The history of medicine knows not only heroic doctors who are ready to sacrifice themselves. Many ordinary, ordinary doctors died from infectious diseases received at the patient's bed. They died from typhoid and typhus, from cholera and plague, from scarlet fever and diphtheria, and they not only became infected themselves, but also put their loved ones in serious danger. There is not a single infectious disease that doctors do not contract when doing their duty.

These doctors were not heroes, like those who experimented on themselves. They performed heroic deeds out of a simple desire to help the patient, often not even realizing that they were doing something special, not thinking about the danger and risking their own health and the health of their loved ones every day.

Thus, the history of the development of medicine is a chronicle of the heroic struggle for life and health, self-sacrifice in search of truth, collisions with ignorance, superstition and prejudice, perseverance and heroism in the face of failure and disappointment.

MEDICINE is a system of scientific knowledge and practical activity aimed at strengthening and preserving people's health, prolonging their life, at preventing and treating diseases.

Medicine is one of the oldest sciences. In its development, it has come a long way and at each stage accumulated and generalized experience and knowledge about the structure and functions of the human body, about human diseases and about practical skills for their recognition, prevention and treatment.

There is folk medicine, traditional and scientific, and these concepts are far from unambiguous.

ethnoscience- the concept is broad and historically more ancient. It includes a set of means and methods of folk healing, which were developed as a result of empirical experience throughout the history of mankind from the emergence of man (more than 2 million years ago) to the present day.

Thus, traditional medicine is the same age as humans on Earth. It existed in all periods of human history among all peoples of the world. Her experience has multiplied over the millennia, passed down from generation to generation, was kept in the circle of initiates, developed by some and destroyed by others.

Time-tested rational techniques and vast empirical experience of folk medicine later became one of the origins of traditional and then scientific medicine.

Traditional medicine- the concept is narrower, more specific and historically younger. It is always based on a harmonious religious and philosophical teaching, into which the empirical experience of folk healing is organically interwoven.

Since traditional medicine is associated with the culture of a given people, develops in line with its traditions, it changes little over the centuries and even millennia (for example, traditional Chinese medicine).

Just like traditional medicine, traditional medicine is one of the origins of scientific medicine.

Scientific medicine is closely related to a scientific experiment, during which empirical knowledge and philosophical ideas are tested, harmonious, scientifically grounded concepts, hypotheses, and theories are created.

Scientific medicine and its methods are not traditional, since not associated with any one culture and its traditions. Moreover, scientific medicine is international in nature, and its achievements are quickly becoming the property of various peoples of the world.

Only the union of folk, traditional and scientific medicine opens up before mankind great opportunities for the treatment and prevention of diseases by methods consistent with nature, which do not disrupt human interaction with the outside world.

The range of interests of medicine covers all aspects of human life, his social and labor activities, as well as factors of the natural and social environment in terms of their impact on health.

Since medicine is inextricably linked with the level of culture, it developed mainly in the centers of civilization, and the decline or death of a particular civilization did not mean the loss of medical acquisitions and experience. On the contrary, with the change of socio-economic formations, they accumulated and enriched, passing from one generation of doctors to another. That is why it is possible to study medicine only in its historical development.

Thus, HISTORY OF MEDICINE is a science that studies achievements in the field of healing, medicine and medical activities of the peoples of the world throughout the history of mankind (from ancient times to the present day).

Acquaintance with the past of medicine allows us to trace how the development of ideas about the essence of diseases was associated with the social system, with the level of development of the productive forces, with the worldview, and how, in connection with this, the content and direction of medical activity changed.

The history of medicine as a teaching subject is divided into general and specific.

The general history of medicine is concerned with identifying the main laws of the historical development of medicine and the study of the main problems of medicine.

The private history of medicine contains information about the development of individual medical specialties, concerning the life and work of prominent doctors and medical scientists, the scientific achievements of their schools, the history of the most important discoveries in the field of medicine. Since questions of history are contained in the course of any medical discipline, they are presented in the corresponding theoretical and clinical departments.

There is a natural distinction and, at the same time, a close connection between the general and particular history of medicine. Together they form a system of
rico-medical education of a doctor, which plays an important role in raising the level of his general and professional culture.

The periodization and chronology of the history of medicine is based on the periodization of world history adopted in modern historical science, according to which the world-historical process is divided into 5 main periods:

* primitive society

* ancient world

* middle Ages

* new time

* recent (modern) history

Each period is characterized by its own, the most progressive for that time form of socio-economic development, and each period reflects the development and change of five socio-economic formations:

* primitive communal

* slave

* feudal

* capitalist

* socialist

Sources for studying the history of medicine are divided into several main groups:

material (material) are archaeological finds (skulls, bones, coins, medals, emblems, seals)

ethnographic rites, customs, beliefs

oral and folklore songs, legends, ballads, legends

linguistic images in speech form, which show through the word the kinship of entire groups and peoples

5.written clay tablets, papyri, drawings on stones and rocks, manuscripts, printed works of doctors, historians, philosophers, military and government officials, archival materials

6.cinema and photo documents

All sources have serious requirements, in particular, careful verification, authentication and reliability.

The history of medicine plays an important role in the system of training a doctor:

* she shows the doctor the patterns of development of medicine in each historical period

* shows what influence their worldview had on the development of people's ideas about health and disease

* shows the doctor the connection between the development of medical science and the class struggle, fosters the consciousness of the need to fight inertia and routine

* based on the past teaches the doctor to admit his mistakes, warns him against hasty decisions

* and, finally, increases his general and professional cultural level.

So, we turn to the study of the main stages in the development of medicine and, as expected, start from the very beginning with the history of primitive society.

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Study Guide: An Introduction to the History of Dentistry

Introduction

The history of mankind begins with the appearance of man on Earth. Modern historical science defines two eras in the development of mankind: non-written (primitive or pre-class) and written (from the 4th millennium BC). The history of the primitive era covers the period from the appearance of man (about 2 million years ago) to the formation of the first class societies and states (4 millennium BC). despite the absence of writing (and written history), this period is an integral part of the world-wide historical process of human development and cannot be defined as "prehistory", "prehistory", and primitive man - as "prehistoric". This era covers 99% of the entire history of mankind.

In the depths of human development, the origins of all subsequent spiritual and material achievements were formed: thinking and consciousness, tool (or labor) activity, speech, languages, agriculture, cattle breeding, social division of labor, marriage and family, art and religious beliefs, morality and ethics, medicine and hygiene skills. An analysis of this path from the very beginning is an extremely important link in an objective assessment of the historical development of medicine as a whole.

According to the stages of primitive history, 3 periods in the development of primitive healing are determined:

1. healing of the era of the primitive community (the longest period), when the initial accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge about healing techniques and natural remedies (of plant, animal and mineral origin) took place;

2. the healing of the era of the primitive community, when the purposeful application of the empirical experience of healing in social practice was developed and established;

3. healing of the era of class formation, when the cult practice of healing (which originated in the period of the late primitive community) was in progress, the accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge of healing continued (the collective experience of the community and the individual activities of professional healers.

The history of dentistry in our country has not received the same development as in the West. Even at the present time, there are not as many materials on this issue as we would like. Despite the abundance of "dental specialties", ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is now observed, dentistry for almost a whole millennium made extremely weak progress, which led to such consequences. Scientists, doctors and surgeons have long attached only cosmetic importance to this medical industry. It is worth saying that for them it was one of many medical disciplines, and even then, not the most important. The non-certified representatives of these professions, due to the lack of the necessary knowledge, were not able to improve and develop this industry. But, meanwhile, knowledge of this subject is of undoubted interest in many respects.

First of all, the natural desire to know the history of the emergence and development of that branch of human knowledge to which he devoted himself is inherent in every person. The knowledge of how, step by step, as a result of centuries of work by outstanding scientists and practitioners, a scientific foundation is brought under the empirical methods helps to see the whole picture of modern dentistry. But acquaintance is important not only because it satisfies our curiosity. Knowledge of history allows us to avoid past mistakes, as well as to understand the direction of its subsequent development on the basis of the laws of the formation of this medical industry.

The history of medicine, and the history of dentistry in particular, clearly reflects the shifts and fundamental changes taking place in it in connection with changes in the life of society. Each socio-economic formation is characterized by certain features of medical theory and practice.

The medicine of the ancient peoples of the East, with the exception of the Indians, did not rise above primitive empiricism. She dealt only with the treatment of certain painful symptoms. Its successes relate mainly to the field of drugs and partly to surgery. The desire to know the entire human body as a whole, to find out the essence of diseases and to connect them with one common system, was alien to oriental medicine. During the 6th-5th centuries BC, the political power of the countries of the East declined. Οʜᴎ fall under the rule of new state formations emerging on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea - Greece and Rome. Simultaneously with political influence, these peoples are also receiving influence in the field of science, culture, as well as medicine, which at all times bears the stamp of the general outlook and cultural level of the era. The emergence of rational medicine is historically associated with this era.

Dentistry in Greece

The era of Greco-Roman medicine represents a huge step forward compared to the medicine of the Eastern peoples, although the latter undoubtedly had a certain influence on its development. In Greece, especially in a later period, outstanding philosophers appeared for the first time - doctors who were not content with gross symptomatisation. Οʜᴎ study human anatomy and physiology, create various theories that seek to explain the cause of diseases, and most importantly, methods of their treatment and prevention. Despite the fact that from the modern point of view, their views are naive, nevertheless, they laid the foundation for the method on the basis of which all scientific medicine subsequently developed.

According to M.O. Kovarsky, the reason for the relatively low level of development of oriental medicine, should be sought in the religion of the East, which enslaved the psyche and mind of a person, paralyzed any possibility of independent thinking. All natural phenomena were considered as a manifestation of the will of a good or evil deity. This religious worldview doomed the Eastern peoples to mental stagnation and placed them under the rule of the younger and more viable Western peoples.

The religion of the Greeks, who attributed human features to the gods, was devoid of those elements that frightening and suppressing the human mind, which we saw among the Egyptians or Babylonians. Characteristic of the Hellenic spirit, along with cheerfulness, inquisitiveness, the desire to penetrate the essence of things found their expression in Greek art and philosophy. The famous philosophers and doctors of ancient Greece - Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato and Heraclitus - strove to cover the entire world available to them with one general idea and built various ideas of the universe based on observations of the surrounding natural phenomena. The range of these phenomena included the human body, its structure and activity in a healthy and diseased state. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Greek medicine was closely associated with philosophy and in its methods proceeded from one or another philosophical system of the world outlook. In the Greek medicine of the 5th century, we already find all those elements on the basis of which scientific medicine subsequently developed: the study of human anatomy and physiology, the view of illness as a manifestation of a general disorder of the vital forces, the desire to fight it by strengthening the body, precise examination of the patient, diagnosis. These positions were especially developed by the great Greek physician Hippocrates, who is called the “father of medicine”.

Hippocrates

Hippocrates was born at the beginning of the 5th century BC on the island of Kossei and came from a family of doctors who were considered the descendants of Aesculapius (Asclepiades). According to K. Marx, he lived in the period of “the highest internal prosperity of Greece”. During his almost 100-year life, as a periodical doctor, he visited many countries of the East, cities of Greece, the lands of Asia Minor, Scythia, the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Libya, possibly Egypt. He was a physician-philosopher who combined extensive medical experience with a deep understanding of people and the nature around them. He practiced medicine in various cities in Greece and left behind numerous writings, which for almost two thousand years served as the dogma and basis of medical science for doctors. Undoubtedly, many of the writings attributed to him belong in fact to his students and followers, but they are all united by the common name "Hippocratic Corpus".

Well-known aphorisms, Hippocrates͵ in which the essence of his medical views was expressed, testify as much about his deep penetration into the meaning of medical intervention and the role of a doctor, as about the extraordinary power of thought and observation.

“In medicine,” says Hippocrates, “there are three things: illness, the patient, and the doctor; the doctor is the servant of his science and the patient must jointly overcome the disease with him. "

- "The doctor should keep in mind two points: strive to help the patient and not harm."

- “In the body, everything is one harmonious whole; all parts are coordinated with each other and everything is directed towards one common action ”.

According to the teachings of Hippocrates, the human body is constructed from 4 basic juices (humoral theory): blood, mucus, black and yellow bile. The healthy state of the body depends on the balance of these juices. Its violation leads to various diseases. The same violations underlie dental diseases, the description of which is scattered throughout the various books of Hippocrates and his followers.

A toothache occurs when the mucus reaches the roots of the teeth. Tooth decay is caused either by mucus or by food, if the tooth is naturally weak and poorly strengthened. Diseases of the teeth and gums are also observed in diseases of other organs: liver, spleen, stomach, female genital organs. According to his theory of the origin of diseases, Hippocrates also treats toothache mainly by general means: bloodletting, laxatives, vomiting, a strict diet. Local drugs are used, rinsing with a beaver stream, pepper infusion, poultices of lentil broth, astringents (alum), etc. Hippocrates resorts to tooth extraction only when the tooth is loosened. “If pains appear in a tooth, then it should be removed, if it is destroyed and mobile. If it is not destroyed and sits firmly, then it is burned and dried; Salivating agents also help. " Apparently, here he used saliva (pyrethrum), which in ancient times was attributed to the ability to cause the loss of a diseased tooth.

The fact that Hippocrates removed only weakly seated teeth that were easy to extract is also evident from the fact that he considered extraction to be an art that does not need to be learned, since it is available to everyone: “As for the extraction forceps, everyone can use them because the way of using them is simple and obvious.” The fact that Hippocrates and his contemporaries avoided removing firmly seated teeth can only be explained by the imperfection of the extraction forceps they used. The latter were apparently made of such a soft material as lead, which did not make it possible to develop the strength necessary for difficult extraction. An example of such a lead forceps from the Alexandrian era, the Hierophilus, was kept in the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.

Instead of removing firmly seated teeth, they resorted to various means, which supposedly were supposed to cause spontaneous loosening and loss of a diseased tooth. In Hippocrates, for the first time, we meet medical histories and a description of the clinical course of various kinds of dental diseases - from pulpitis to alveolar abscess and bone necrosis:

“Aspaziy’s wife developed severe pains in the tooth and chin; a beaver and pepper rinse gave her relief. The son of Metrodorus developed a hot ulcer on the jaws due to toothache; the growths on the gums gave out a lot of pus, his teeth and bone fell off. Fatal if fever and delirium (sepsis) join severe toothaches and tooth necrosis; if the patient survives, ulcers appear and pieces of bone come off. "

From observations of patients, Hippocrates learned that the first molar is more likely to deteriorate than other teeth, and that the result is "thick discharge from the nose and pain spreading to the temples (sinusitis)"; more often than others, wisdom teeth are also destroyed. Hippocrates' keen observation is also revealed by his following descriptions: “Those who have a bone moving away from the palate have a sinking nose (luez); in those who lose the bone containing the teeth, the tip of the nose is flattened. Sharp-headed people with a high palate and teeth are not set correctly, so that some protrude outward, others inward, suffer from headaches and leaky from the ears. "

In the book of the seventh work "Epidemics", Hippocrates cites many cases confirming the importance of modern dental treatment: "In Cardius, son of Metrodorus, gangrene of the jaw and severe inflammation of the lips began from toothache, a lot of pus came out, and his teeth fell out."

We find in Hippocrates a description of various diseases of the gums and oral cavity: gingivitis stomatitis scorbut diseases of the tongue. Children's diseases accompanying teething are also described in detail: fever, diarrhea, convulsions, cough. But he mistakenly believed that milk teeth are formed from mother's milk. The surgical methods used by Hippocrates for the treatment of dislocation and fracture of the jaws testify to his great skill in this area and differ little from modern methods.

“If the teeth (with a fracture of the jaw) on the affected side are displaced and loosened, then after the bone is in place, the teeth should be tied, not only two, but more, better than anything else, with the help of gold wire, until those until the bone hardens. "

In the works of Hippocrates, we find little information on human anatomy and physiology; this is due to the fact that the laws of that time strictly prohibited the anatomy of corpses, and the structure of the human body was judged by analogy with the animal world.

Aristotle

The great Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), who lived a century later than Hippocrates, studied in more detail the structure and functions of the body, including the dental system. He laid the foundations for Natural History and Comparative Anatomy (including Dental Anatomy). One of his books, On Different Parts of Animals, has a chapter on dental research. In his book, History of Animals, he compares the dental systems of different animals. In describing the functions of the various classes of teeth, he was very accurate. It seems surprising, however, that the brilliant Greek philosophers did not see the need for careful experimentation and comparison and analysis of their observations before drawing final conclusions. As a result, mistakes such as Aristotle's claim that men have more teeth than women were accepted and perpetuated for eighteen hundred years. Also, Aristotle mistakenly believed that teeth grow all life, which explains their elongation in the absence of an antagonist.

But Aristotle should be given credit for some very insightful observations and conclusions. He knew that there are blood vessels in the tooth, that the molars do not change and erupt later than other teeth. In his book Problems, he wondered why figs, despite their sweet taste and softness, damage teeth. He concluded that perhaps the smallest particles of figs penetrate the tooth and cause the decay process. But he was not supported, and for many centuries no other scientists besides him have made a connection between sweet fruits and tooth decay.

Therapy and prevention of dental diseases

Oral hygiene practice was slow to take root in Greece. Aristotle's student Theophrastus (372-287 BC) wrote that it was considered an advantage to have white teeth and brush them often. In his famous "Natural History of Plants" Theophrastus also described the healing properties of medicinal plants (marshmallow, walnut, calendula, sea buckthorn, scumpia, etc.), which are still used in dental practice.

Of the physicians of a later era, Diocles of Karista (IV century BC) deserves mention; the remedy for toothache attributed to him has been in widespread use for centuries. This remedy consists of a gummy resin, opium, pepper, which are mixed with wax and placed in the hollow of the tooth. Diocles also points out the extreme importance of oral hygiene; he recommends in the morning, at the same time as washing the face and eyes, to wipe the teeth and gums from the outside and from the inside with just one finger or with the juice of mashed palea (heart mint) to remove food debris.

Yet regular prophylaxis was not widespread until Greece became a province of Rome. Under Roman influence, the Greeks learned to use materials such as talc, pumice, gypsum, coral and corundum powder, and iron rust to clean their teeth. It is known that in a later period in Greece, a mastic toothpick (Greek schinos) was in great use. The inhabitants of Athens, for their habit of constantly picking their teeth with it, were called “chewing toothpicks” (Greek schinotroges). Hippocrates gives only a remedy for eliminating bad breath obviously of a cosmetic nature, since it is intended for women. The recipe for this remedy is as follows:

“If a woman's breath smells bad,” and the gums look bad, then the head of a hare and three mice should be burned - each separately, and the entrails of two mice are previously removed, except for the kidneys and liver; then grind together with marble in a mortar, sift through a sieve and clean teeth and gums with this powder; then wipe your teeth and mouth with sweaty sheep wool smeared with honey; for rinsing are used: anise, dill, myrrh, dissolved in white wine. These products, called Indian products, make teeth white and give them a pleasant smell. "

The recipe for tooth powder given above was apparently borrowed by Hippocrates from the traditional medicine of that time, because bears the imprint of superstition not characteristic of this great physician. For a very long period of time, almost up to modern times, among later authors, superstition in the field of dentistry, as we will see later, was widespread; various mystical objects and most often the organs of mice, hares and toads are their favorite means of dental therapy and hygiene.

In the III century BC, a new center of Greek culture appears in Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great in the Nile delta. Thanks to the patronage of the sciences and arts on the part of the rulers of Egypt from the Ptolemaic family, scientists from all over the ancient world flock here, the famous Alexandrian Library is created, which contained over 500,000 scrolls and, according to legend, was burned by the Arabs in the 12th century when they took Alexandria. Along with other sciences, medicine is developing here, especially anatomy, thanks to the fact that the rulers of Alexandria not only did not forbid the dissection of corpses, but even patronized it. The famous Alexandrian therapists and clinicians Erisistratus and Hierophilus were also engaged in dentistry, but did not give anything new in this area in comparison with Hippocrates.

Surgical instruments of ancient Greece

In one of his works, Aristotle described glandular forceps (Greek Sideros - zhelezo), built on the same principle as modern extraction forceps, ᴛ.ᴇ. consisting of two levers, the fulcrum of which is in the lock connecting them. Now these tongs are kept in the National Museum in Athens. The renowned German medical historian Karl Zudhof examined them in detail in his "Geschichte der Medizin". These forceps, not adapted to the anatomical shape of the alveoli, were very primitive and were not suitable for extracting firmly seated teeth. Zudgof measured their dimensions in the open and closed form, establishing that the distance between the extreme "grips" of the forceps cheeks was 3 mm, and their length did not exceed 64 mm.

Forceps in ancient Greece were used not only to remove teeth, they were also used to remove deep-seated arrowheads and bone fragments from the body. The forceps were small in size and consisted of 3 parts: long handles, a lock and rounded cheeks for gripping the crown. The ends of the pens were button-shaped or platform-shaped. The cheeks of the forceps could be barrel-shaped, wide and narrow, but they did not correspond to the anatomical shape of the tooth. Such forceps did not make it possible to use great force; with firm pressure on the tooth, its crown could break. They could be used only after preliminary loosening of the tooth. The latter circumstance limited the indication for tooth extraction and did not contribute to the development of the extraction technique. This explains the fear of extraction, as a dangerous operation, not only among ancient authors, but also during the period of Arab medicine and even the Middle Ages.

Dentistry in Rome

For the first time in the century AD, healing in Rome was primarily practiced by Greek slaves and freedmen, and later by famous Greek doctors who voluntarily settled in Rome, like Soranus or Galen, attracted by the world fame of this center of ancient culture. Many of them subsequently achieved prominence and fame, acquired numerous disciples, and some, like Anthony Musa, the physician of Caesar Augustus, were even ranked among the nobility.

At the same time, the bulk of Greek doctors enjoyed a bad reputation, and a free Roman citizen considered it beneath his dignity to practice medicine as a profession. Satirists of that time repeatedly ridicule doctors for their quackery, greed, pursuit of wealthy clients. Pliny also gives an inappropriate characterization to his contemporaries, doctors: “There is no doubt,” he says, “that they are all trading our lives in order to become famous for something new. Hence the heated debate at the bedside of the sick, since neither one shares the views of the other. " Hence the unfortunate inscription on the tombstone: "He died from the confusion of doctors." The famous Galen claims that "between robbers and doctors, the only difference is that some commit their crimes in the mountains, while others in Rome."

The division of doctors by specialties, which began in Alexandria, reached a great development in Rome: obstetricians, eye doctors, dentists, women's doctors, doctors who treated dropsy and cutaneous diseases. Treatment options also varied greatly. Some treated only with gymnastics, others with wine, still others with water, etc. Doctors usually practiced at home, but some set up hospitals or outpatient clinics - tabernae medicinae - furnished with a special splendor that made an impression on the sick. Often these tabernae did not differ from barbers' shops and served as a gathering place for onlookers.

Invited to the patients' home, well-known doctors usually appeared, accompanied by their numerous students, who, together with the teacher, carried out a study of the patient and listened to his explanations. The social conditions of imperial Rome were in many respects similar to those that exist today in capitalist countries: the same poverty at the bottom, and along with this insane extravagance, idleness and gluttony of the Roman nobility, slave owners and vast latifundia. This similarity in the social environment created similar conditions in relation to diseases of the body and, in particular, the masticatory apparatus. Tooth decay was almost as common among the inhabitants of Rome as it is today. Lenhossek, who examined skulls from Roman sarcophagi, found over 80% of them with carious teeth. An unhealthy life and the gluttony of the Roman patricians known from history usually led to another disease - the so-called alveolar pyorrhea and all kinds of gum disease. Most of the medical writers of the era also describe premature loosening and tooth loss.

Information about dentistry in the early period of Roman history is very scarce. From the era of imperial Rome, the medical works of two authors dating back to the first century AD have survived: Cornelius Celsus and Pliny the Elder. Both came from noble Roman families and were not practical doctors. Although the profession of a doctor was considered unworthy of a Roman citizen at that time, Celsus and Pliny, like many educated patricians of that time, devoted their leisure time to the study of all kinds of sciences, including natural science.

Cornelius Celsus

Cornelius Celsus left behind a rich literary heritage, among which there are works on agriculture, military affairs, rhetoric; His eight books on medicine and bearing the name "De re medica" contain such extensive information on dentistry that Celsus is not without reason considered one of the most knowledgeable dental authors of antiquity. Contemporaries called him "Roman Hippocrates" and "Cicero from medicine."

In his medical views, Celsus, like all Roman authors, was entirely influenced by Hippocrates and the Greek doctors of the Alexandrian era. However, he does not follow any specific school, but is an eclectic, ᴛ.ᴇ. takes from each school what seems most correct to its critical mind. He rejects the purely empirical method, since in his opinion, only knowledge of the nature of the disease and an accurate diagnosis can determine the correct therapy.

Separate chapters are devoted to dentistry in the medical writings of Celsus. His anatomical information about the teeth is more perfect than Hippocrates͵ although not without errors. A person has 32 teeth, not counting the wisdom teeth: 4 incisors - primores, 2 canines - canini, 10 molars - maxi-lares. Primores have one root, maxilares: 2-4 roots. Short teeth have long roots, straight teeth - straight roots, crooked teeth - crooked roots. Permanent and deciduous teeth come from the same root. He does not know about the existence of the dental chamber and considers the tooth to be a massive formation.

The therapy of toothache, which Celsus considers one of the greatest sufferings, is, like all authors of that time, mainly general in nature: a strict diet - do not drink wine, eat little and only flour food, laxatives, inhalation of water vapor, content warm heads, steam baths, distractions (mustard plaster on shoulders). Locally warm poultices, rinsing with herbal infusion, a toothpick wrapped in wool, immerse in oil and lubricate the gums near the tooth; Narcotics are also used: a decoction of belena and poppy heads.

The insufficient effect of these funds is obviously known to Celsus, because in one place he says that the only way to get rid of a toothache is to remove a bad tooth. At the same time, he considers extraction to be a dangerous operation and recommends not rushing to extract the tooth. In extreme cases, if this cannot be avoided, then the tooth is removed with various compounds, and not with forceps. "Seeds of pepper or ivy (Epheu) placed in the hollow of a tooth split it and lead to its loss."

Celsus describes the extraction of a tooth as follows: before extraction, the gum around the entire tooth should be detached until it loosens, because It is extremely dangerous to remove a firmly seated tooth in view of the possibility of damage to the eye and temples or dislocation of the jaw. If possible, remove the tooth with your fingers; only as a last resort you should resort to using forceps. If there is a large hollow in the tooth, then it is preliminarily performed with lead wrapped in a cloth in order to avoid breaking off the crown. The tooth is extracted with forceps upward (without luxation) in order to avoid bone breakage when the roots are curved. If after the extractions heavy bleeding occurs, then you can be sure that the bone has been broken off; in this case, you should find the fragment with a probe and remove it. When breaking off the crown, the roots are removed with special forceps.

Samples of extraction forceps from that time have been found in former Roman camps in what is now Germany and Austria. Οʜᴎ are quite neatly made of bronze or iron and, although they are more perfect in form than the forceps of the Alexandrian era, they are still not well suited for removing firmly seated teeth.

Inflammations around the teeth, which Celsus calls parulis, are treated first by rubbing rock salt, field mint into the gums, rinsing with lentil water or astringents, fur poultices, or hot sponges. If pus develops, then you need to open the abscess in a timely manner so that the bone does not die; if suppuration continues and a fistula is formed, then the tooth and sequestration should be removed and the wound scraped out.

Ulcers on the mucous membrane are treated with a pomegranate crust; in childhood, they are dangerous and are called aphthae (Greek aphtai). Tongue ulcers can be caused by sharp edges of the teeth, which, therefore, it is extremely important to file away.

Loose teeth are tied with gold wire and reinforced with astringent rinses of pomegranate peel or ink nuts. Against retraction of the gums (alveolar atrophy, pyorrhea), chewing unripe apples and pears, weak vinegar is useful.

Celsus describes in great detail the fracture of the jaws, which at that time, during the constant wars, were, apparently, a frequent phenomenon: the displaced fragments are set in place, and the teeth are connected with horsehair. The patient is given a double compress of flour, incense, wood (olive) oil and wine, and all together is strengthened with a common bandage from a soft belt over the head; the fracture heals in 2–3 weeks.

History of medicineis a science that studies the formation and development of medical theory and practice in various socio-economic formations in close connection with the general culture of mankind.

1. The history of medicine as part of the culture and history of mankind. Definition of the concepts of "healing" and "medicine". Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

The history of medicine is an independent subject that is studied in higher medical educational institutions. Her teaching allows to enrich the spiritual world of students, to acquaint them with the history of the future profession, reveals the development of medicine, reveals achievements in medicine, fosters a sense of professional medical ethics.

Definition of the concepts of "healing" and "medicine".

The process of action by value verb .: to heal. Doctor 1) Engage in treatment (usually by means of traditional medicine). 2).Heal, facilitatemental anguish, bringliberationfrom smth. unpleasant, difficult, etc.

Medicine (lat. "Medico" - I treat, heal) is a system of scientific knowledge and practical activities aimed at preserving and strengthening people's health, preventing and treating diseases.

Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

The past of medicine is recreated based on the study of facts, sources. All historical sources are divided into 7 main groups: written, material (material), ethnographic, oral (folklore), linguistic, film and photo documents, phono documents.

Written sources are handwritten or printed documents made on papyrus, ceramics, paper, stone, clay, wood, bark, etc. They can be genuine or copies.

Material (material) sources, the bulk of which are archaeological sites, also include anthropological material (human fossils

Ethnographic sources characterize the phenomena of cultural and social life inherited by humanity from previous eras. These include superstitions, rituals, beliefs, customs, beliefs, etc.

Oral (folklore) sources are created by the people and are characterized by an oral form of transferring images of reality.

Linguistic sources - displaying real historical reality in speech form.

Phono documents reflect the sound side of a historical fact and represent a phonogram made at the time of the event.

Period of history	Chronological framework	Period duration
Primitive society Ancient world Middle Ages New time Recent history	About 2 million years ago - 4th millennium. BC. 5th thousand. BC - mid. 1st thousand. AD 476 - mid. 17th century Mid 17th - early 20th century 1918-early 21st century	About 2 million liters. About 4 thousand years About 1200 years About 300 years About 100 years

2. Hippocrates. Collection of Hippocrates. The system of theoretical concepts of Hippocrates. The principles of the medical art of Hippocrates.

Hippocrates - the famous ancient Greek healer and doctor. He went down in history as the "father of medicine".

Collection of Hippocrates.

The first collection of works by ancient Greek doctors, "Hippocrates Collection", was compiled many years after the death of Hippocrates, in the 3rd century BC. It is not known exactly what part of these works belongs to the students of Hippocrates, what - to himself: according to the tradition of that time, doctors did not sign their compositions. The works, which reflect the medical ideas of the Greeks, are united by the name of Hippocrates. According to the testimony of ancient historians, "the books written by Hippocrates are known to everyone in contact with medical science and are valued as the voice of God, and not as coming from the lips of men."

Most researchers believe that the most outstanding works of the "Hippocratic Collection" belong to Hippocrates himself. Let's name some of them:

1. "Aphorisms" (from the Greek. "Aphorismos" - a complete thought). They contain instructions for the treatment of diseases. “Aphorisms” begin with the well-known words: “Life is short, the path of art is long, the opportunity is fleeting, experience is deceiving, judgment is difficult. Therefore, not only the doctor himself must use everything that is necessary, but also the patient, and those around him, and all external circumstances must contribute to the doctor in his activities. "

2. "Prediction" (from the Greek. "Prognosis" - foresight, prediction). This essay describes in detail the elements that make up the prognosis of the disease (observation, examination and questioning of the patient), outlines the basics of observation and treatment at the patient's bedside.

3. "Epidemics" (from the Greek. "Epidemia" - a general disease). In ancient Greece, the word "epidemics" was understood not as infectious, contagious diseases, but those that were widespread and especially often found in a particular area.

4. "About air, waters and localities". This is the first medical work of the Greeks that has come down to us, which examines the causes of diseases depending on the specific properties of the surrounding nature. It was believed that a person's place of residence (south, east, highlands, fertile valley, marshland, etc.) determines his character and physique, as well as a tendency to certain diseases.

The system of theoretical concepts of Hippocrates. (inserted as a picture, so the first 2 words are superfluous)

The principles of the medical art of Hippocrates.

Since the time of Hippocrates, unified ethical principles have developed in medicine. Here are the main ones:

· All actions of the doctor should be directed only to the benefit of the patient, and not to harm (if the doctor can foresee him in advance).

· Avoid actions that could cause suffering to the patient and his relatives.

· The actions taken by the doctor should not harm other people, including those who are sick.

· The doctor's decisions are based on the principles of modern science.

· The doctor has no right to look at the patient as a source of enrichment.

· The doctor is obliged to keep confidential information concerning the patient's health and the circumstances of his life, which became known in the course of treatment.

The system of theoretical concepts of Hippocrates.

The unity of the organism and the natural sphere, the natural connection of life with natural phenomena, the consideration of the organism in its perpetual motion and change - these are the main starting positions of Hippocrates in the construction of the system. The Universe is one and material, its diversity is determined by motion and various combinations of the main primary matter. Consequently, the whole life of an organism, its diseases should be explained not by manifestations of divine will or an evil spirit, but by natural causes - the influence of natural phenomena. The life of an organism, according to Hippocrates, is determined by 4 juices (or liquids), which are based on various combinations of the primary principles of nature (heat, cold, moisture and dryness). Everything in the universe is in perpetual motion. Consequently, the disease is a changing phenomenon, in a healthy body fluids must be mixed in the correct proportion, the violation of which under the influence of natural factors means the onset of the disease. from here flowed many other ideas of Hippocrates, long ahead of the era - the belief in the healing properties of nature and the task of the doctor using the natural properties of the body, the requirement to observe at the patient's bedside and guesses about the influence of people's living conditions on their health, etc. and no matter how naive some theoretical positions of Hippocrates were with the position of modern medicine, the connection of his humoral theory with the original materialistic principles of ancient Greek philosophy is beyond doubt.

3. Galen is a great physician of the ancient world. Galenism.

Galen - Roman ( Greekorigin)medic, surgeon and philosopher. Galen made a significant contribution to the understanding of manyscientificdisciplines includinganatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, andneurologyas well as philosophy andlogic.

Galen's natural scientific positions were manifested in his extensive medical practice and research in the field of anatomy and physiology (Greek physiologia - the doctrine of life processes, from the Greek physis - nature and logos - doctrine). By the time Galen arrived in Alexandria, the production of sections of human corpses (influenced by Christianity) had already ceased, and Galen anatomized higher monkeys, pigs, dogs, ungulates, and sometimes even lions and elephants; often performed vivisection. He transferred the data obtained from numerous dissections of animals into human anatomy. So, in the treatise "On the Anatomy of Muscles" he described about 300 muscles. Among them there are those that are absent in humans and exist only in some animals. At the same time, Galen did not describe the muscle characteristic of the human hand, opposing the thumb. Subsequently, this and many other mistakes of Galen were corrected by the outstanding anatomist of the Renaissance, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564).

Galen studied in detail the anatomy of all body systems. He described bones, muscles, ligaments, internal organs, but his services were especially great in the study of the nervous system. Galen described all parts of the brain and spinal cord, seven (out of twelve) pairs of cranial nerves, 58 spinal nerves and nerves of internal organs. He made extensive use of transverse and longitudinal sections of the spinal cord in order to study sensory and movement disorders below the site of the section.

He described in detail the anatomical structure of the heart, coronary vessels to the arterial (botall) duct. Moreover, Galen mistakenly considered the septum of the heart to be permeable to blood (as is the case in the fetus). In his opinion, blood could freely pass from the right heart to the left, bypassing the peripheral vessels and the circles of blood circulation known to us (Galen did not know the circular movement of blood). For many centuries, this erroneous point of view was considered absolutely correct in Europe and was not subject to criticism until the 16th century, when the Spanish scholar-theologian M. Servetus, in his work "The Renaissance of Christianity", for the first time (in Europe) described the pulmonary circulation (see . p. 185). The mathematical and experimental substantiation of the circular motion of blood was given only in 1628 by the English scientist W. Harvey.

Galen was widely engaged in medical practice. His doctrine of disease was humoral in nature and was based on the concept of four main body juices: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. He was an experienced surgeon and considered anatomy to be the foundation of surgery. "I often had," he wrote, "to lead surgeons who were not very sophisticated in anatomy, and thus save them from public shame."

Galen made a great contribution to the development of pharmacology. A number of medicines obtained by mechanical and physicochemical processing of natural raw materials (as suggested by Galen) are still called "galenic preparations" (a term introduced by Paracelsus, 1493-1541).

Galen lived during the period of the disintegration of the slave system, when idealistic tendencies revived in philosophy. A great influence on the formation of Galen's worldview was exerted both by the philosophy of Plato, which, along with cosmological dualism (ideas and matter), recognized anthropological dualism (body and soul), and Aristotle's doctrine of the expediency of everything created in nature (teleology).

Proceeding from Plato's doctrine of pneuma, Galen believed that in the body "pneuma" lives in various types: in the brain - "mental pneuma" (spiritus animalis), in the heart - "vital pneuma" (spiritus vitalis), - in the liver - " natural pneuma "(spiritus naturalis). He explained all life processes by the action of non-material "forces" that are formed during the decomposition of pneuma: the nerves carry "mental strength" (vis animalis), the liver gives the blood "natural strength" (vis natu-ralis), the pulse arises under the action of the "pulsating force" ... (vis pulsitiva), etc. Such interpretations gave an idealistic content to the painstakingly collected experimental material of Galen. He correctly described what he saw, but interpreted the results obtained in an idealistic way. This is the dualism of the teachings of Galen.

Galenism.

In the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church and scholasticism used the idealistic aspects of Galen's teachings and connected them with theology. This is how Galenism arose - a distorted, one-sided understanding of the teachings of Galen.

Renaissance medicine (in general, so as not to write about this in every question)

The Renaissance period, which began in the 14th century. and lasted for almost 200 years, was one of the most revolutionary and fruitful in the history of mankind. The invention of printing and gunpowder, the discovery of America, the new cosmology of Copernicus, the Reformation, the great geographical discoveries - all these new influences contributed to the liberation of science and medicine from the dogmatic shackles of medieval scholasticism. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 scattered Greek scholars with their invaluable manuscripts throughout Europe. Now Aristotle and Hippocrates could be studied in the original, and not in the Latin translations from the Hebrew translations of the Arabic translations of the Syriac translations from the Greek.

However, one should not think that the old medical theories and methods of treatment immediately gave way to scientific medicine. Dogmatic approaches were too deeply rooted; in Renaissance medicine, the original Greek texts simply replaced inaccurate and distorted translations. But in the related disciplines, physiology and anatomy, which form the basis of scientific medicine, there have been truly tremendous changes.


 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the first modern anatomist; he performed autopsies and opened the maxillary sinus, the conducting bundle in the heart, the ventricles of the brain. His masterfully executed anatomical drawings are very accurate; unfortunately they were not published until very recently. Anatomical works by another master, however, were published in 1543, along with remarkable drawings. Born in Brussels, Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), professor of surgery and anatomy in Padua, published a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corpore fabrica, 1543), based on observations and autopsies. This landmark book refuted many of Galen's misconceptions and became the foundation of modern anatomy. The pulmonary circulation was discovered independently and almost simultaneously by Realdo Colombo (1510-1559) and Miguel Servetus (1511-1553). Gabriele Fallopius (1523-1562), successor of Vesalius and Colombo in Padua, discovered and described the total number of anatomical structures, in particular the semicircular canals, sphenoid sinuses, trigeminal, auditory and glossopharyngeal nerves, the canal of the facial nerve and fallopian tubes, still often called fallopian. In Rome, Bartolomeo Eustachius (c. 1520-1574), still formally a follower of Galen, made important anatomical discoveries, first describing the thoracic duct, kidneys, larynx and auditory (Eustachian) tube. The work of Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541), one of the outstanding personalities of the Renaissance, is full of contradictions characteristic of that time. In a number of aspects, it is extremely progressive: the scientist insisted on bridging the gap between medicine and surgery; demanded to keep wounds clean, not recognizing the idea of ​​the need for their suppuration; simplified the form of recipes. On the other hand, he was deeply immersed in alchemy and sympathetic magic. If the plague raged in the Middle Ages, then the Renaissance became the victim of another terrible disease. The question of where and when syphilis first appeared remains unresolved, but the sudden spread of its acute and transient form in Naples in 1495 is a historical fact. The French called syphilis "the Neapolitan disease" and the Spaniards "the French". The name "syphilis" appeared in the poem by Girolamo Fracastoro (1483-1553), who can be considered the first epidemiologist. In his main work On contagion ... (De contagione ...), the idea of ​​the specificity of diseases replaced the old humoral theory. He was the first to identify typhus, described the various methods of infection, pointed out the infectious nature of tuberculosis. The microscope had yet to be invented, and Fracastoro had already put forward the idea of ​​the existence of invisible "seeds of infection" that multiply and penetrate the body. Surgery during the Renaissance was still in the hands of barbers and, as a kind of occupation, was below medicine. As long as anesthesia remained unknown and suppuration was considered necessary for wound healing, significant progress could not be expected. However, some operations were performed for the first time at that time: Pierre Franco performed a suprapubic cystotomy (opening of the bladder), and Fabrice Gildan performed an amputation of the thigh. Gasparo Tagliacozzi, despite the opposition of clerical circles, performed plastic surgery, restoring the shape of the nose in patients with syphilis. Famous for his numerous discoveries in the field of anatomy and embryology, Fabrizius Aquapendente (1537-1619) taught anatomy and surgery in Padua from 1562 and summarized the surgical knowledge of his time in the two-volume work Opera chirurgica, published already in the 17th century. (in 1617). Ambroise Paré (c. 1510-1590) was distinguished by a simple and rational approach to surgery. He was a military surgeon, not a scientist. At that time, boiling oil was used to cauterize wounds. Once in a military campaign, when the oil supply was used up, Paré applied a simple dressing with excellent results. After that, he abandoned the barbaric practice of moxibustion. His belief in the healing power of nature is expressed in the famous saying: "I bandaged him, and God healed him." Paré has also revived an ancient but forgotten method of ligation.

Methodology for preparing for classes (3 hours).

The purpose of the lesson: to form an idea of ​​the features and patterns of development of medicine.

Tasks:

Define the history of medicine as a science and subject of teaching;

To characterize the main stages of the development of medicine in connection with the development and change of socio-economic formations;

To characterize the sources of the study of the history of medicine;

Get acquainted with the methodology for preparing a report and writing an abstract.

Master the basic concepts of a historical and medical nature, master the information minimum (facts, dates, personalities, discoveries, etc.),

To master the ability to apply the historical-analytical approach, the historical method in assessing the development of medicine in different eras, to use knowledge on the history of medicine for professional development and self-education, to master the methodology of research work;

Learn to work with reference literature, compile a bibliography on the topic, analyze primary sources, abstract, analyze and summarize scientific literature, formulate a problem, the goal and conclusions of the study, speak to an audience, lead a discussion;

To master the following types of work: note-taking and analysis of sources, preparation of an oral answer to the questions of the seminar; messages (reports), writing abstracts.

The history of medicine as a science that studies the development of medical theory and practice is closely connected with the development of society, the change of socio-economic formations, the history of the culture of peoples.

The history of medicine consists of two sections: general and private history of medicine. The general history of medicine studies the key issues of the development of medicine as a whole, its characteristic features and distinctive features, the most important discoveries and achievements. Private - studies the emergence and development of individual specialties (therapy, surgery, pediatrics, etc.) and the activities of prominent medical scientists in these areas of knowledge.

Studying the past of medicine, we can assess the achievements of modern medicine and trace the prospects for its development. Knowledge of the history of medicine is of great importance for the formation of the worldview of a future doctor, enriching him with theoretical knowledge, the ability to analyze current events, fostering a sense of humanism and patriotism.

Medicine - the same age as the first person on Earth. Its story begins with the emergence of man. In this regard, the study of the history of medicine is based on the periodization of world history adopted in modern historical science, according to which the world-historical process is divided into five main periods: the primitive era, the ancient world, the Middle Ages, modern times and recent (or modern) history ( Table 1).

Table 1.

The past of medicine is recreated based on the study of facts, sources. All historical sources are divided into 7 main groups: written, material (material), ethnographic, oral (folklore), linguistic, film and photo documents, phono documents.

Written sources is a handwritten or printed document made on papyrus, ceramics, paper, stone, clay, wood, bark, etc. They can be genuine or copies.

Material (material) sources , the bulk of which are archaeological sites, include anthropological material (human fossil remains). The science that studies the diseases of ancient people from bone remains is called paleopathology.

Ethnographic sources characterize the phenomena of cultural and social life inherited by mankind from previous eras. These include superstitions, rituals, beliefs, customs, beliefs, etc.

Oral (folklore) sources - these are created by the people and are characterized by an oral form of transmission of images of reality.

Linguistic sources - display in speech form of real historical reality.

Cinema, photo documents- sources recording events that can be replayed.

Phono documents reflect the sound side of a historical fact and represent a phonogram made at the time of the event.

Working with sources to prepare an abstract and report.

Source note-taking plan:

1. The student reads the entire document.

2. records the name of the source, the time of its creation and the name of the author.

3. highlights the main idea, which is stated in 1-2 sentences.

4. The main provisions of the source are recorded point by point.

5. ends the synopsis with a short conclusion in 1-3 sentences.

Source Analysis Plan:

1. time and place of creation of the source (characteristics of the era and medicine).

3.genre of the source (memoirs, public speech, scientific work, textbook, etc.)

4. history of creation and fate of the text.

5. analysis, problems, new methods, concept, originality of the source.

Preparation of an oral answer to the seminar questions:

1. familiarize yourself with all available material on a given topic.

2. to isolate what is in common with other eras and states.

3. to isolate what is special for a given era or state.

4. Prepare short (1-2 sentences) answers to points that decipher the main questions of the seminar.

Plan for the preparation of messages (reports):

The message time should not exceed 5 - 7 minutes.

1.select literature on a given topic (at least 2-3 sources)

2. clearly formulate the topic of the message (report).

3. state the dates of the events to be reported.

4. to define new terms and concepts that will appear in the message.

5. Summarize the material, focusing on innovation and discovery.

6. draw a conclusion, describing what kind of impact the events outlined had on the development of medicine.

Abstract - a form of educational research work of students,

allowing to master the skills of research work, to determine the degree of study of the problem, to highlight key issues, to draw conclusions on the topic. This is a generalized and systematic presentation of the topic based on the study of sources and literature, as well as the opinions and conclusions of the author.

Operating procedure:

a) compile a bibliography on the topic,

b) think over a work plan,

c) formulate the problem, the purpose of the work, the relevance of the topic,

d) prepare extracts from sources and literature,

e) adjust the plan and purpose of the work,

f) write a text, formulate conclusions.

Work structure:

1.the title page (the name of the university, department, topic name, surname and number of the student's group, year and city of creation of the work are indicated)

2. outline or content with indication of pages.

3. introduction (statement of the problem, relevance of the topic, purpose and objectives of the work, review of sources and literature) - volume 1-2 pages.

4. main part (contains from two to four chapters, which can be divided into paragraphs, and each chapter necessarily ends with a conclusion) - volume of 10 - 15 pages.

5. conclusion (summarizes the conclusions in chapters, corresponds to the goal set in the introduction) - up to 1 page.

6. list of used sources and literature.

Examples:

1. Gioev N.A. On the guard of health. - Ordzh., 1960 .-- 202 p.

2. Danilishina E.I. The main stages and directions of development of domestic obstetrics (XVIII - XX centuries). Abstract of thesis. dissertation ... doctor of medical sciences, M., 1998. - 48 p.

3. Mirsky M.B. Proto-Slavic medicine // Clinical medicine, 1999,

No. 2, p.65-67.

4. Proceedings of the I Congress of Doctors of the Terek Region. Vladikavkaz, 1912 .-- 355 p.

Control questions.

1. Give a definition of the history of medicine as a science, name its goals and objectives.

2. What are the main methods and principles of studying the history of medicine.

3. What periodization is used in the study of the history of medicine.

4. Give a chronology of historical periods.

4. Name the sources that allow you to study the past of medicine.

Literature for the lesson:

1... Sorokina T.S. History of Medicine. A textbook for students of honey. universities - M .: Academy. - 2004.

2. Lisitsyn Yu.P. History of Medicine. Textbook. - M .: Publishing house "GEOTAR-MED", 2004.

3. Zabludovsky P.E., Hook G.R., Kuzmin M.K, Levit T.M. History of Medicine. Textbook. - M .: "Medicine", 1981.

LESSON No. 2.

Topic: Medicine in the era of the primitive communal system.

Medicine of ancient eastern civilizations. Practicing childbirth and caring for newborn babies.(3 hours)

The purpose of the lesson: to acquaint students with the history of medicine of the primitive society, healing and traditional folk medicine of the ancient world.

Lesson objectives:

1. To highlight the development of medicine in a primitive society, the formation of ideas about the causes of the disease.

2. To get acquainted with the history of medicine and elements of obstetrics and newborn care in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ancient India, Ancient China, etc.