn Satellite

Unlike the above projects and companies, the American Aerospace Agency NASA focuses into a greater extent on research missions, which, as it turned out, requires increasing fantasies and courage. Such projects include sending drone and submarine to Saturna Titan Satuttoe, a heavenly body, on which, as scientists, the most likely the emergence and development of life.

The Dragonfly project was developed in the Laboratory of Applied Physics of the University of John Hopkins and is one of the two finalists of the competition for the best project of space missions on the research program Solar system NEW FRONTIERS.

Unlike the standard "rovers" moving through the wheels, "dragonfly" - a flying probe, it moves in a dense atmosphere of titanium, cycling screws that raise the device above the satellite surface.

Another distinctive feature of the project is that the probe will work on a nuclear power plant.

On the surface of the titanium of rivers, lakes and integer oceans consisting of hydrocarbons. The study of the satellite mysteries Saturn is unthinkable without immersion inside this puchin.

That is why NASA plans to create and equip a "cosmic submarine". Work on the project is conducted by experts from the University of Washington State, recreated conditions that the device will be faced with the Titan to investigate the possible impact of a little studied satellite environment on the device.

In particular, scientists were already able to find out that the "hydrocarbon reservoirs" is freezed at a temperature of -198 ° C, and therefore the chance that the submarine will face the likeness of the iceberg, it is minimal - this greatly simplifies the task of constructing a submarine, the launch of which is scheduled for Titan 20 years.

First interstellar flight

The search for life or its signs within the solar system is one of the priorities modern scienceBut this does not mean that humanity is forever refuses flights to stars.

The Breakthrough Starshot initiative, the Russian billionaire Yuri Milner and the famous British Astrophysician Stephen Hawking, implies the sending of a nanostotor on laser sails to Alfa Centaurs - the starry system closest to the sun.

Alpha Centauro is at a distance of about 4.37 light years. To overcome the huge interstellar distances of the Nanostotelniki, unlike large ships, will be able to at the expense of their ultra-long mass with a much greater speed - about 20% of the speed of light.

To implement the project to reality, Milner allocated $ 100 million. The necessary technologies do not yet exist, but, according to scientists, humanity has all the possibilities to achieve Alfa Centaurus until the end of the 21st century.

Space Elevator

One of the most ambitious projects of the future, which radically and forever change the fate and the approach of mankind to the vision of themselves, is a space elevator.

For the first time, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe cosmic elevator was formulated by the Russian scientist Constantine Tsiolkovsky. Conditionally, the space elevator is a design on which the cable is kept in one end on the surface of the planet, and the other - in a fixed land in orbit.

The mass center of such an elevator should be at an altitude of about 36 thousand kilometers. The lift cable should be made of a material with an extremely high ratio of strength to specific density - the most suitable for the construction of a space elevator are carbon nanotubes, often referred to as the XXI century material.

Nevertheless, the technology of obtaining nanotubes in industrial quantities and their subsequent plexus in the cable only begins to be developed.

Why was the space elevator in the list of ambitious, but still more or less close in project implementation?

Obayashi promises to create a space elevator for 2050.

Star ships and cosmos studies have always been one of the main topics of science fiction. Over the years, writers and directors tried to fantasize that space ships are capable of, and they dreamed in what they could become in the future. In this review, the most interesting and iconic stars who met in science fiction.

1. Serenity.

series "Firefly"
The ship "Serenity" ("serenity") under the leadership of Captain Malcolm Reynolds could be seen in the Firefly series ("Firefly"). "Serenity" is a Firefly class ship, first acquired by Reynolds shortly after the galactic civil War. The defining line of the ship is the absence of weapons on it. When the crew falls into trouble, he should use all his ingenuity to get out of it.

2. Derelict.

franchise "Alien"
Named "Derelict" (abandoned) and appearing under the code name Origin, an alien spacecraft was found on LV-426 in the film "Alien". He was first discovered by WEYLAND-Yutani, after which he was examined by the Nostromo team. No one knows how he got on the planet or who manifolded him. The only remains that could be a potential pilot were a petrified being. In this sinister ship was placed eggs xenomorphs.

3. Discovery 1.

the film "Space Odyssey"
The 2001 film is the classic of fantastic films, and the spacecraft "Discovery 1" in it is almost the same sign. Built for a manned mission to Jupiter, "Discovery 1" was not equipped with a weapon, but he had one of the most advanced artificial intelligence systems known to man (Hal 9000).

4. Battlestar Galactica.

movie "Star Cruiser" Galaxy "
"Battlestar Galactica" from the film of the same name ("Galaxy Star Cruiser") has a design of a real killer and legendary history. He was considered a relic and had to be derived from exploitation, but became the only defender of mankind after Silon's attack on twelve colonies.

5. Bird of Prey

franchise "Star Path"
Bird of Prey ("Painting Bird") was a warship of the Experius of the Klingon in the Star Trek ("Star Trek"). While his firepower varied from the ship to the ship, usually "birds" used photon torpedoes. They were considered the most dangerous due to the fact that they were equipped with a masking device.

6. Normandy SR-2

video Game "Mass Effect 2"
"Normandy SR-2" has a particularly cool exterior design. Being the successor to SR-1, he was built to help the commander Shepard to stop the abduction of people of collectors. The ship is equipped with high-tech weapons and protection products and is constantly being improved throughout the game.

7. USS ENTERPRISE.

franchise "Star Path"
How can I not include in this list "USS Enterprise" ("Star Trek") from the "Star Trek". Of course, many fans of this saga will be interested, which version of the ship is worth choosing. Naturally, it will be a unique NCC-1701 under the sentence of James Kirk himself.

8. Imperial Star Destroyer

franchise "Star Wars"
IMPERIAL STAR DESTROYER was part of a huge fleet of the Empire, which supported control and order in the entire galaxy. Possessing huge sizes and more weapons, he symbolized the dominant power of the empire.

9. Tie Fighter.

franchise "Star Wars"
"Tie Fighter" is one of the coolest and unique ships in the galaxy. Although he has no shields, hyperprivor or even life support systems, its fast engine and maneuverability make it a difficult goal for the enemy.

10. X-Wing

franchise "Star Wars"
Used by some of the best fighter pilots in the galaxy, "Tie Fighter" is a starship, which chose the rebels as weapons in "Star Wars". It was he who played a key role in the battle of Javine and the battle of Endor. The wings of this fighter, armed with four laser guns and proton torpedoes, laid out in the form of the letter "X" when attacking.

11. Milano.

franchise "Guardians of the Galaxy"
In the film "Guardians of the Galaxy" "Milano" was a star ship of the M-Ship class, which was used by the star Lord to find a mysterious ball and sell it in order to get rid of Yonda and his gang. Later he played a key role in the battle of the Ksanderdar. Star Lord called the ship in his childhood friend, Alissa Milano.

12. USCSS NOSTROMO.

franchise "Star Wars"
Space tug "USCSS Nostromo" ("Nostromo"), who led Captain Arthur Dallas explored Derelict, which led to the possible birth of a single xenomorph.

13. Millenium Falcon.

franchise "Star Wars"
The "Millenium Falcon" ("Milestone Hawk") is, without a doubt, the best spacecraft in all science fiction. Its super steep design, worn out appearance, incredible speed, as well as the fact that it is piloted by Khan Solo, distinguishes it from the rest. Lando Calrissian, who lost Hanu Solo ship said: "This is the fastest piece of garbage in the galaxy."

14. Trimaxion Drone

film "Flight of the Navigator"
TRIMAXION DRONE - spacecraft in the movie "Flight of the Navigator". It is piloted by a computer with artificial intelligence and looks like a chrome seashell. The ship's abilities are pretty outstanding, it is able to fly faster speed of light and travel in time.

15. Slave I.

franchise "Star Wars"
"Slave I" ("Slave 1") - a patrol and attacking ship of the Fire-31-31 type, which was used by the famous Bob Fett in "Star Wars". In the film "The Empire puts a return kick" Slave I brought a frozen in Carbonita Khan Solo Jabbe Hatta. Most characteristic feature "Slave I" is its vertical position during the flight and horizontal during the landing.

Bonus

Continuing the story about the story about. It is difficult to believe that this is a reality.

What happened? A lot of things, including the War in Vietnam, Watergate Scandal, etc. But if you look at the root and get rid of everything temporary and insignificant, it turns out that the reason is actually alone: \u200b\u200bmoney.

Sometimes we forget that cosmic travel is a very expensive thing. The elimination of only one pound of anything in an near-earth orbit costs 10,000 dollars. Imagine the statue of John Glenna from pure gold in full size - and you will get some idea of \u200b\u200bthe cost of such projects. The flight to the moon would require about 100,000 dollars per pound of payload. A flight to Mars would cost $ 1 million per pound (approximately the weight of diamonds).

Then, in the 1960s, the price of the price was practically not considered: everything covered the general inspiration and the rise of the cosmic race with Russians. The spectacular achievements of brave astronauts blocked the price of space flights, especially since both sides were ready to support the national honor. But even superpowers are impossible to carry such goods for many decades.

Sad is all! More than 300 years have passed since Sir Isaac Newton first recorded the laws of movement, and we still are in captivity of simple calculations. To throw an object on an near-earth orbit, it must be accelerated to a speed of 7, 9 km / s. To send an object to an interplanetary journey and bring out the field of land, it is necessary to give it speed 11, 2 km / s (and to achieve this magic figure - 11, 2 km / s, we must use the third law of Newton's dynamics: Each action It gives rise to equal countering. This means that the rocket can accelerate, throwing off the hot gases in the opposite direction, about the same way, the ball flies, if you inflate it and let go of the valve.) So calculate the cost of space travel according to Newton's laws is quite simple. There is no law of nature (neither physical, nor engineering), which would forbid us to explore the solar system; The thing is in value.

But this is not enough. The rocket must carry fuel on itself, which significantly increases its load. Airplanes can partly bypass this problem, exciting oxygen from the atmosphere and directing into engines. But there are no air in space, and the rocket must carry with them all its oxygen and hydrogen.

In addition to the fact that this fact makes space travels are very expensive pleasure, it is the main reason that we have no rocket and flying cars. Science fiction writers (but unsecured) love to paint the day when we all put on rocket worshipings and fly to work - or go on a Sunday picnic on a family flying car. People often feel frustrated in futurists, because their predictions never come true. (That is why there are so many articles and books with cynical names like "Where is my missile satisfaction?".) But to understand the reason, it is enough to carry out a simple calculation. Rocket wands exist; Moreover, the Nazis even tried to use them during World War II. But hydrogen peroxide, the usual fuel in such cases, quickly ends, so the middle flight on the rocket wreck lasts only a few minutes. Similarly, flying cars with helicopter screws burn a terrible amount of fuel, which makes them too expensive for an ordinary person.

End of the lunar program

It is the transcendental prices for space travels to ensure that currently the future of the piloted cosmonautics seems so uncertain. George Bush, being president, in 2004 presented a clear, but rather ambitious project of the space program. First, the space shuttle Space Shuttle was supposed to be resigned in 2010, and by 2015 to replace the new rocket system called Constellation ("Constellation"). Secondly, by 2020 it was assumed to return to the moon and over time to establish a constant database on the satellite of our planet. Thirdly, all this had to pave the road to the piloted flight on Mars.

However, even during the extension of the Bush plan, the economy of astronautics has changed significantly, mainly due to the fact that the great recession devastated the wallet of future space travel. In the report of the Commission of the Ogastine, presented in 2009, the President of Barack Obama, it says that at the affordable financing level, the initial program is impossible. In 2010, President Obama carried out the appropriate practical steps, closing both Space Shuttle, and the development of a replacement for space shuttles, which was supposed to prepare the ground to return to the moon. In the near future, NASA, without having its own missiles to send our astronauts into space, will forced to rely on Russians. On the other hand, this situation stimulates the efforts of private companies to create missiles necessary to continue the piloted space program. NASA, refusing to his glorious past, will never build rockets for the manned program. Supporters of Obama's plan say that he means the beginning of a new era of the development of space, where the top will take a private initiative. Critics say that the implementation of this plan will turn NASA in the Agency without a goal.

Landing on asteroid

The report of the Commission of Ogastin was offered the so-called flexible path, which includes several sufficiently modest purposes that do not require an insane rocket fuel consumption: for example, this is a trip to the near asteroid, which will happen to fly past the Earth, or a trip to Mars Mars. The report indicated that the asteroid-goal could be simply absent from our maps: perhaps this is an unknown wandering body to be opened in the near future.

The problem was indicated in the Commission's report, it is that rocket fuel for landing on the moon, and especially for Mars, as well as to take off and return will be overly expensive. But since the gravitational field on the asteroid and satellites of Mars is very weak, the fuel will be required many times less. The report of Ogastine also mentioned the possibility of visiting Lagrange points, i.e., such places in open space, where the gravitational attraction of the Earth and the Moon is mutually compensated. (It is possible that these points serve as a space dump where the whole garbage accumulates from ancient times, collected by the solar system and caught in the neighborhood of the Earth; astronauts could find interesting stones there dated to the formation of the earth-moon system.)

Indeed, landing on the asteroid is an inexpensive task, since asteroids have an extremely weak gravitational field. (This is also the reason that asteroids, as a rule, are not round, but differ in the wrong form. All major objects in the universe - stars, planets and satellites are round, because the strength of grave evenly tightens them to the center. Any irrelevance of the form of the planet Gradually smoothes. But the strength of gravity on the asteroid is so weak that it cannot compress asteroid to the ball.)

One of the possible goals of such a flight is an asteroid of Apophis, which in 2029 must pass threateningly close to Earth. This stone block is about 300 meters in the diameter, the size of a large football field will pass so close to the planet that will leave some of our artificial satellites outside. From the interaction with our planet of the orbit asteroid will change, and if not lucky, in 2036 he can return to Earth again; There is even a tiny chance (1 out of 100,000) that he will fall into the ground upon return. If it really happened, the power of the blow would be 100,000 Hiroshimi bombs; At the same time, fiery men, shock waves and hot fragments could completely empty the territory of France. (For comparison: a much less large object, the size is probably a multi-apartment building, fell in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Siberian River Podremenny Tunguska in 1908 and, exploding with the force of one thousand Hiroshimi bombs, fell 2500 km of 2 forests. The shock wave from this explosion was felt At a distance of several thousand kilometers. In addition, the fall gave rise to an unusual glow of the sky over Asia and Europe, so that in London at night on the street it was possible to read the newspaper.)

The visit to Apophis will not be too hard for the NASA budget, since the asteroid has so and so must fly closely, but the landing may turn out to be a problem. Due to the weak gravitational field of the asteroid, the ship will have to not sit on it in the traditional sense, but rather to dock. In addition, it rotates unevenly, so before planting it will be necessary to make accurate measurements of all parameters. In general, it would be interesting to see how hard asteroid is. Some scientists believe that it may be just a bunch of stones, which keeps together a weak field of gravity; Others consider it hard. One day, the knowledge of the density of asteroids may be vital for humanity; It is possible that someday we will have to crush an asteroid into pieces with the help of nuclear weapons. If a stone block flying in outer space, instead of crumbling in powder, it will split into several large pieces, their fall to earth can even be more dangerous than the entire asteroid drop. Maybe it will be better to push the asteroid slightly change its orbit earlier than he can take care close to the ground.

Landing on satellite Mars

Although the Commission of Oghastine did not recommend a project associated with the piloted flight to Mars, we still have a very interesting opportunity - send astronauts to Mars satellites, Phobos and Dimimos. These satellites are much less than the earth's moon and therefore, as well as asteroids, possess a very weak gravitational field. In addition to the relative cheapness, the visit to Mars satellite has a few more benefits:

1. First, these satellites could be used as temporary space stations. With them, without much costs, analyze the planet, not falling onto its surface.

2. Secondly, someday they can come in handy as an intermediate stage for the expedition to Mars. From Phobos to the center of the Red Planet less than 10,000 km, so that from there you can fly away in just a few hours.

3. Probably, these satellites have caves that could be used to organize a permanent database and to protect it from meteorites and cosmic radiation. On Phobos, in particular, there is a huge crater of stynd; Probably, this is a trace of a huge meteorite strike, almost the sealing satellite. However, gradually the strength of gravity again collected the fragments together and restored the satellite. Perhaps, after that a long collision on Phobos, many caves and cracks remained.

Return to the moon

The report of Augustine speaks about the new expedition to the moon, but only if the financing of space programs will be increased and if at least $ 30 billion will be allocated for the next next years. Since this is quite unlikely, the lunar program, in essence, can be considered closed, at least in the coming years.

The canceled moon program that was called the Constellation name included several main components. First, it is a carrier carrier "ARES V", the first super heavy carrier of the United States after the resignation of Saturn in the early 1970s. Secondly, the heavy rocket "Ares I" and the Orion ship, capable of carrying six astronauts to an near-eraine space station or four to the moon. And finally, the "Altair" landing module, which, in fact, was to fall on the surface of the moon.

The design scheme of the shuttle, where the ship was attached to the side, there were several significant drawbacks, including the trend of the carrier to lose in the process of flying the slices of thermal insulating foam. For the ship "Colombia", it turned around with a catastrophe: he burned down at return to Earth, having taken with him seven brave astronauts, - and all because during the start a piece of foambling, torn away from the external fuel tank, pleased the edge of the wing and struck the hole in it . When entering the atmosphere, the hot gases broke into the "Columbia" housing, killed everyone inside and caused the destruction of the ship. In the CONSTELLATION project, where the inhabited module was supposed to be placed directly on the tip of the rocket, such a problem would not have arisen.

The press dubbed the Constellation project "Apollo program on steroids" - he really reminded the lunar program of the 1970s. The length of the rocket "Ares I" should have been almost 100 m against 112, 5 m at Saturn V. It was assumed that this rocket would take into space a piloted ship "Orion", thus replacing outdated shuttles. To start the Altair module and the fuel supply for flight to the NASA moon, it was assumed to use the "ARES V" missile with a height of 118 m, capable of bringing 188 tons of cargo to the near-earth orbit. The Ares V rocket should be the basis of any flight program to the moon or Mars. (Although the development of "ARES" was discontinued, it would be good to keep from the program at least something for further use; conversations about it go.)

Permanent lunar base

By closing the Constellation program, President Obama left several options open. The Orion ship, who had to re-deliver American astronauts to the Moon and back, began to be considered a rescue tool for the International Space Station. Perhaps in the future, when the economy will recover after the crisis, some other administration will want to return to the lunar program, including the project of creating the lunar base.

Creating a constant inhabited base on the moon will inevitably meet many obstacles. The first of them is micrometeorites. Since there is no air on the moon, the stones from the sky fall onto its surface with free. It is easy to make sure that simply look at the surface of our satellite, completely dotted with long-standing collisions with meteorites; Some of them are billions of years.

Many years ago, when I studied at the University of California in Berkeley, I happened to look at this danger with my own eyes. Brought by astronauts in the early 1970s. Lunar primer produced a real sensation in the scientific world. I was invited to the laboratory, where they were engaged in the analysis of the lunar soil under the microscope. At first I saw a stone - as it seemed to me, a completely ordinary stone (the lunar breeds very much resemble the earthly), but it was worth looking into the microscope ... I was shocked! The whole stone was covered with tiny meteoric craters, inside which were viewed even smaller crater. I have never seen anything like that. I realized that even the smallest dusting, hitting more than 60,000 km / h at a speed of a speed of 60,000 km / h, is easily able to kill - and if not killed, then shift the spacesuit. (Scientists are hidden by micrometeorites, because they can imitate collisions with them. In laboratories, it is special for studying the nature of such collisions there are huge guns capable of shooting with metal balls with huge velocities.)

One of the possible solutions is to build a lunar base under the surface. It is known that in the antiquity of the moon was vulcanically active, and astronauts may be able to find a lava tube that go deep underground. (Lava tubes - traces of the ancient lava flows, discrained in the depths of the cave-like structures and tunnels.) In 2009, astronomers did found a lava tube on the moon in size from a skyscraper that could serve as the basis for the permanent lunar base.

Such a natural cave could provide astronauts cheap protection against cosmic rays and solar flares. Even during the flight from one end of the continent to another (for example, from New York to Los Angeles), we are subject to radiation with a level of approximately one millibar per hour (which is equivalent to X-ray in the dentist). On the Moon, radiation may be so strong that the residential premises of the base will have to be placed deep under the surface. In conditions where there is no atmosphere, the deadly rain from solar flares and cosmic rays will expose astronauts to the direct risk of premature aging and even cancer.

Geeness is also a problem, especially with long terms. In the NASA training center in Cleveland, Ohio, over the astronauts conduct various experiments. Once I saw, like a hung in a horizontal position with a special breakdown, the test ranging along the vertically running track installed. Scientists tried to determine the endurance of the subject in conditions of weightlessness.

Talking with doctors from NASA, I realized that the weightlessness is much less harmless than it seems at first glance. One doctor explained to me that in a few decades, long flights of American astronauts and Russian cosmonauts were clearly shown in the conditions of weightlessness: significant changes in human body occur in the human body, degraded muscle tissues, bones and cardiovascular system. Our body is the result of millions of years of development in the gravitational field of the Earth. In a long time in a weaker gravitational field in biological processes, a failure occurs.

Russian astronauts after about a year in weightlessness return to Earth so weak that it can barely crawl. In space, even with daily muscle workouts atrophy, the bones lose calcium, and the cardiovascular system is weakening. After the flight, some are required for recovery for several months, and some changes may be irreversible. Traveling to Mars can take two years, and astronauts will fly into place so weakened that they will not be able to work. (One of the solutions to this problem is to spin the interplanetary ship, creating an artificial force in it. The mechanism is the same here that when the bucket is rotated on the rope, when the water does not come out of it even in the position upside down. But it is very expensive because for Rotation maintenance will need severe and bulky technique, and each pound of additional weight means an increase in the cost of a project by $ 10,000.)

Water on the moon

One of the recent discoveries can seriously change the conditions of the lunar game: an ancient ice was found on the moon, the remaining, probably from long-standing clashes with comets. In 2009, the Lunar Probe NASA called Lcross and its acceleration unit "Centaur" crashed into the moon in the area of \u200b\u200bher southern pole. The speed of the collision was almost 2500 m / s; As a result, the substance from the surface was thrown into the height of a more kilometer and the crater arose about 20 m in the diameter. TV viewers were probably a bit disappointed that when a collision was not promised to the beautiful explosion, but scientists were satisfied: the clash was very informative. Thus, about 100 liters of water was detected in the substance thrown on the substance. And in 2010, a new shocking statement was called: in the lunar material, water is more than 5% by weight, so on the moon, perhaps, moisture is greater than in some areas of the Sahara.

This discovery may have a huge meaning: it is possible that future astronauts will be able to use the fuel depths of ice for the production of rocket fuel (by extracting hydrogen water), for breathing (by obtaining oxygen), to protect (since water absorbs radiation) and for drinking ( Naturally, in purified form). So this discovery will help reduce several times the cost of any lunar program.

The results obtained may also mean that during construction and in the future, when supplying a base, astronauts will be able to use local resources - water and all sorts of minerals.

Mid a century

(2030-2070)

Flying on Mars

In 2010, President Obama, visiting Florida, not only announced the closure of the Lunar Program, but also supported the flight on Mars and financing an indefinitely heavy carrier, which can ever deliver astronauts to far space, beyond the lunar orbit. He hinted that he hoped to wait for the day - perhaps somewhere in the mid-2030s, - when American astronauts stepped on the surface of Mars. Some astronauts like Basz Oldrin, hotly supported Obama's plan, and precisely because the moon was suggested to skip. Oldrin somehow told me that, since the Americans were already on the moon, now there will be a real achievement to fly on Mars.

Of all the planets of the solar system, only Mars seem to be quite similar to Earth, there could be some form of life there. (Mercury, burning by the Sun, probably too hostility so that there could be a life on it, what we know it. Gas giants - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - too cold to keep life. Venus - in many ways the double of the Earth, but Framed The greenhouse effect made the conditions there simply hellish: the temperature reaches +500 ° C, consisting mainly of carbon dioxide atmosphere 100 times more denser the earth, and sulfuric acid pours rain from the sky. Having tried to stroll through the Venusian surface, you will fall back and will be crushed to death, and Your remains will deliver and dissolve in sulfuric acid.)

Mars, on the other hand, once was a rather wet planet. There, as on Earth, there were oceans and rivers that have long disappeared. Today it is a freezing lifeless desert. It is possible, however, that once - billions of years ago - the microzhizn flourished on Mars; It is not excluded even that and now somewhere in hot springs live bacteria.

After the United States firmly decides to carry out the piloted expedition to Mars, it will take another 20-30 years. But it should not be noted that it will be more difficult to get to Mars to Mars than before the Moon. Mars compared to the moon is a high-quality leap of complexity. You can fly to the moon for three days - to Mars will have to get from six months to a year.

In July 2009, NASA scientists attributed how the real Martian expedition could look like. About six months, astronauts will fly to Mars, then spend 18 months on the red planet, then take another six months to return.

A total of 700 tons of equipment will have to send to Mars - this is more than an international space station at a cost of 100 billion dollars. In order to save on food and water, during travel and work on Mars Astronauts will have to clean their own livestock products and use them for fertilizer plants. On Mars there is no oxygen, no soil, no water, no animals, no plants, so everyone will have to carry from the ground. Local resources will not be able to use. Mars's atmosphere almost entirely consists of carbon dioxide, and the atmospheric pressure is only 1% of the earth. Any trigger in the scaffle will mean a rapid pressure drop and death.

The expedition will be so difficult that it will have to be broken into several stages. Since it would be too expensive to carry fuel to the opposite way from the ground, it would be possible that Mars will have to send a separate rocket with fuel to refuel the interplanetary apparatus. (Or, if from martian ice Can be removed enough oxygen and hydrogen, it will be possible to use them as rocket fuel.)

Reaching Mars, astronauts, probably have to adapt to life for a different planet for several weeks. The cycle of the day and night there is about the same as on Earth (Martian days a little longer and make up 24, 6 hours), but the year on Mars is twice as long as the earth. The temperature almost never rises above the freezing point. There are brutal dust storms there. Sands on Mars Small, like Talc, and dust storms often cover the entire planet.

Terraform Mars?

Suppose that by the middle of the century, astronauts visit Mars and organize a primitive base there. But this is not enough. Generally speaking, humanity will certainly seriously consider the project of terraverting Mars - turning it into a more pleasant planet. Works on this project will begin at best at the very end of the XXI century, rather even at the beginning of the next.

Already, scientists have time to consider several ways to make Mars a more hospitable place. Probably the simplest of them is to add methane or other greenhouse gas to the atmosphere of the Red Planet. Methane is more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, so the methane atmosphere will hold the sunlight and gradually heat the surface of the planet. The temperature will rise above the freezing point. In addition to methane, other greenhouse gases, such as Ammonia and Freon, are also considered as options.

As soon as the temperature goes upwards, it will begin - for the first time in billions of years - to melt the eternal Merzlot, thanks to which the river beds will be filled with water again. Over time, when the atmosphere becomes more dense, lakes and even oceans can again form on Mars. As a result, even more carbon dioxide will be released - positive feedback will emerge.

In 2009, it was found that methane is distinguished from the surface of Mars. The source of this gas is still a mystery. On Earth, methane arises mainly when rotting organic materials, but on Mars he can be a by-product of some geological processes. If scientists manage to establish a source of this gas, then maybe it will be possible to increase its output, and therefore change the atmosphere of the planet.

Another opportunity is to send Mars Comet to the atmosphere. If it is possible to intercept the comet rather far from the Sun, even a small effect - push with a special rocket engine, collisions under the desired angle with a spacecraft or even just gravitational attraction of this device - it may be enough to change the orbit of a space scholatser. Comets consist mainly of water, and in the solar system there are quite a few. (For example, the core of the galeu comet in shape resembles a peanut nut about 30 km in the diameter and consists mainly of ice and stone.) As you approach Marsa, the comet will begin to experience friction about the atmosphere and slowly collapse, released water in the form of steam into the atmosphere of the planet .

If there is no suitable comet, it will be possible to use one of the Jupiter's Ice Lones instead or, say, containing an ice asteroid, such as Ceres (scientists believe that it consists of 20% of water). Of course, the moon or asteroid will be harder to send in the direction we need, because, as a rule, such celestial bodies are in stable orbits. And then two options: it will be possible to leave the led comet, the moon or an asteroid in the orbit of Mars and allow it to slowly collapse, releaseing water vapor into the atmosphere, or to engage this celestial body to one of the polar caps of Mars. The polar areas of the Red Planet are frozen carbon dioxide, disappearing in the summer months, and the ice that makes up the basis and never melting. If the comet, the moon or the asteroid falls on the ice cap, the enormous amount of energy and dry ice will evaporate. Greenhouse gas will fall into the atmosphere and speeds up the global warming process on Mars. In this embodiment, a positive feedback may also occur. The larger the carbon dioxide is released from the planet's indoor regions, the higher the temperature rises and, therefore, it will be released even more carbon dioxide.

Another proposal is to blow up several nuclear bombs on polar ice hats. The lack of such a method is obvious: it is possible that the released water will be radioactive. Or you can try to build a thermonuclear reactor there, which will melt the ice of the supremor regions.

The main fuel for the thermonuclear reactor is water, and frozen water on Mars is sufficient.

When the temperature rises above the freezing point, small reservoirs are formed on the surface, which can be populated with some forms of algae, which perfectly feel on the ground in the Antarctic. The atmosphere of Mars, 95% consisting of carbon dioxide, they will probably like it. You can also genetically modify algae to ensure the most rapid growth. Ponds with algae will speed up terravertation in several respects. First, algae will turn carbon dioxide into oxygen. Secondly, they change the color of the surface of Mars and, accordingly, its reflectivity. A darker surface will absorb more solar radiation. Thirdly, since we will grow algae by themselves, without any assistance, such a way to change the situation on the planet will be relatively cheap. Fourth, algae can be used in food. Over time, such lakes with algae will create a soil layer and nutrients; This will be able to take advantage of plants that will further accelerate the production of oxygen.

Scientists also consider the opportunity to surround Mars satellites, which will collect sunlight and direct it to the surface of the planet. It is possible that such satellites even themselves will be able to raise the temperature on the surface of Mars to the freezing point and above. As soon as this happens and melting eternal MerzlotaThen the planet will warm up itself, naturally.

Economic benefit?

Do not feed the illusions and think that the colonization of the Moon and Mars will immediately bring humanity uncountable economic benefits. When Columbus in 1492 sailed to a new light, thereby opened access to the treasures unprecedented in history. Very soon, the conquistadors began to send gold from newly open places to their homeland, looted from local Indians, in huge quantities, and settlers are valuable raw materials and agricultural products. The costs of the expedition to the new light more than paid off with reasonable treasures that could be found there.

But the colonies on the moon and Mars - the matter is different. There is no air, liquid water or fertile soil, so that everything you need will have to deliver missiles from the ground, and this is incredibly expensive. Moreover, in the colonization of the moon, at least in the near future, there is no special military meaning. To get from the ground to the moon or back, it takes an average of three days, and the nuclear war can begin and end only an hour and a half - from the moment the first intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched to the last explosions. Space Cavalry from the Moon simply will not have time to accept any real participation in events on Earth. As a result, the Pentagon does not finance any major militarization programs for the Moon.

This means that any large-scale operations on the development of other worlds will be aimed at the good of non-land, but new space colonies. The colonists will have to produce metals and other minerals for their own needs, because to carry them from the Earth (and to Earth too) is too expensive. Mining minerals in the belt of asteroids will be economically beneficial only in the presence of self-sufficient colonies that can use the mined materials themselves, and this will happen at best at the very end of this century or, more likely later.

Space tourism

But when ordinary civilian can fly into space? Some scientists, such as the late Gerard O'Neill (Gerard O'Neill) from Princeton University, dreamed of a space colony in the form of a giant wheel, where residential compartments will be sprinkled, water purification factories, compartments for air regeneration, etc. Stations - in solving the problem of overpopulation. However, in the XXI century, the idea that cosmic colonies can solve or at least alleviate this problem will still remain fantasy. For most of the representatives of mankind, the Earth will be the only home for another at least 100-200 years.

However, there is still a way with which an ordinary person can actually fly into space: as a tourist. Entrepreneurs who criticize NASA for terrible inefficiency and bureaucracy and are ready to invest in space techniques themselves, considering the market mechanisms to help private investors to reduce space travel. Bert Rutan (Burt Rutan) and his investors have already won on October 4, 2004. The Ansari X Prize prize of $ 10 million, having launched its Spaceshipone twice for two weeks to a height of a little more than 100 km above the ground surface. Spaceshipone is the first rocket ship that has successfully committed a journey into space for private money. His development cost about $ 25 million. The guarantor upon receipt of loans made a billionaire from Microsoft Paul Allen (Paul Allen).

Currently, SpaceShiptwo spacecraft is almost ready. Routin believes that very soon it will be possible to start testing, after which the commercial spacecraft will become a reality. Billionaire Richard Branson from Virgin Atlantic has created a company Virgin Galactic with a cosmodrome in New Mexico and a long list of people who are ready to spend $ 200,000 for a long-standing dream of a flight into space. Virgin Galactic, which will probably be the first major company offering commercial flights to space, has already ordered five SpaceShiptwo ships. If everything goes, as planned, the cost of space travel will fall once at ten.

Spaceshiptwo used several ways to save. Instead of using enormous carrier rockets, designed to throw off the useful load into space directly from the Earth, the robe places its spacecraft by the plane and accelerates with the help of ordinary atmospheric jet engines. At the same time, oxygen is used within the atmosphere. Then at an altitude of about 16 km above the ground, the ship is separated from the aircraft and includes its own jet engines. The ship cannot go to the near-earth orbit, but the stock of the fuel is enough to rise to 100 more kilometers above the ground surface - where there is almost no atmosphere and where the passengers can see how the sky gradually becomes black. The engines are capable of overclocking the ship to the speed corresponding to M \u003d 3, i.e. to three-time sound speed (about 3500 km / h). This, of course, is not enough to bring it into orbit (here, as already mentioned, the speed of at least 28,500 km / h is needed, which corresponds to 7, 9 km / s), but for the delivery of passengers to the edge of the earth's atmosphere and open space . It is possible that in the near future, a tourist flight in space will cost no more than safaris in Africa.

(However, to fly around the Earth, you will have to pay much more and make a flight on board the space station. I once asked a billionaire from Microsoft Charles Simonyus, how much did a ticket for the ISS. The number 20 million dollars flashed in posts. He answered, What would not like to call an exact amount, but that newspaper reports are wrong not much. He liked the way in space, which he flew to the station again. So the cosmic tourism, even in the near future, will remain a privilege of people very wealthy.)

In September 2010, space tourism received an additional stimulus in the face of Boeing Corporation, which announced his exit to this market and planned the first flights for cosmic tourists for 2015. It would be quite consistent with the plans for President Obama to transfer the piloted astronautically into private hands. The Boeing plan provides for launches to the international space station from a cosmodrome at Cape Canaveral Capsules with four crew members and three free seats for space tourists. However, Boeing quite directly spoke on financing private space projects: most of the money will have to pay taxpayers. "This is an unreliable market," says John Elbon (John Elbon), head of the commercial space launch program. "If we had to count on Boeing only at all available risk factors, we would not have managed to successfully complete the case."

Dark horses

The extremely high cost of space travel is constrained by commercial, and scientific progress, so humanity is currently needing a completely new, revolutionary technology. By the middle of the century, scientists and engineers must bring to mind new carrier missiles to reduce the cost of launches.

Physicist Freeman Dyson allocated several technologies among many offers, which currently pass the stage of the experiment, but someday may make space accessible even for an ordinary person. None of these proposals guarantees success, but in case of good luck, the cost of cargo delivery will fall sharply. The first of these proposals is the laser reactive traction systems: a powerful laser beam from an external source (for example, from the Earth) is sent to the base of the rocket, where the mini-explosion causes the shock wave of which leads a rocket in motion. The stable stream of laser pulses evaporates water, and the resulting couple pushes a rocket into space. The main advantage of the laser reactive engine is that the energy for it comes from the external source - from a stationary laser. Laser rocket is essentially not fuel. (In contrast to this, chemical missiles considerable part of the energy spend on the rise and transportation of fuel for their own engines.)

The technology of laser reactive movement has already been demonstrated in the laboratory, where in 1997 successful tests of the model was held. Lake Mirabo (Leik Mirabo) From the Rensseller Polytechnic Institute in New York, created a working prototype of a similar rocket and called him a demonstrator of the technology of the light engineering. One of the first of his flying models weighed 50 grams and was a "plate" with a diameter of about 15 cm. A 10 kW laser generated a series of laser explosions at the base of the rocket; Air shock waves accelerated it with an acceleration of 2 g (that twice the acceleration free fall On earth and amounts to about 19, 6 m / s 2) and sounds that resemble automatic queues. Lights Mirabo climbed into the air by more than 30 m (which roughly corresponds to the first liquid missiles Robert Goddard in the 1930s.).

Dyson dreams of the day when the laser reactive traction systems will be able to bring heavy loads into orbit for the price of only five dollars per pound, which would certainly be a real revolution in the space industry. It imagines a giant 1000-megawatny (which corresponds to the power of a standard atomic power unit) a laser capable of pouring a two-ton rocket into orbit, consisting of useful cargo and water tank at the base. Water slowly seeps through tiny pores in the bottom wall of the tank. And useful cargo, and the tank weigh on a ton. When the laser beam falls on the bottom of the rocket, water instantly evaporates, giving rise to a series of shock waves that pushed the rocket into space. The rocket achieves acceleration 3 g and after six minutes it goes to the near-earth orbit.

Since the fuel rocket itself does not bother, there is no danger of a catastrophic explosion of the carrier. For chemical missiles, even today, 50 years after the first satellite, the probability of failure is about 1%. And these failures, as a rule, look very impressive - oxygen and hydrogen exploded with giant fiery balls, and rain wreckage rolls on starting site. The laser system, on the contrary, is simple, safe and can be used more than once with very small intervals; We need only water and laser for her work.

Moreover, over time, this system will pay off. If it is used to run by half a million spacecraft per year, the launch fee will easily block and operating costs, and the cost of development and construction. Dyson, however, understands that before the realization of this dream, there must be more than one decade. The fundamental studies in the field of powerful lasers will require much more money than to allocate any university. If the development financing does not take on the government or some large corporation, the laser reactive traction systems will never be built.

Here it could be very by the way the Prize Foundations Prize. I once talked with Peter Diamandis, founded him in 1996, and made sure that he was perfectly recognized by the limited chemical missiles. Even with SpaceshiptWo, he admitted to me, we faced the fact that chemical rockets are a very expensive way to escape from the action of the earth. As a result, the next X Prize Award will get someone who can create a rocket, movable energy beam. (But instead of a laser beam, it is supposed to use another, similar to a laser bundle of electromagnetic energy - microwave beam.)

The hype around the award and the Multimillion Award itself may be sufficient bait for inciting interest in the problem of non-chemical missiles, such as microwave rocket, among entrepreneurs and inventors.

There are other experimental rocket structures, but their development is associated with other risks. One of the options is a gas gun, which fractures some shells from a huge trunk, is something like a projectile in the Roman Zhul Verne "From Earth to the Moon". The projectile is true, however, would not reach the moon, because the gunpowder is not able to disperse it up to the speed of 11 km / s, necessary to exit the land of attraction. In the gas cannon, instead of the shell, the shells will be pushed with a huge speed, compressed under high pressure in a long tube. The deceased Abraham Herzberg (Abraham Hertzberg) from the University of Washington in Seattle built a prototype of such a gun with a diameter of about 10 cm and a length of about 10 m. The gas inside the gun is a mixture of methane and air, compressed to 25 atmospheres. Gas is ignited, and the shell accelerates in the barrel with an acceleration of 30,000 g, in which most metal objects are flattened.

Herzberg proved that the gas cannon can work. But in order to throw a shell into space, her barrel should be much longer, about 230 m; In addition, different gases should work along the acceleration trajectory in the trunk. In order for the useful cargo to score the first space speed, in the trunk it is necessary to organize five sections with different working gases.

The cost of starting from the gas cannon may be even lower than using the laser system. However, it is too dangerous to run into space in such a way: only the solid cargo is able to withstand intensive acceleration in the trunk.

The third experimental design is "Slinagatron", which, like the purest, should spin the cargo, and then throw it into the air.

The prototype of this device was built by Derek Tidman (Derek Tidman); Its desktop model is capable of promoting the object in a few seconds and throw it at a speed of up to 100 m / s. The prototype of Slongatron is a tube in the form of a bagel with a diameter of about a meter. The tube itself has a diameter of about 2, 5 cm and contains a small steel ball. The ball rides on the ring tube, and small motors pushing it and make accelerate.

A real Slingatron, whose task will be challenged in an near-earth orbit, should be significantly larger in size - a diameter of about a hundred kilometers; In addition, it must pump energy into the ball until he is well reversed to 11, 2 km / s. The ball will fly out from a slligatron with an acceleration of 1000 g, which is also very much. Not every cargo can withstand such acceleration. Before the real SlingTron will be built, many technical problems have to be solved, the most important of which is to minimize friction between the ball and the tube.

At the end of each of the three named projects, even at the best case will leave not one dozen years, and then only if financing takes on the government or private business. Otherwise, these prototypes will forever remain on the tables of their inventors.

Distant future

(2070-2100)

Space Elevator

It is possible that by the end of the current century, the development of nanotechnology will make it possible even the famous space elevator. A man, like a Jack on a bean stem, will be able to climb it to the clouds and higher. We will enter the elevator, press the "Up" button and climb the fiber representing a carbon nanotube of a thousand kilometers long. It is clear that such a novelty could turn the economy of space travel and put everything from the legs.

In 1895, the Russian physicist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, inspired by the construction of the Eiffel Tower, is the highest of the world at that time in the world, asked himself a simple question: why can not build such a tower to the cosmos height? If it is high enough, he counted, she, according to the laws of physics, never falls. He called this design by the Heavenly Palace.

Imagine a ball. If you start twist it on the rope, then the centrifugal force will be enough to keep the ball from the fall. In the same way, if the cable is long enough, the centrifugal force will hold the cargo, fixed at its end, from falling to the ground. Earth rotation will be enough to keep the cable in the sky. As soon as the cosmic elevator cope turns into heaven, any vehicle capable of moving along it will be able to calmly go into space.

On paper, such a focus seems to work. But, unfortunately, if you try to apply Newton's laws and calculate the cable tension on them, it turns out that this tension exceeds the strength of steel: any cable simply breaks up, which makes the space elevator impossible.

For many years and even decades, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe space elevator was forgotten, it was again discussed to once again be rejected for the same reason. In 1957, the Russian scientist Yuri Artsutanov proposed his own version of the project, according to which the elevator was ordered not from the bottom up, but on the contrary, from top to bottom. It was proposed to send a spacecraft into orbit, which then shut from there a cable; On earth it will only be consolidated. Fisty lovers also put her hand to popularize this project. Arthur Clark brought the space elevator in his 1979 novel, "Fountains of Paradise", and Robert Sainline - in the 1982 Roman "Frida".

Carbon nanotubes revived this idea again. As we have already seen, they have the greatest strength of all known materials. They became stronger than steel, and the durability of nanotubes could be withstanding the loads arising in the design of the space elevator.

The problem, however, is to create a cable from pure carbon nanotubes with a length of 80,000 km. This is an incredibly difficult task, because still scientists managed to get in the laboratory only a few centimeters of pure carbon nanotubes. You can, of course, to press together billions of nanofolokon together, but these fibers will not be solid. The task is to create a long nanotube in which each carbon atom will be strictly in its place.

In 2009, scientists from the University of Rice announced an important discovery: the resulting fibers are not clean, but composite, but they developed a sufficiently flexible technology that allows you to create carbon nanotubes of any length. The methods of trial and error researchers found that carbon nanotubes can be dissolved in chlorosulfonic acid, and then squeeze out of the nose, as from the syringe. In this method, you can make fiber from carbon nanotubes of any length, and its thickness is 50 microns.

One of the commercial uses of fibers from carbon nanotubes - power lines, because nanotubes are better than copper carrying electricity, they are easier and stronger. Professor of engineering disciplines from the University of Rice Matteo Pasquali (Matteo Pasquali) says: "For power lines such fiber, tons are required, and there is no way to make it yet. You need to come up with one miracle. "

Although the resulting fibers are not sufficiently clean and are not suitable for the cosmic elevator, these studies suggest that someday we will learn to grow clean carbon nanotubes, strong enough to raise us into heaven.

But even if we assume that the problem of production of long nanotubes will be solved, other practical problems will fall before scientists. For example, a cosmic elevator cable will have to rise much higher orbits of most satellites. This means that the orbit of some satellite will ever certainly cross the satellite elevator and cause an accident. Since low satellites fly at a speed of 7-8 km / s, the collision may be catastrophic. It follows from this that the elevator will have to be equipped with special rocket engines that will move the elevator cable from the path of flying satellites and space fragments.

Another problem is the weather, i.e. hurricanes, thunderstorms and strong winds. The space elevator must be fixed on the ground, maybe on the aircraft carrier or oil platform in the Pacific Ocean, but not to suffer from the female elements, it should be flexible.

In addition, the cockpit should be an alarming button and a rescue capsule in case of a cliff of the cable. If something happens with the cable, the elevator cabin should plan or fall on the parachute to the ground to save passengers.

To speed up the start of research in the field of space elevators, NASA has announced several contests. On the races of space elevators under the auspices of NASA, prizes are played for a total amount of $ 2 million. According to the rules to win the elevator competition, working at the expense of energy transferred over the ray, should be built a device with a mass of no more than 50 kg, capable of climbing the cable to a height of 1 km at a speed of 2 m / s. The difficulty is that this device should not have fuel, batteries or electrical cable. Energy for its movement should be transmitted from the ground by the beam.

I saw the enthusiasm and energy of engineers who work on the satellite elevator and dream of winning the prize. I even flew to Seattle to meet with young enterprising group engineers called LaserMotive. Hearing the Siren song - the call of NASA, they took up the development of the prototypes of the device, which, quite possibly, will become the heart of the cosmic elevator.

I entered the big hangar leased with young people for testing. At one end of the hangar, I saw a large laser capable of radiating a powerful energy beam. The other was the Space Elevator itself. It was a box about a meter width with a large mirror. The mirror reflected a laser beam onto it for a whole battery of solar cells that turned its energy into electricity. Electricity came to the engine, and the elevator cabin slowly crawled up the short cable. With such a device, the cabin with an electric motor does not need to drag the electrical cable behind them. It is enough to send a laser beam from the ground to it, and the elevator will crawl into a cable.

The laser in the hangar was so powerful that people during his work had to defend their eyes with special glasses. After a variety of attempts, young people finally managed to force his car crawling up. One aspect of the problem of the cosmic elevator was resolved at least in theory.

Initially, the task was so difficult that none of the participants managed to fulfill it and conquer the promised prize. However, in 2009, LaserMotive received the prize. The competition took place at Edwards Air Base in the California Mojave Desert. The helicopter with a long cable hung over the desert, and the participants' devices tried to rise on this cable. LaserMotive team elevator managed to do it four times in two days; The best time shown was 228 seconds. So the works of young engineers who I observed in that hangar were brought fruit.

Starship

By the end of this century on Mars and, perhaps, somewhere in the belt of asteroids, most likely will appear scientific stationsDespite even the current crisis of financing manned cosmonautics. The next in the queue will be the real star. Today, the interstellar probe would be a completely hopeless idea, but after a hundred years the situation may change.

In order for the idea of \u200b\u200binterstellar travel to become a reality, several fundamental tasks must be solved. The first of them is to search for a new principle of movement. A traditional chemical rocket on the path to the nearest star would require about 70,000 years. For example, two Voyager, launched in 1977, put a record for removal at the maximum distance from the Earth. Currently (May 2011) The first one of them was removed from the Sun to 17, 5 billion km, but the distance passed by him is only a tiny share of the path to the stars.

Several designs and principles of movement for interstellar devices are proposed. It:

Sunny sail;

Nuclear rocket;

Rocket with direct-flowing thermonuclear engine;

Nanoclibes.

Bulking at NASA Station Plam Brooke in Cleveland, Ohio, I met with one of the dreamers and hot supporters of the idea of \u200b\u200bSunny Sails. This polygon built the world's largest vacuum chamber for testing satellites. The dimensions of this chamber are affected by imagination; This is a real cave about 30 meters in the diameter and 38 m in the height, in which several multi-storey residential buildings would easily place. It is also great enough to test satellites and parts of rockets in space vacuum. The scale of the project is striking. I felt that I was given a special honor: I was in the very place where many of the most important American satellites, interplanetary probes and rockets were experiencing.

So, I met with one of the leading supporters of the sunny sail, scientist from NASA Forest Johnson (Les Johnson). He told me that since childhood, reading fiction, dreamed of building rockets capable of flying to stars. Johnson even wrote a basic course on the device of solar sails. He believes that this principle can be implemented in the next few decades, but is ready for the real starship to be built, most likely, many years after his death. Like masonry, which built the Great Medieval Cathedrals, Johnson realizes that several human lives may be required to create a flight for flights to stars.

The principle of operation of the solar sail is based on the fact that the light is although it does not have a mass of rest, but has a pulse, which means that there may be pressure. The pressure that sunlight has on all metables, extremely few, we simply do not feel it, but if the sunny sail is great enough and we will be ready to wait long enough, then this pressure will be able to dispersed the interstellar ship (in space the intensity of sunlight on average Eight times higher than on Earth).

Johnson told me that his goal is to create a giant solar sail from very thin, but elastic and elastic plastic. This sail should be a few kilometers in the diameter, and it is assumed to build it in open space. Being collected, he will slowly contact the sun, gaining gradually increasing speed. For a few years of overclocking, the sail will be released on the spiral outside the solar system and rush to the stars. In general, the sunny sail, as Johnson told me, is able to disperse the interstellar probe to 0, 1% of the light speed; Accordingly, it will take the nearest star at such conditions for 400 years.

Johnson is trying to come up with something, which would allow to give the sunny sail to additional acceleration and reduce the flight time. One of the possible ways is to accommodate powerful lasers on the moon. Laser rays, falling on the sail, will transmit additional energy to it and, accordingly, additional speed during flight to the stars.

One of the problems of the starship under the solar sail is that it is extremely difficult for them, and it is almost impossible to stop and send in the opposite side, because the sun's light applies only to one side - from the Sun. One of the solutions of this problem is to deploy a sail and use to slow down the light from the star-goal. Another opportunity is to make a gravitational maneuver near this distant star and, using the effect of the parties, accelerate for the return journey. The third option is to sit on some moon of that star system, to build a battery of lasers on it and put on the way back, using the starlight and laser rays.

Johnson dreams of stars, but understands that reality at the moment looks much more modest of his dreams. In 1993, the Russians unfolded on the ship reflected from the Mir station, a 25-reflector from Lavsana, but the purpose of the experiment was only a demonstration of the deployment system. The second attempt ended in failure. In 2004, the Japanese successfully launched two prototypes of solar sails, but again, the goal was to test the deployment system, not movement. In 2005, an ambitious attempt was made to deploy a real Sunny sail called Cosmos 1, organized by the Planetary Society, the Public Organization Cosmos Studios and the Russian Academy of Sciences. The sail was launched from the Russian submarine, but the launch of the Rocket "Wave" was unsuccessful, and to the orbit, the solar sail did not get.

And in 2008, when a team from NASA tried to launch the Nanosail-D sunny sail, the same story happened to Falcon 1 rocket.

Finally, in May 2010, the Japanese Aerospace Research Agency successfully launched Ikaros - the first spacecraft, which should use solar sail technology in the interplanetary space. The device was removed on the flight trajectory to Venus, successfully unfolded a square sail with a diagonal of 20 m and demonstrated the ability to control it orientation and change the flight speed. In the future, the Japanese plan to launch another interplanetary probe with a sun sailing to Jupiter.

Nuclear rocket

Scientists also consider the possibility of using nuclear energy for interstellar flights. Back in 1953, the US Atomic Energy Commission began serious development of rockets with atomic reactors, which began to be found by the ROVER project. In the 1950s and 1960s. Experiments with nuclear missiles ended mostly unsuccessful. Nuclear engines behaved unstable and generally turned out to be too complex for the then management systems. In addition, it is easy to show that the energy yield of an ordinary atomic fission reactor is completely insufficient for the interstellar spacecraft. Middle industrial nuclear reactor It produces approximately 1000 MW of energy, and this is not enough to get to the stars.

However, in the 1950s. Scientists offered to use atomic and hydrogen bombs for interstellar devices, and not reactors. In the project "Orion", for example, it was supposed to accelerate the rocket with explosive waves from atomic bombs. The starship was to dump behind himself a series of atomic bombs, whose explosions would be spent powerful flashes X-ray radiation. The shock wave from these explosions should have accessed an assault.

In 1959, physicists from General Atomics were assessed that the advanced version of "Orion" with a diameter of 400 m should weigh 8 million tons, and the energy should provide 1000 hydrogen bombs.

The hot supporter of the project "Orion" was a physicist Freimen Dyson. "For me," Orion "meant the availability of the entire solar system to spread life. He could change the course of history, "says Dyson. In addition, it would be a convenient way to get rid of atomic bombs. "We would get rid of 2000 bombs in one flight."

The end of the project "Orion", however, became a contract for the restriction of nuclear tests in 1963, which prohibited ground explosions. Without testing it was impossible to bring the design of "Orion" to mind and the project was closed.

Stitching thermonuclear engine

Another nuclear missile project nominated Robert W. Bussard in 1960; He proposed to supply a rocket with a thermonuclear engine, similar to an ordinary aviation jet engine. In general, the forwarding engine captures the air along the flight and already inside mixes it with fuel. The fuel-air mixture is then set on fire, and a chemical explosion occurs, which creates a driving force. Boussard proposed to apply the same principle to the thermonuclear engine. Instead of picking air from the atmosphere, as the aviation engine makes, the direct-flowing thermonuclear engine will collect hydrogen in the interstellar space in the interstellar space. The assembled gas is assumed to be squeezed and heated using electrical and magnetic fields prior to the start of the thermalide reaction of the helium synthesis, at which a huge amount of energy is distinguished. An explosion will arise, and the rocket will get a push. And since the reserves of hydrogen in the interstellar space are inexhaustible, the direct-flow nuclear engine will be able, presumably, to work forever.

The design of the ship with a direct-flowing thermonuclear engine resembles a horn for ice cream. The funnel captures hydrogen gas, which then enters the engine, heats up and reacts the synthesis with other hydrogen atoms. Boussard calculated that the direct-flow nuclear engine weighing about 1000 T is capable of maintaining a constant acceleration of about 10 m / s 2 (i.e., approximately equal to the acceleration of free fall on Earth); In this case, after a year, the stellate will turn away about 77% of the speed of light. Since the direct-flow nuclear engine is not limited to fuel reserves, the starship with such a motor could theoretically go beyond our galaxy and in just 23 years for the ship's hour to get to the nebula of Andromeda, located at a distance of 2 million light years from us. (According to the theory of Einstein's relativity, the time at the accelerating ship slows down, so astronauts in a star pilot will be aged for only 23 years, even if millions of years will be held on Earth.)

However, there are serious problems here. First, in the interstellar medium, there are mainly individual protons, so the thermonuclear engine will have to burn pure hydrogen, although this reaction does not give much energy. (Hydrogen synthesis can go different ways. Currently, scientists prefer an option to influence deuterium and tritium, in which much more energy is distinguished. However, in the interstellar medium, hydrogen is in the form of separate protons, therefore, only proton proton-proton can be used in the direct-flow nuclear engines. The reaction of the synthesis at which the energies are highlighted much less than with a deuterium-tritium reaction.) However, Bussard showed that if you modify the fuel mixture by adding a certain amount of carbon, then carbon, working as a catalyst, will allow to obtain a huge amount of energy, quite sufficient for the stellar ship. .

Secondly, the funnel ahead of the starship to collect enough hydrogen, should be a huge - diameter of about 160 km, so it will have to assemble it in space.

There is another unresolved problem. In 1985, Engineers Robert Zubrin (Robert Zubrin) and Dina Andrews showed that the resistance of the environment would not give an estate with the direct-flowing thermonuclear engine to accelerate to the near-light velocity. The resistance is due to the movement of the ship and the funnel in the field of hydrogen atoms. However, their calculations are based on some assumptions that in the future may be inapplicable to ships with direct-flow engines.

Currently, while we do not have clear ideas about the process of proton-proton synthesis (as well as the resistance of hydrogen ions in the interstellar medium), the prospects for the direct-flow nuclear engine remain uncertain. But if these engineering problems are solved, such a design will probably turn out to be one of the best.

Rockets on antimatter

Another option is to use antimatter for a starship, the greatest source of energy in the universe. The antimatter is opposite to the substance in the sense that all components of the atom parts have opposite charges. For example, an electron has a negative charge, but the antiolectron (positron) has a positive charge. When contacting with a substance, antimatter is annihile. The energies are distinguished so much that the teaspoon of antimatter would be enough to destroy the whole New York.

AntiTuracy is so powerful that the villains in the novel of Dan Brown "Angels and Demons" build a bomb from it and are going to blow up the Vatican; The antimatter in the plot they steal in the largest European center of CERN nuclear research, located in Switzerland near Geneva. Unlike the hydrogen bomb, the effectiveness of which is only 1%, the effectiveness of the bomb from the antimatter would be 100%. With annihilation of the substance and antimatter, the energy is allocated in full compliance with the Einstein equation: E \u003d MC 2.

In principle, the antimatter is the perfect rocket fuel. According to GERALD SMITH) from the University of Pennsylvania, 4 mg of antimatterity would be enough to fly to Mars, and a hundred grams would bring the ship to the nearest stars. With annihilation of antimatter, it is highlighted in a billion times more energy than can be obtained from the same amount of modern rocket fuel. The engine on the antimatter would look quite simple. You can simply inject the particles of antimatter, one after another, in a special rocket chamber. There they are annihilated with a conventional substance, causing a titanic explosion. Heated gases are then thrown away from one end of the chamber, creating reactive traction.

We are still very far from the incarnation of this dream. Scientists have managed to obtain anti-electrons and antiprotons, as well as antodorod atoms, in which the antiolectron circulates around the antiproton. This was done in CERN, and in the Fermi national accelerator laboratory (which is more often called Fermillab) not far from Chicago on Tevatron, the second largest particle accelerator in the world (larger than it is only a big hadron collider in CERN). In both laboratories, physics sent a stream of high-energy particles to the target and received the flow of fragments, among which were antiprotons. With the help of powerful magnets, antimatter separated from a conventional substance. Then the resulting antiprotons slowed down and allowed them to mix with anti-electrons, resulting in antodorod atoms.

Dave McGinnis, one of the physicists of Fermilab, for a very long time and thought a lot about the practical use of antimatter. We stood with him next to Tevatron, and Dave explained to me the discouraging economy of antimatter. The only known way to get any significant number of antimatter, he said, is to take advantage of a powerful collider like Tevatron; But these machines are extremely roads and allow to receive anti-measure only in very small quantities. For example, in 2004, the collider in CERN issued some trillion shares of the gram of antimatter, and this pleasure was paid by a scientist at $ 20 million. At such a price, the global economy will go bankrupt before it is possible to get enough antimatter to one star expedition. By themselves, the engines on the antimatistry, McGinnis stressed, do not represent anything particularly difficult and certainly do not contradict the laws of nature. But the cost of such a motor will not really build it in the near future.

One of the reasons for such a mad high cost of antimatter is huge amounts that you have to lay out on the construction of accelerators and colliders. However, accelerators themselves are universal and used mainly for the production of antimatter, but to obtain all exotic elementary particles. This is a tool for physical research, and not an industrial device.

It can be assumed that the development of a new type of collider, designed specifically for the production of antimatter, could significantly reduce its cost. Then the mass production of such machines would allow a significant amount of antimatter. Harold Gerrish from Nasa is confident that the price of antimatter can over time fall to $ 5,000 per micrograms.

Another opportunity to take advantage of the antimatistry as a rocket fuel is to find a meteorite from antimatter in the open space. If such an object was found, its energy would most likely be enough for one starship. It must be said that in 2006, the European device Pamela was launched as part of the Russian satellite "Resource-DC", the appointment of which is the search for natural antimatter in open space.

If in space it will be possible to detect antimatter, then for its collection, humanity will have to come up with something like an electromagnetic network.

So, although the interstellar spacecraft on the antimatistry - the idea is quite real and does not contradict the laws of nature, in the XXI century they will most likely not appear, except at the very end of the century scientists will reduce the cost of antimatter to any reasonable value. But if it succeeds, the draft starship on the antimality will probably be considered one of the first.

Nanoclands

We have long been accustomed to special effects in films like "Star Wars" and the Star Path; In the thoughts about starships, images of huge futuristic machines, tested from all sides by the latest inventions in the field of high-tech devices. Meanwhile, there is another possibility: to create tiny stars with nanotechnology, not larger in the thimble or needle, or even smaller sizes. We are confident in advance that starships should be huge as "Enterprise", and carry a whole crew of astronauts. But with the help of nanotechnology, the main functions of the starship can be laid in a minimum volume, and then not one huge ship will go to the stars, in which the crew will have to live for many years, but millions of tiny nanoclable. To the destination, it is possible, perhaps only a small part of them, but the main thing will be done: after reaching one of the satellites of the destination system, these ships will build a plant and ensure the production of an unlimited number of their own copies.

Screw Surf believes that nanohed can be used both to explore the solar system, so - over time - and for flights to the stars. He says: "If we construct small, but powerful nanovosti, which will be easy to transport and deliver to the surface, under the surface and into the atmosphere of the planets and satellites adjacent to us, the study of the solar system will become much more efficient ... The same features can be extended to interstarial research. "

It is known that in nature mammals produce only several offspring and care about all of them survived. Insects, on the contrary, produce a huge number of young, but only a small part survives from them. Both strategies are quite successful in order to allow species to exist on the planet for many years. Similarly, we can send one very expensive stars in space - or millions of tiny stoles, each of which will cost a penny and consume quite a few fuel.

The concept of the nanoclable is based on a very successful strategy that is widely used in nature: strategy strategy. Birds, bees and other similar to them often fly by flocks or moays. It's not just that a large number of congor guarantees security; In addition, the package works as an early warning system. If at one end of the flock there is something dangerous - for example, the attack of the predator, the whole pack instantly receives information about it. A flock is very effective and energy. Birds, flying a characteristic V-shaped figure - a wedge, use turbulent flows from a neighbor's wing ahead and thus facilitate their flight.

Scientists speak of a rhodic, flock or ant family as a "superhorganism", which in some cases has its own mind, independent of the abilities of individual components of its individuals. The nervous system of the ant, for example, is very simple, and the brain is very small, but together the forming family is able to build a complex structure - an anthill. Scientists hope to take advantage of the lessons of nature in the development of "artistic" robots, which one day may have to go to the distant way to other planets and stars.

In some way, all this reminds the concept of "reasonable dust", the development of which the Pentagon is engaged in: billions of particles equipped with tiny sensors are dissipated in air and integrate. Each sensor itself does not have a mind and gives only tiny grades of information, but together they can provide their masters of all sorts of data. Darpa sponsored studies in this area with an eye on military use in the future - for example, with the help of reasonable dust, you can monitor enemy positions on the battlefield. In 2007 and 2009 US Air Force issued detailed arms plans for the next few decades; There is everything - from advanced versions of the DRDATOR unmanned aircraft (today it costs 4, 5 million dollars) to huge flocks of tiny cheap sensors with a pinch size.

Scientists are also interested in this concept. Flocks of reasonable dust would be useful for observing real-time for hurricane from thousands of different points; Similarly, it would be possible to observe thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, forest fires and other natural phenomena. In the movie "Tornado", for example, we are watching the team of brave hurricane hurricanes that risk life and health, placing sensors around a tornado. Not only is it very risky, but also not too efficiently. Instead of bringing a risk to lifetime several sensors around a volcanic crater during an eruption or around the step of a tornado pillar and get information about temperature, humidity and wind speed, it would be much more efficient to dispel intelligent dust and get data at the same time with There are thousands of different points scattered in the area of \u200b\u200bhundreds of square kilometers. In the computer, these data will be refunded in a three-dimensional picture, which in real time will show you the development of hurricane or various phases of eruption. Commercial enterprises are already working on samples of such tiny sensors, and some of them do not really exceed the pin head.

Another advantage of the nanoclable is that it is necessary to get to the outer space, it takes quite a bit of fuel. If enormous carrier rockets are able to accelerate only to a speed of 11 km / s, then tiny objects like nanoclable is relatively easy to withdraw into space with incredibly high speeds. For example, the elementary particles can be accessed to subset velocities using a conventional electric field. If you give nanoparticles small electric chargeThey can also be easily overclocked by an electric field.

Instead of spending huge tools for sending interplanetary probes, you can endow each nanocellable ability to self-copy; Thus, even one nanobot can build a nanobot factories or even a lunar base. After that, new self-copying probes will explore other worlds. (The problem is to create a first nanobote that is capable of self-copying, and this is still a very distant future.)

In 1980, NASA perceived the idea of \u200b\u200ba self-copying robot seriously to order at the University of Santa Clara a special study called "advanced automation for space tasks" and consider in detail several possible options. One of the scenarios considered by NASA scientists provided for sending small self-copying robots to the moon. There, robots had to establish the production of themselves like from the primary materials.

The report on this program was mainly devoted to the creation of a chemical plant for the recycling of lunar soil (regolith). It was assumed, for example, that the robot landed on the moon, divided into components of its parts, and then collects a new configuration from them, - exactly as a toy robot transformer. So, the robot could collect large parabolic mirrors to focus the sunlight and start melting the regite. It is then with the help of a plastic acid would remove from the regolith melt suitable for use metals and other substances. From the metals it would be possible to build a lunar base. Over time, the robot would have built a small lunar concussion to produce their own copies.

Based on the data of this report, the Institute of Perspective Concepts NASA launched a whole series of projects based on the use of self-reproducing robots. Mason Pek (Mason Peck) from Cornell University was one of those who seriously took the idea of \u200b\u200btiny stars.

I visited the pope in the laboratory and saw the workbench, littered with all sorts of components, which one day, may be destined to go to space. Next to the workbench had a small clean room with plastic walls, where the subtle components of future satellites were going.

The presentation of the test on the study of outer space is very different from everything that we see in Hollywood films. It assumes the ability to create a microcircuit of a centimeter size for a centimeter and weighing one gram, which can be overclocked to 1% of the speed of light. For example, it can take advantage of the effect of the Parable, with which NASA accelerates its interplanetary stations to huge speeds. This gravitational maneuver provides plates of the planet; Approximately the same stone in the prash, held by the belt-gravity, accelerates, flying in a circle, and shifts in the right direction. Here, the planet helps to give the spacecraft additional speed.

But the pitch, instead of grade, wants to use magnetic power. It expects to force a microsistoprodist to describe the loop in the magnetic field of Jupiter, which is 20,000 times in the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field and is quite comparable to the fields in the ground accelerators capable of overclocking the elementary particles to energies in trillions of the electron control.

He showed me a sample - a microcircuit that, by his plan, could once head to a long journey around Jupiter. It was a tiny square of the size of the tip of the finger, literally stuffed with any scientific all. In general, the inter-bearing apparatus of the Pek will be very simple. On the one hand, there is a solar battery on the chip, which should provide its energy to communicate, on the other - the radio transmitter, video camera and other sensors. This device does not have the engine, and the magnetic field of Jupiter should dispel it. (Unfortunately, in 2007, the Institute of Prospective NASA Concepts, since 1998, financed this and other innovative projects for the space program was closed in connection with the reduction of budget expenditures.)

We see that the presentation of the pitch about starships is very different from accepted in science fiction, where huge starry ships furrows the expanses of the universe under the control of the brave astronauts team. For example, if on one of the Jupiter's moons, a scientific base appeared, a dozens of such small ships could be released in orbit around the gas giant. If, among other things, the battery of laser guns appeared on this moon, the tiny ships could be dispersed to a speed that makes a noticeable share of the speed of light, giving them acceleration with the help of a laser beam.

A little later, I asked the baked a simple question: can it reduce his chip to the size of a molecule with nanotechnology? Then even the magnetic field of Jupiter does not need - they can be dispersed to subsettle velocities in the usual accelerator built on the moon. He said that this is possible, but he has not worked for details.

So we took a sheet of paper and began to write it together with the equations and estimate that it would work out. (This is how we, scientists, communicate with each other - go with chalk to the board or take a sheet of paper and try to solve the problem with various formulas.) We wrote the equation for the Lorentz power, which the Pek involves using to overclock their ships near Jupiter. Then we mentally reduced the ships to the size of molecules and mentally placed them in a hypothetical accelerator like a large hadron collider. We quickly understood that with the help of an ordinary accelerator, placed on the moon, our nano-stitresions can be dispersed without any problems to speeds close to the speed of light. By reducing the size of the starship from the centimeter plate to the molecule, we got the ability to reduce the accelerator needed to accelerate them; Now instead of Jupiter, we could use the traditional accelerator of particles. The idea seemed quite real.

However, after analyzing the equations again, we have come to the overall conclusion: the only problem here is the stability and strength of the prescription. Does the accelerator do not break our molecules on the part? Like a ball on the rope, these nano-holes when accelerating to the near-light velocities will experience the action of centrifugal forces. In addition, they will be electrically charged, so even the electrical forces will threaten their integrity. General conclusion: Yes, nanoclars are a real possibility, but decades of research will be required before the pitch chip can be reduced to the size of the molecule and strengthen so much so that acceleration before the near-light speed can damage it.

In the meantime, Mason Pek dreams to send the Royal Nanionslopes to the nearest star in the hope that at least some of them will overcome the interstellar space separating us. But what will they do when they arrive at the destination?

Here the project PEI Zhang (Pei Zhang) from the University of Carnegie - Melon in the Silicon Valley is coming. He created a whole flotilla minive, which someday may be destined to rise to the atmosphere of someone else's planet. He proudly showed me his swarm of minibots resembling toy helicopters. However, the external simplicity is deceptive. I have seen perfectly that in each of them there is a chip styled by the most complex electronics. One press of the Zhang button raised four minibot into the air, which immediately scattered in different directions and began to transmit information to us. Very soon I was surrounded by minibotes from all sides.

Such helicopters told me Zhang, should assist in critical circumstances like a fire or explosion; Their task is to collect information and intelligence. Over time, the minibotes can be equipped with telecons and temperature sensors, pressure, wind directions, etc.; In the case of a natural or technogenic catastrophe, such information may be vital. Thousands of minibots can be released over the battle field, forest fire or (why not?) Over an unexplored alien landscape. All of them continuously support the connection between themselves. If one minibot comes to an obstacle, the rest immediately learn about it.

So, one of the scenarios of interstellar travel - to shoot in the direction of the nearest star thousands of cheap disposable chips, similar to the Mason Pek Chip flying with a near-speed velocity. If at least a small part of them get to the destination, the mini-headeds will release wings or screws and, like the mechanical swarf Pei Zhang, will fly over an unprecedented alien landscape. Information they will send on the radio directly to the ground. As soon as promising planets are discovered, the second generation of mini-stares will be departed; Their task will be the construction of the distant star of factories for the release of all the same mini-stares, which will then go to the next star. The process will develop infinitely.

Exodus from the Earth?

By 2100, we, most likely, send astronauts to Mars and an asteroid belt, exploring the moon of Jupiter and will seriously deal with the task of sending the probe to the stars.

But how is humanity? Do we have cosmic colonies and can they solve the problem of overcrowding? Will we find a new home in space? Will the human genus begin to leave the Earth to 2100?

Not. Given the cost of space travel, most people will not rise aboard the spacecraft and will not see distant planets in no one in 2100, nor even a lot later. Perhaps a handful of astronauts will have time to create a few tiny cashposts of humanity on other planets and satellites, but humanity as a whole will remain chained to the ground.

Once the Earth will be a home of mankind, not yet one century, asking a question: how will human civilization develop? What impact on the lifestyle, work and society will have a science? Science is a prosperity engine, so it is worth thinking about how it will change in the future human civilization and our well-being.

Notes:

The basis for determining the coordinates of the user is the measurement of non-frequency shifts, but only the time of passing signals from several satellites located on different (but known at each time) distances from it. To determine the three spatial coordinates, in principle, it is enough to handle signals from four satellites, although usually the receiver "takes into account" all the serviceable satellites that he hears at the moment. There is also a more accurate (but more complex in the implementation) method based on measuring the phase of the received signal. - approx. per.

Or on another earthly language, depending on where the movie is removed. - approx. per.

The TPF project has really appeared on NASA promising plans for a long time, but always remained a "paper project", far from the stage of practical implementation. In the draft budget for the 2012 fiscal year there is no one or the second project from the same thematic direction - "Photographer of land-like planets" (TPI). Perhaps their heir will be the Mission of New Worlds to obtain images and spectroscopy of land-like planets, but it is impossible to say anything about its launch. - approx. per.

In fact, it was not about sensitivity, but about the quality of the manufacture of the surface of the mirror. - approx. per.

This project was chosen in February 2009 for joint implementation by NASA and the European Space Agency. In early 2011, the Americans came out of the project due to lack of funds, and Europe postponed its decision to participate in it until February 2012. The Ice Clipper project was proposed for the NASA contest in 1997 and was not adopted. - approx. per.

Alas, and this text is outdated. Like EJSM, this joint project has lost in early 2011. Support for the United States and is in the revision stage, applying for the same funds in the EKA budget as EJSM and the International X-ray Observatory of IXO. Only one of these three projects in a trimmed form can be approved for implementation in 2012, and the launch may take place after 2020 - approx. per.

And some of them are questioned. - approx. per.

Strictly speaking, the NASA program is called, designed to fulfill the requirements of Bush, the main provisions of which are described by the author below. - approx. per.

The rockets are just in the USA and they should not be invented from scratch: the "Orion" ship can be launched by a heavy version of the Delta IV carrier, and lighter private ships - on Atlas V or Falcon-9 missiles. But there is no one finished piloted ship and in the next three or four years will not. - approx. per.

The case, of course, is not within the distance, and in the set and decrease by speed required for flight flights. It is also desirable to limit the length of the expedition to minimize the radiation impact on the crew. In the amount, these restrictions may pour into a flight scheme with a very large flow rate and, accordingly, high weight of the expeditionary complex and its value. - approx. per.

This is not true. Hot gases penetrated inside the left wing "Colombia" and after a long heating deprived of its strength. The wing was deformed, the ship lost the only correct orientation when braking in the upper layers of the atmosphere and was destroyed by aerodynamic forces. Astronauts took a depressurization and unbearable shock overloads. - approx. per.

In February 2010, Obama administration announced the complete closure of the Constellation program, including the Orion ship, but in April, agreed to preserve it in the version of the rescuer ship for the ISS. In 2011, a consensus was reached regarding the immediate start of financing the super-heavy SLS carrier on the basis of the elements of the shuttle and continuing works on "Orion" without a formal declaration of the goals of the promising manned program. - approx. per.

Nothing like this! Firstly, Russians and Americans flying together for half a year flying together in half a year and already on the landing day are capable although with caution, but walk. Secondly, there was also the state of Soviet and russian cosmonauts After record flights with a duration of 366 and 438 days, since the means of dealing with the effects of space flight factors are sufficient for such deadlines. Thirdly, hardly crawled Andriyan Nikolaev and Vitaly Sevastyanov after a record for its time of 18 daily flight to Sovie-9 in 1970, when practically no prevention measures were applied. - approx. per.

The spin of the ship or its parts around the axis is realized quite simply and almost does not require additional fuel consumption. Another thing is that the crew work in such conditions may not be too convenient. However, experimental data is actually no experimental data. - approx. per.

This popular assessment of the value of the ISS is incorrect, since it artificially includes the cost of all flights of shuttles for the period of its construction and operation. Design and manufacture of components of the station, scientific equipment, as well as flight management is estimated at about $ 58 billion in almost 30 years (1984-2011). - approx. per.

The space elevator cannot end at the height of the geostationary orbit - so that it hung motionlessly and can serve as a support for the movement of transport cabins, the system must be equipped with a counterweight at an altitude of up to 100,000 km. - approx. per.

The second copy of this ka, Nanosail-D2, was launched on November 20, 2010, together with the FastSat satellite, separated from him on January 17, 2011 and successfully unfolded a space sail of 10 m2. - approx. per.

In May 2011, three experimental "chiposcribe" of the Pek team were delivered to the ISS for resource tests in open space. - approx. per.

Such a transfer itself is a complex task. - approx. per.