What are the types of rural settlements on different continents

Answers:

Urban settlements - settlements performing the following national economic functions (one or more in various combinations): 1) industrial; 2) transport; 3) organizational, economic, cultural, political and administrative; 4) the functions of organizing recreation and treatment (resorts). To determine urban settlements, it is necessary to proceed from a set of indicators: population size, its employment, economic and cultural significance of the settlement, taking into account the local characteristics of different countries and regions. ... There are a great many names for rural settlements. If we take only Russia, then here - these are villages, villages, settlements, farms, stanitsa, etc. In other countries, their specific names are used (auls, villages, etc.). And although the names reflect to some extent the functional specifics of a rural settlement, it is hardly possible to speak of a scientific typology of rural settlements on this basis. According to the prevailing functions in the social division of labor, two large types of rural settlements can be distinguished: agricultural and non-agricultural. There is also a type - agroindustrial settlements.

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Population of settlements (i.e., their size by the number of inhabitants) is associated with the production functions of the settlement, with the form of settlement, with the history of the given settlement. When classifying settlements according to their population in statistical records, all of them are distributed into a greater or lesser number of groups, from the smallest (1-5 inhabitants) to the largest (10 thousand inhabitants or more), following the general principles of statistical groupings. From a typological point of view, it is important to single out such population sizes, which are associated with significant qualitative features of settlements.

So, a special type - one-yard, single, detached housing - represents the majority of settlements with a population of less than 10 people. Small settlements with up to 100 residents, as well as isolated residential areas, are most dependent on the nearest larger settlements in terms of serving their population. Only selectively (in one small village for a whole territorial group of them) can some elements of public services be created (an elementary school, a medical center, a red corner, a reading room or a club, a village store - all of the smallest sizes).

With a size of 200-500 inhabitants, each settlement can have a similar minimum set of service institutions, but equally small in size, providing the population with relatively limited opportunities for cultural and everyday services. An agricultural settlement of this size, in organizational terms, can be the base of a certain production unit (a collective farm brigade, a branch, or a large farm of a state farm).

With the size of a rural settlement of 3-5 thousand inhabitants, the most favorable opportunities are created to provide the urban 1st level of improvement and cultural and consumer services with the construction of large standard schools, houses of culture, medical institutions, a specialized trade network, etc. In terms of production, such settlements are recognized as optimal as centers of large farms in conditions that allow for a significant concentration of labor and production facilities.

Functional types of rural settlements. People are engaged in various types of activities, and settlements play different roles in the territorial organization of social production. These differences are taken into account in the first place in the functional typology.

In the population of settlements, several groups can be distinguished: 1) employed in agriculture; 2) those employed in forestry; 3) employed in external transport; 4) employed in industry; 5) combining occupations in agriculture and industry in the same settlement (in different seasons of the year); 6) employed in institutions (economic, administrative, cultural, medical, trade), to a large extent serving other villages of the region; 7) employed in various institutions, mainly serving the "temporary" population arriving in a given place for rest, treatment.

Let's consider the most common functional types of rural settlements.

Among agricultural settlements, two main functional types are the central settlements of collective and state farms.

As a rule, this is the largest settlement on a collective farm or state farm, housing a significant part of its population (sometimes the entire population) and the main production buildings, as well as the largest public buildings on a collective farm or state farm - a club, a school, etc. The central settlement is usually built and developed at a faster pace than the rest of the kolkhoz settlements or branch settlements on the sovkhoz.

Other types of settlements common on collective farms are brigade settlements of field-crop and complex brigades, "branches" of brigade settlements, undifferentiated "ordinary" settlements, and various specialized settlements.

Brigade villages are the most numerous in modern collective farm settlement. Collective farm members living in such a settlement form a production team (sometimes several teams in large settlements). A certain economic territory is assigned to the brigade, adjacent to this village, it has its own production facilities (the utility yard of the brigade), and all this constitutes a section, an organizational unit of the collective farm.

Brigade villages of complex brigades are distinguished by the fact that they have a wider "set" of production functions and economic independence, serving, in addition to field lands, also farms, sometimes gardens, subsidiary enterprises, etc., located on the territory of a given production site of the collective farm. Often these are the former central settlements of small collective farms, which subsequently merged in the order of enlargement, retaining a number of industrial facilities and public buildings.

Along with this, there are several types of highly specialized kolkhoz settlements, usually small in size. Of these, the most common are near-farm settlements with those livestock farms that are located according to local conditions (mainly due to the need to bring them closer to natural forage lands and fields requiring manure fertilization) remote from existing settlements. Their sizes are limited by the size of farms permissible for economic reasons and also depend on the degree of mechanization of labor operations in animal husbandry.

The main types of settlements of state farms, in addition to the central settlements (central farmstead), are the settlements of branches and farms. In terms of their position in the economy, they are similar to the brigade and farm villages of collective farms. A significant part of the state farm settlements were built anew, according to the plan, in full accordance with the projects of the organization of the economy, therefore, such settlements have a very clearly expressed functional type, a homogeneous composition of the population, consisting of workers and employees of this enterprise. In those state farms that were created on the basis of some lagging collective farms and have not yet managed to carry out the necessary restructuring of settlement on their territory, one can find state farm settlements - analogs of settlements and branch settlements that are not differentiated in their position in the economy (constituting only a part of branch of the state farm).

A special functional type is made up of permanent specialized settlements of workers and employees at separate procurement points (especially for the procurement of livestock, which is kept and fattened at such a point before completing batches for shipment to meat processing plants). They are usually very small.

Seasonally inhabited points - "second dwellings", used by part of the workers on collective and state farms for temporary stay in areas of the economic territory remote from the main settlements, are of great variety in their functional types. They always have certain industrial buildings and a place to sleep, sometimes devices for domestic and cultural services, functioning temporarily, during the period of use of this item.

The most common are agricultural field camps and livestock centers on seasonal pastures, differing in seasons and duration of use. Along with them, in different districts there are hayfields, horticultural mills, points of receipt and delivery of agricultural products, etc.

Field camps of collective farms and state farms with a short period of use (sowing, harvesting, sometimes caring for crops and preparing land for sowing) accommodate a fairly large population (a field crew or a significant part of it, up to 60-100 people) and in its modern form represent a group of houses -dormitories with a dining room, shower room, red corner, first-aid post, trade stall, etc., with sheds for storing equipment and fertilizers; in their most primitive form, they represent a group of light buildings, adapted for temporary lodging, eating and storing necessary property. They are common in areas where agriculture is carried out on vast tracts of arable land with a sparse network of permanent settlements.

Seasonal livestock centers are especially widespread in areas of desert pasture and mountain livestock raising, where their number is many times greater than the number of permanent settlements. Their types and variants are extremely diverse, most often they consist of 1-2 residential buildings near wells, livestock buildings or corrals. There are also more complex forms, up to entire seasonal settlements with schools, medical centers, shops, which play the role of temporary centers for laboring livestock breeders in remote, intensively used pasture areas.

Non-agricultural settlements in rural areas are represented by very different types associated with the implementation of various national economic functions. Among non-agricultural rural settlements, the following functional types, or groups of types, are distinguished.

1. Settlements of industrial enterprises, in terms of their size, do not meet the "census" established for urban settlements. In terms of the degree of their ties with agriculture, various small workers' settlements in rural areas constitute a certain "typological series" - from completely "autonomous" (for example, mining enterprises, individual textile and other factories with their settlements) to closely related ones (settlements at starch, vegetable drying, wine, dairy and other factories; villages of local enterprises for the production of building materials).

2. Settlements on the routes of communication. Most of them are connected with railway transport - from one-yard “residential points” of trackmen scattered on the lines, to sidings and small stations. A smaller number of them serve waterways (estates of beacons, carriers, villages at sluices, pier, etc.), small airports, highways (villages on road sections, gas stations, etc.). In recent years, settlements have appeared that serve gas and product pipelines, their pumping stations, as well as long-distance power transmission lines.

3. Villages of builders with new buildings. Most of them, for a limited period of their existence, belong to "rural" settlements, constituting a special, specific type of inhabited places (more precisely, a group of types, since along with crowded workers' settlements there are also single "barracks" - dormitories on lines under construction, gatehouses and hostels at warehouses and bases, etc.). Upon the fulfillment of their functions, they either disappear or are absorbed by the urban settlement arising at a new industrial point, and sometimes they turn into a rural non-agricultural settlement of a different type (industrial, transport settlement - see above).

4. Timber industry and forest protection villages. Timber industrial settlements are located, as a rule, on the routes of timber transportation and very often on floatable routes, at the points of exit of logging roads to floatable routes6. Their main types are: a) settlements of forest areas, where teams of lumberjacks live; b) villages of logging stations, uniting several sites; c) the center of the timber industry - the central village for a specific local system of forest settlements; d) intermediate settlements on the timber export routes (floating, transshipment); e) villages at the exit of the forest to the main roads (usually these are already mixed-type settlements, combined with a pristanskiy or station village); f) settlements on the main roads - roadstead, near the zapane, etc. Settlements of type "a" (often others) have usually a limited period of existence (until the depletion of forest resources in a given place); when designing logging, it is determined at 10-15 years. But the same settlements are quickly emerging elsewhere. The settlements of the forestry and forest protection services (cordons, forest guards) are smaller in size, but more durable.

5. Fishing and hunting and fishing villages. A large state-owned fishing industry, as a rule, creates large urban-type settlements with ports, fish factories, refrigerators, etc. But there are many fishing collective farms and fishing brigades in agricultural collective farms with their villages on the shores of moraines and lakes, on rivers and river channels, in deltas, etc. There are also small specialized villages - "rear bases" of commercial hunting in northern collective farms , villages - supply bases for reindeer herding brigades, etc.

6. Settlements of scientific stations, permanent (at observatories, meteorological stations, etc.) or temporary (bases of exploration parties, expeditions).

7. Settlements of health and education institutions are of different types: a) camps for staff at rural schools and hospitals located at some distance from the villages; b) out-of-town hospitals, homes for the disabled, sanatoriums that form whole villages with their own facilities; c) orphanages, forest boarding schools located in the middle of nature, in the countryside; d) villages of rest houses, suburban sports and tourist centers. Most of these functional types are characterized by a predominance (or a significant proportion) of a temporary, "variable" population.

Along with the permanent ones, there are also seasonal settlements of this kind - at tourist bases for winter or summer use, mountaineering camps, at summer pioneer camps.

8. Dacha villages are the second housing of a part of the urban population in the summer. In fact, this is a special type of seasonal inhabited settlements that differ from the previous group (tourist camps, rest houses, etc.) in that, like most modern agricultural settlements, they consist of individual cells - single-family houses, estates. Collective farm villages, which are used simultaneously as summer cottages (renting out rooms for the summer) or resort villages, do not belong to this type, as well as “bedroom villages”, the population of which works in the city.

9. Out-of-town residential settlements of workers and employees (“bedroom” villages in rural areas). This specific type of settlement is widespread in the near suburban area of ​​large cities, forming a kind of "residential branches" of the city. They historically arose in the process of urbanization in all countries of the world with large cities, with convenient and fast transport links with the city as a place of work for their inhabitants. They are often large in size, constituting a special kind of satellites in a large city and greatly increasing the daily passenger traffic between it and its suburban area. This type of settlements is distinguished by the fact that the common function of “dwelling place” for all settlements is here and the only one.

Agrarian-industrial settlements in rural areas should be divided into two fundamentally different groups: in some cases, work in industry and work in agriculture are carried out by different persons living in a given settlement, in other cases, the work of the same persons is used at different times (the main seasonally) in various industries. The existing types of agro-industrial settlements belong to the first group. The second form of combining various branches of production in rural settlements is just beginning to develop (being very progressive and promising) and still exists in the initial stages in settlements of individual large collective and state farms that have their own production enterprises.

Among the agrarian-industrial settlements of the first group, representing a combination of an agricultural settlement and an industrial settlement, several types stand out depending on the nature of industrial production and its ties with agriculture.

One of the types is characterized by the development in an agricultural settlement of industrial processing of local agricultural products (sugar, butter, butter, vegetable canning, starch and other factories). Another type is formed by a combination of agricultural and timber industry enterprises (and the former often turn into an auxiliary “food shop” of the timber industry enterprise). The third type is created with the development in an agricultural settlement of industries serving local needs, working in whole or in part on local raw materials. The fourth type is made up of settlements, where, along with agriculture, small enterprises of non-local importance have arisen, using local subsoil resources. The fifth type can be attributed to the common combination of an agricultural village and a village of a small industrial enterprise that is not associated with the use of local raw materials and the local market (such are, for example, many metalworking and textile industries that historically developed in rural settlements that were previously centers of the corresponding handicraft industries).

Technological map of the geography lesson
	Where people live: cities and countryside
The purpose of the lesson	achieve educational results: Personal outcome - to be aware of the practical and personal significance of the educational material Metasubject result - be able to analyze text, graphic and audiovisual information, independently formulate and solve cognitive tasks based on information analysis, establish logical connections. Subject result - know the main types of settlements: cities and rural settlements
Lesson Objectives	1) To form knowledge about settlements, about the ratio of the urban and rural population of the world, about the leading role of cities in the economic, cultural and political life of the population; 2) Continue work on teaching students how to work with text and pictures of a textbook as sources of new knowledge; 3) To form the experience of independent overcoming of cognitive difficulties on the basis of the reflective method; 4) To practice the ability to analyze, compare and reason, the ability to evaluate their activities, communication skills to listen to each other, express their point of view and argue for it, work in a group.
Planned results:	Subject Compare city ​​and rural settlements in appearance, size and occupation of the population. Drive examples of different types of rural settlements in the world. Analyze changes in the urban population over time. Analyze a diagram of the ratio of the urban and rural population of the world. Define according to different sources of information functions of cities.		Cognitive UUD 1. Analyze, compare and summarize facts. Identify the reasons. 2. Subtract all levels of text information. 3. Convert information from one type to another. Draw up different types of plans. 4. Be able to identify possible sources of necessary information, search for information, analyze and evaluate its reliability. Communicative UUD 1. Defending your point of view, give arguments, confirming them with facts. 2. To be able to look at the situation from a different position and negotiate with people of other positions. 3. Understanding the position of the other, to distinguish in his speech: opinion (point of view), proof (arguments), facts. Regulatory UUD 1. To independently detect and formulate an educational problem, to determine the goal of educational activity. 2. To put forward versions of the solution to the problem, to be aware of the final result, to choose from the proposed ones and to search independently for the means of achieving the goal. 3. Check your actions against the goal and, if necessary, correct mistakes yourself. 4. In dialogue with the teacher, improve independently developed assessment criteria. Personal UUD 1. Assess your own actions and the actions of other people from the standpoint of social norms. 2. Show an emotional value attitude towards the environment, the need for its conservation and rational use.
Lesson type	General methodological lesson
Forms of work	Individual, group
Basic concepts	Cities, rural settlements. Their differences from each other
Sources of information	A.P. Kuznetsov, L.E. Saveliev, V.P. Dronov Geography. Land and people. 7th grade Atlas Geography. Land and people. 7th grade
	Worksheet, multimedia presentation, or Smart Notebook presentation
Organizational stage
Include students in educational activities	Good afternoon friends! I am glad to see you, and really want to start working with you! Smile at each other, and now to me.
Updating knowledge and fixing difficulties in individual activities
Update educational content necessary and sufficient for the perception of new material	Frontal poll: We have begun to study a large section. What is it called? (Man on Earth) What question we have already studied (students' answers) What do you think is all the material in this section? What else do you need to learn? (students' answers) And so we continue to study the section "Man on Earth"
Preparing students for work at the main stage
Organize communicative interaction, during which formulate the topic of the lesson, the purpose of the lesson and the lesson plan, as well as bring the students to the problematic issue	Look, I brought a black box with me. What do you think it might contain? ( children's answers ) I hint, these items are related to the topic of our lesson ( children's answers ) (I take a tram, a horse and a cow out of a box ). Why did I bring them to our lesson. How can they be related to the topic of the lesson? What associations do they evoke in you? ( children's answers ) And what will the topic of our lesson be called? And read what I have written. EYNNELESAN YTKNUP (populated areas) Write to your worksheet What is our goal? ( children's answers ) Write to your worksheet To reach the goal of the lesson, we need to outline an action plan. What is a settlement? What are the cities and rural settlements? How different types of settlements differ
The stage of assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action
Provide the perception, comprehension and primary consolidation of the studied material by students		We are starting to implement our plan. How do we always work with what? ( children's answers ) Using the text of the textbook, give the definition of "settlement" or "settlement" (Places where people live are called settlements or settlements) How are they spread over the surface of the Earth? (they meet between 78 0 s.sh and 54 0 south latitude and at altitudes up to 5300 m above sea level) What types of settlements are there? (cities and rural settlements) Make notes on your worksheet. And so, we found out what settlements are. What do we need to know next ? (What is the difference between different types of settlements?). Problematic question: Tell me, is there a place on Earth where everyone would like to live? Now we are working in groups. First group works with rural settlements, second group with the city. Your task: to find the characteristic features of each type of settlement. The result of your work is a completed table. Questions - tips to help you. The difference between an urban lifestyle and a rural lifestyle Sphere of life		Rural settlements	Cities
Living conditions Which houses are prevalent?	One-story houses with stove heating prevail	Multi-storey buildings with all conveniences prevail
Classes What is the majority of the population doing?	Agriculture	I work in industrial enterprises, in trade, in transport
The rhythm of life What is the rhythm of life: calm or fast? Is it related to natural rhythms?	Calm, associated with natural rhythms	Intense, artificial (on a tight schedule)
Movement How does the majority of the population travel?	Most of the population walks	Most of the population travels by bus, tram, etc.
Communication	Everyone knows everything about each other; external control over the behavior of everyone	Ignorance of the life of others
Nutrition What foods are prevalent in the diet?	Products grown on our own site	Store-bought products

And now I ask you to present the results of your work, the opposite group makes entries in the worksheet (group report on the work done)

Well done! All have coped with the task. (physical minute)

Now, let's make a conclusion? So which settlement is called a city? (children's answers) ... Let's make an entry in the worksheet.

Where and when did the first cities appear? Are there cities in our region? Name them.

In terms of population, cities are: small up to 50 thousand, medium 50-100 thousand, large more than 100 thousand, millionaires over 1 million people. What group do you think our cities belong to? ( children's answers )

What is called an urban agglomeration? Where is the largest one located? Are there urban agglomerations in Russia? What are their names? ( children's answers )

What functions can cities perform? Make notes on the worksheet.

We are now working well with rural settlements. Let's first define what a countryside is? (territory outside the city). And what settlements will we call rural? Write your definition on a worksheet.

Now let's see what types of rural populations there are in different parts of the world. To do this, we will perform the following task: the worksheet contains drawings of rural settlements. I will read to you the definition of the item, and you should guess what it is about.

Settlement located outside the city limits. Can be a worker, resort, country house (village)

Detached homestead, which is located on a separate plot of land, which is in the use of this owner (farm)

Large Cossack settlement (page)

Large estate in Brazil. Also called the program on 1 channel (hacienda)

Settlement in the mountains. From the Turkic language - "village" (aul)

Small peasant settlement with no church (village)

Homestead, cattle farm in the USA (ranch)

A village in Central Asia. From the Turkic language - "winter quarters" (village)

One of the oldest types of settlements among the Slavs (settlement with a church) (village).

And we live with you, in what locality? What features of the city can be noted? What features of the countryside do we show? Do you know that in 2011 we held a referendum, where most of the population expressed their desire that the urban-type settlement of Seryshevo should become a village. What do you think? (children's answers).

And so, we have done a great job. Tell me, have we achieved our goal?

Summarize what you learned in class today (children's answers).

The stage of the initial verification of the understanding of what has been learned

1. Establish the correctness and awareness of the material studied.

2. Identify gaps in the primary comprehension of the studied material, misconceptions of students

Well done! Now I suggest you complete the next task. A well-known proverb is encrypted in front of you. Read it?

ABVGVSYAKYEDI

KULIKNOPROMS

VARTYFSVOEBD

TOBOLOTORVSK

DLHACHVALITSI

Every sandpiper praises his swamp. How do you understand this proverb? Good. And now I suggest that you praise the settlements. Now we are changing: the first group praises the city, the second the village.

The stage of consolidating new knowledge and methods of action

Ensure, in the course of consolidation, an increase in the level of comprehension of the studied material, the depth of its understanding

And so, we have done a great job. Tell me, have we achieved our goal? Have we reached our goal?

What did we do in the lesson today to achieve this goal?

Summarize what you learned in class today (children's answers).

Let's get back to our problematic question: Tell me, is there a place on Earth where everyone would like to live?

What can you say now about this (Probably not. All people are different: one likes the frantic pace of life among skyscrapers, another is a quiet life in a small town, the third cannot live anywhere except in his native village in the mountains. For some, the most important thing is interesting work, for others clean air , for the third - friendly neighbors, for the fourth - a warm climate, etc. therefore for society as a whole and for each individual person, a variety of cities and villages are important and necessary)

Homework Information Stage

Provide learners with an understanding of the purpose, content and way of doing homework

Paragraph 15

Choice task:

Create a presentation or brochure on Unusual Cities

Debriefing stage

Give a qualitative assessment of the work of the class and individual students

Let's summarize the lesson and rate our work. Who can be distinguished in the lesson today?

Reflection stage

Ensure learners learn the principles of self-regulation and cooperation

Guys, I want to draw your attention to the walls, the statements of great people on them. Think 5 seconds and tell me which phrase best reflects your activity in the lesson, what suits you best:

Knowledge begins with surprise

Aristotle

I know that I know nothing .

Socrates

Tell me and I will forget.

Show me and I will understand

Let me do it myself

And I will learn

Confucius

Each natural zone has its own types of rural settlements and their distribution across the territory. In addition, dwellings differ in different natural conditions. Highly urbanized rural settlements are being formed near the cities.

Rice. 2. Hut in the zone of mixed forests ()

The best conditions for farming are in natural zones of steppes, forest-steppes, deciduous forests and subtropics. It is within these natural zones that most of the rural residents of Russia live.

There are 150 thousand rural settlements in Russia. But over time, the number of rural settlements and rural residents in Russia is decreasing. This is due to the development of industry, restructuring of the economy, the absence of schools, hospitals and other socially important institutions in rural areas, and often poor and difficult living conditions.

The main types of rural settlements in Russia:

1. Village (fig. 3)
2. Stanitsa
3. Village
4. Khutor
5. Nomadic settlements, etc.

Rice. 3. A village in the Kaluga region ()

Types of rural settlements by population:

1. Small (up to 100 people)
2. Medium (from 100 to 1000 people)
3. Large (over 1000 people)

Residents of rural settlements are employed in agriculture, forestry, and industry. Rural settlements are used for recreation of both rural residents and tired townspeople (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Rest in the village ()

Buranovo

Buranovo is a village in Udmurtia. It was from this village that the Buranovskie Babushki collective took the honorable 2nd place at Eurovision in 2012 (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. "Buranovskie grandmothers" at Eurovision ()

John Kopiski

John Kopiski is a successful entrepreneur who came to Russia and became a farmer.

Elk farm

Elk farms - farms for raising elk at home (in the countryside).

Lykovs

The Lykovs are a family that lived without urban and modern amenities in the taiga.

Bibliography

The main

1. Geography of Russia: Textbook. for 8-9 cl. general education. institutions / Ed. A.I. Alekseeva: In 2 books. Book. 1: Nature and people. 8 cl. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, 2009 .-- 320 p.
2. Geography of Russia. Nature. 8th grade: textbook. for general education. institutions / I.I. Barinov. - M .: Bustard; Moscow textbooks, 2011 .-- 303 p.
3. Geography. 8th grade: atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, DIK, 2013 .-- 48 p.
4. Geography. Russia. Nature and people. 8th grade: Atlas - 7th ed., Revision. - M .: Bustard; DIK Publishing House, 2010 - 56 p.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography. Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin - M .: Rosmen-Press, 2006 .-- 624 p.

Literature for preparing for the State Examination and the Unified State Exam

1. Thematic control. Geography. The nature of Russia. Grade 8: study guide. - Moscow: Intellect-Center, 2010 .-- 144 p.
2. Tests in the geography of Russia: grades 8-9: k textbooks, ed. V.P. Dronov “Geography of Russia. 8-9 grades: textbook. for general education. institutions "/ V.I. Evdokimov. - M .: Publishing house "Examination", 2009. - 109 p.
3. Getting ready for the GIA. Geography. 8th grade. Final testing in the format of an exam. / Auth.-comp. T.V. Abramov. - Yaroslavl: LLC "Academy of Development", 2011. - 64 p.
4. Tests. Geography. 6-10 grades: Teaching aid / A.A. Letyagin. - M .: OOO "Agency" KRPA "Olymp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.

1. Federal Institute for Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Russian Geographical Society ().
3. Geografia.ru ().
4. Federal State Statistics Service ().

Homework

Clause 57.

1. What are the main types of rural settlements.

Report 522 pp., 2 h., 201 figures, 16 tables, 164 sources, 13 app.

MODELS, SETTLEMENTS, XXI , TYPOLOGY, SUSTAINABILITY, DEVELOPMENT, FACTORS, ARCHITECTURE, VILLAGE, AGRICULTURE.

The object of the research is the development of rural settlements XXI century based on the analysis of domestic and foreign experience.

The purpose of the work is to develop viable models of rural settlements of the XXI century on the basis of studying the historical and socio-cultural characteristics of rural settlements and rural areas, taking into account domestic and foreign experience, on the basis of modern research and design methods.

The results of this research work will make it possible to obtain an objective assessment of the state of research in the field of studying rural settlements in Russia and abroad, as well as the level of development of programs for the preservation and development of both historical and modern villages and villages and to develop modern models of rural settlements of the 21st century.

In the process of carrying out the research work, the following have been carried out: analysis of scientific research in the field of studying rural settlements in Russia and foreign countries (Chapter 1); the factors influencing the formation of rural settlements have been investigated (Chapter 2); analysis of the types and typology of rural settlements on the basis of historical and modern ways of their development (Chapter 3); justification and development of models of rural settlements (chapter 4); an assessment of the state of rural areas and settlements that require targeted government support for their preservation and development has been carried out (Chapter 5); proposed a methodological approach and recommendations for sustainable development of rural areas and settlements (Chapter 6). Additional information on areas of research is given in the appendices.

The results of the work are presented below.

DEFINITIONS INTRODUCTION 1. Analysis of scientific research in the field of studying rural settlements in Russia and foreign countries 1.1. Identification of historical and cultural lands (regions) and their boundaries on the example of the Russian North 1.2. Types of settlement and planning features of rural settlements 1.3. Historical preconditions for the emergence of architectural and planning traditions in the territory of the Russian North. Choosing a place in the natural environment. Grouping of villages and planning techniques Architectural-spatial and compositional organization 1.4. Development of a socio-cultural typology of rural settlements, based on the historical and modern aspects of their development 2. Research of factors influencing the formation of rural settlements 2.1. Energy efficiency of a rural settlement 2.2 An ecological approach to the creation of a rural settlement 2.3. The influence of environmental factors on the planning of rural settlements 2.4. The relationship of architectural and climatic factors with the energy efficiency of low-rise residential buildings 2.5. Influence of general background and local climatic conditions on the development of a rural settlement 3. Analysis of the types and typology of rural settlements on the basis of historical and modern ways of their development. 3.1. Types of rural settlements by architectural and spatial solutions 3.1.1. Historical prerequisites for the formation of architectural solutions of rural settlements Free building Perimeter (centric) building Radial ring building Ordinary (linear, street) buildings Regular building Landscaping and estate development 3.2. Typology of rural settlements 3.2.1. Grouping of settlements by their size (population size) 3.2.2 Functional typology of modern settlements 3.3. The experience of organizing rural settlements on the example of foreign countries 3.3.1. Experience in the development of rural settlements in the USA V. Petrov "Low-rise construction in the USA", ARBAT Builders Inform Agency, Chicago, USA 3.3.2. Experience in the development of rural settlements in Canada 3.3.3. Experience in the arrangement of rural settlements in Germany 3.3.4. Experience in the development of rural settlements in Norway 3.3.5. Experience of arrangement of rural settlements in Sweden 3.3.6. Experience in the development of rural settlements in Finland Development of types and basic models of rural settlements of the XXI century Designing a rural settlement Regional features of the formation and development of the rural environment Analysis of the prerequisites for the formation of the modern nature of low-rise buildings in rural areas 4.4. Suggested residential models 4.5. Proposals for the formation of models of rural estates 4.6. Proposed models of rural settlements 4.6.10. Suburban residential settlements (cottage settlements) 5.1. Analysis of the state of rural settlements in the Russian Federation 5.2. Assessment of the state of rural areas and settlements requiring targeted government support for their preservation and development 5.2.1 Calculation of the tax potential index 5.2.2. Calculation of the index of budget expenditures 6.1. The concept of sustainable development of settlements 6.2. Conditions for sustainable development of rural settlements in the XXI century 6.3. Factors influencing sustainable development of rural areas 6.4. State policy to ensure sustainable development of rural settlements Federal Law of the Russian Federation of October 6, 2003 N 131-FZ "On the General Principles of Organization of Local Self-Government in the Russian Federation". Approved by the Federation Council on September 24, 2003. 6.6. Research and methods of organizing partnerships in rural areas, taking into account foreign experience 6.7. Development of proposals for interdisciplinary resource research with a developed questionnaire on rural settlement 6.8. Community Participation and Organization of Partnerships: Russian Experience CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY ANNEXES Appendix A Types of settlements characteristic of the Russian North (on the example of settlements in the Arkhangelsk region and the Republic of Karelia) Appendix B List of Urban Settlements Systematized from the List of Historical Cities of Russia Appendix B Standards for calculating the areas of buildings for serving purposes Appendix D Examples of public service buildings in rural settlements Appendix D The architecture of the industrial environment of a rural settlement Appendix E Agricultural enterprise architecture Appendix G Structural and functional diagram of the UNITS "Agrotekhnopark" Appendix H Interdisciplinary Rural Settlement Questionnaire Appendix I Examples of community involvement in rural development projects Appendix K World Bank Project "Local Government and Civic Participation in Rural Russia" Appendix L The experience of organizing agricultural settlements on the example of the settlement "Melentsi" (Republic of Serbia) Appendix M Methodology for the state cadastral valuation of settlement lands Appendix H Stages of creating rural settlements of the XXI century

1. The Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation of December 29, 2004 as amended on July 17, 2009.
2. SNiP 2.07.01-89 *. Urban planning. Planning and development of urban and rural areas. M .: GUP TsPP, 2000.
3. SNiP 2.08.01-89 *. Residential buildings. M .: GUP TsPP, 2000.
4. SNiP 2.08.02-89 *. Public buildings and structures. M .: GUP TsPP, 2000.
5. SNiP 23-01-99 *. Construction climatology. M .: GUP TsPP, 2001.
6. SNiP 31.02-2001 *. Residential houses, one-family houses. M .: GUP TsPP, 2001.

DEFINITIONS

Acoustic climate - a set of some climatic and acoustic characteristics of the environment (wind direction, type of underlying surfaces and the level of traffic and pedestrian noise).

Favorable environment - environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects (Federal Law of 10.01.2002 No. 7-FZ (as amended on 31.12.2005) "On environmental protection").

Large rural settlements - settlements from 3-5 thousand people (SNiP 2.07.01-89 * Urban planning. Planning and development of rural settlements.

Village - a small settlement, built up only with peasant households, characterized by the homogeneity and simplicity of the structure, subject to a single method for the location of the building, which ensured a direct connection of peasant households with the adjacent lands and promoted free development.

Closed layout - a layout characterized by the isolation of villages from the environment by placing residential buildings around a center - a square, a church, a chapel. (These types of layouts are common in watersheds.) In Kargopolye, such a planning system, which came from Novgorod, is called "Konchansk".

Large rural settlements - settlements of St. 5 thousand people(SNiP 2.07.01-89 * Urban planning. Planning and development of rural settlements).

Landscape and recreational area - territory, including forests, forest parks, forest protection zones, reservoirs, agricultural land and other lands.

Small rural settlements - settlements up to 0.05 thousand people (SNiP 2.07.01-89 * Urban planning. Planning and development of rural settlements).

Churchyard - the center of gravity for numerous small villages. Here a church was erected and a cemetery was arranged. The churchyards became strongholds of trade - annual fairs were gathered there. The main element of the planning structure of the graveyards was the trading area. In the process of historical development, they gradually lost their original function of an administrative and economic cluster center, turning into churches with a cemetery. The churchyard is also a district, i.e. administrative structure within a certain territory.

Posad - a suburb of a city or a monastery, as well as the usual row (order) of peasant huts in the village (a street of two settlements).

Pochinok - a one-yard settlement.

Production area - the territory intended for the location of industrial enterprises and related facilities, complexes of scientific institutions with their experimental production facilities, communal storage facilities, external transport facilities, suburban routes.

Ordinary layout - layout, characterized by a linear composition of villages and villages, the pattern of which is determined by the features of the terrain. The orientation of the main facades, as a rule, is to the south (ordinary "for the summer"), to the river or lake (coastal row). The variability of layouts can be determined: one-, two- or multi-row villages (coastal-row and mudflow-row). This layout in the North is associated with the time of Slavic settlement and is most common in the places of Novgorod colonization, i.e. in the river basin Onega, in Kargopol and the lower reaches and in the middle reaches of the Dvina, partly on the Sukhona. Since most of the rivers of the North flow from south to north, sometimes the rows of houses are located perpendicular to the river, which is associated with the orientation of the main facades towards the sun.

Light climate - a set of natural characteristics of lighting and UV irradiation (amount, spectrum, and contrast of lighting, brightness of a clear and cloudy sky, duration of sunshine, amount and spectrum of ultraviolet radiation).

- a layout characterized by a lack of regularity in the arrangement of residential buildings and outbuildings and their orientation. Single-row street villages are outwardly similar to ordinary ones, differing in different orientations of houses. For all villages with a street layout, excluding street ones with a one-sided layout, a certain closedness of the volumetric-spatial composition is inherent. Distributed mainly on the lands where the Finno-Ugric population lives.

Residential territory - an area that includes residential buildings, public buildings and structures, utilities, streets, squares, gardens and parks, and other common areas.

Village - the center of large landownership with a church, a parish and a trading area, to which a vast bush of small peasant settlements gravitates. In accordance with its importance in the settlement system, it was usually located on a hill. The planning structure of the village was distinguished by the presence of a community center with a church and a marketplace, which determined a centric composition with a vertical milestone and an arrangement of terraced buildings in an irregular ring or square around a vast interior space. Sometimes such areas were moved away from the main residential buildings.

Rural settlement - one or more ruralsettlements(settlements, villages, stanitsas, villages, farmsteads, kishlaks, auls and other rural settlements), in whichlocal governmentcarried out by the population directly and (or) through elected and other bodies of local self-government. The rural settlement is part ofmunicipal district. (Federal Law of the Russian Federation of October 6, 2003 No. 131-FZ "On the General Principles of Organization of Local Self-Government in the Russian Federation").

Rural settlement of the XXI century Is a settlement formed on the principles of landscape-estate development in which, thanks to modern technologies, social, engineering and industrial infrastructures create the most favorable conditions for a person to master his genetically determined development potential.

Sloboda - settlements of this type arose on newly developed lands, where the state and landowners attracted landowners and artisans on preferential terms.

Medium rural settlements - settlements from 0.2 to 1 thousand people. (SNiP 2.07.01-89 * Urban planning. Planning and development of rural settlements).

Thermal climate - a set of natural characteristics of the radiation, temperature-humidity and aeration state of the environment (thermal solar radiation, temperature, humidity, speed and direction of air movement).

Street layout - layout, determined by the location of buildings along the streets, which face their main facades. Single-row street villages are outwardly similar to ordinary ones, differing in different orientations of houses. For all villages with a street layout, excluding street ones with a one-sided layout, a certain closedness of the volumetric-spatial composition is inherent.

Energy-efficient buildings - buildings focused on the efficient use of the energy potential of the external environment (natural and climatic factors of the external environment) for the purpose of partial or complete (autonomous) energy supply through a set of measures based on the use of space-planning, landscape and urban planning, engineering, design means that suggest the orientation of spaces, architectural forms and technical systems to the energy sources of the external environment (sun, wind, soil, etc.)

Energy efficient buildings - buildings that do not use the energy of the natural environment (ie alternative sources) and provide a reduction in energy consumption, mostly due to the improvement of their engineering systems (as the most "energy-intensive" components of the energy "frame" of the building), structural elements that determine the nature and the intensity of energy exchange with the external environment (external fences, windows, etc.), as well as optimization of architectural solutions aimed at reducing energy losses (increasing the compactness of volumes, reducing the glazing area, using urban planning techniques and architectural forms that neutralize the negative effects of natural and anthropogenic factors external environment - wind, sun, etc.).

INTRODUCTION

The unfavorable state of many rural settlements, as well as industrial and agricultural enterprises, the outflow of the population, especially young people from the countryside, the desolation of territories requires a new approach to planning and developing models of settlements in the 21st century. In this regard, the focus of attention of specialists in various fields of activity is the issues of both their restoration (restoration), reconstruction, and new construction. Underestimation of the peculiarities of the way of life of the rural population, their neglect in the field of managerial decisions still lead to their destruction without subsequent replacement by new cultural patterns. The restoration and / or development of agricultural enterprises of various types is directly related to the preservation or new construction of settlements and residential complexes. However, the resources allocated for these purposes are fragmented and often used insufficiently efficiently; funds for the all-Russian and regional programs and projects of the village are directed on a leftover basis.

Today it has become obvious that in the process of modernization it is impossible to focus only on solving economic issues and technological changes. This process also applies to social and cultural changes, including the life of the population, the preservation and development of settlements and significant elements of heritage, which become especially acute in the post-perestroika period. It is necessary to earn money and invest in gas, oil and other sectors of the national economy, but rural areas and landscapes are a national heritage and an equally important resource for the development of Russia. Small towns, both rural centers and villages and villages, their monuments are symbols of the country, and today they are becoming a product of the tourism industry, thanks to which all developed countries of the world earn money. However, the engineering and social infrastructure of many rural settlements needs either reconstruction or a new spatial solution, both for themselves and in the construction of residential buildings using modern methods of their planning solutions, materials that are economically beneficial and at the same time ecological. It becomes important to take into account the needs of various social groups of the population living in different types of rural areas and taking into account the historical and cultural lands of various regions of Russia.

The purpose of this work:

Based on the study of the historical and socio-cultural characteristics of rural settlements and various territories, taking into account the Soviet experience and the experience of recent decades, using modern research and design methods, to develop viable models of rural settlements of the XXI century.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

• analyze scientific research in the field of studying rural settlements in Russia and foreign countries;
• to develop a socio-cultural typology of rural settlements, based on the historical aspects of their development;
• prepare proposals for interdisciplinary research of rural settlements with a developed questionnaire that takes into account regional, historical, socio-cultural, subject-spatial, natural-ecological, economic and management aspects of territories - for further use in development projects;
• determine the reasons influencing the creation (development) of rural areas;
• to develop a typology of rural settlements, based on the historical and modern aspects of their development;
• analyze the architectural and planning solutions used in 2003 - 2008 abroad and in Russia;
• determine the factors influencing architectural planning and sustainable development of rural settlements, as well as the quality of life of the rural population;
• develop options for viable models of rural settlements and examples of architectural and planning solutions for rural settlements;
• to develop indicators for identifying rural areas and settlements that require targeted state support for their preservation and development within the framework of the developed territorial planning schemes, taking into account historical and new types of settlements;
• substantiate the definition of "rural settlement XXI century ";
• develop models of “rural settlements XXI century ";
• prepare a methodological basis for the study of rural settlements, planning and organization of "rural settlements XXI century ";
• prepare recommendations on methodological approaches for the development of forecasts and programs for the development of territories, the formation of territorial planning schemes for rural settlements;
• develop methods for integrating programs for the construction (reconstruction) of rural settlements in XXI century with programs for sustainable development of rural areas of districts and constituent entities of the Russian Federation;
• prepare proposals for amending the legislation of the Russian Federation to ensure the implementation of measures to create rural settlements XXI century

1. Analysis of scientific research in the field of studying rural settlements in Russia and foreign countries

1.1. Identification of historical and cultural lands (regions) and their boundaries on the example of the Russian North

The identification of historical and cultural lands (regions) and their boundaries, traditionally formed on the territory of various regions of the country, must be analyzed and taken into account in any socio-cultural design. The experience of such an analysis is offered below on a particular example of studying the territories of the Arkhangelsk and Vologda lands (regions). And this example is offereddemonstrate, within the framework of this topic, as a model and model of such a study for other territories of Russia 1 .

By historical and cultural lands we mean a territory characterized by a known community of natural, historical, socio-cultural, architectural-spatial and landscape parameters corresponding to a certain time period of the development of an ethnic group or other territorial community of people. The basis for the allocation of such lands is the spatial and temporal differences inherent in certain areas of life of various social groups of the population. In other words, one of the essential indicators taken into account in such zoning is the commonality of stages in the development of a complex of historical and cultural heritage, amenable to real study, in certain limited territorial loci.

This approach differs from the historically established administrative formations (region, territory, republic), where it is sometimes difficult to see and trace the objective laws of the natural formation of culture in a certain territory. We proceed from the assumption that the formation of historical and cultural regions is taking place gradually. In this regard, their boundaries turn out to be very mobile and depend both on socio-economic, political, cultural ties both within the investigated lands and outside them. Moreover, within each historical and cultural region there may be local sub-regions, which in turn are differentiated according to more specific cultural indicators 2 ... Within the framework of the main region, such differences are noticeable only at the local level and with a detailed study, which consists in identifying local features of traditional culture. It is necessary to take into account the lifestyle of the local population, national (regional) self-awareness, norms of behavior, forms of communication, etc.

In foreign studies devoted to the problem of defining cultural areas, different points of view are expressed on the processes of their formation and development. Of interest is the opinion of the American scientist D. Mining 3 , developing an idea of ​​the "ideal" region, consisting of: core, domain and sphere ("periphery"). The nucleus is a cultural center with a high population density, with a certain homogeneity of a number of features and characteristics of a given culture. Domain - the middle part of the territory, where this culture exists less intensively, but here regional features are more clearly visible. Sphere is a zone of external influence, where the culture in question is represented only by individual elements scattered in other cultures. Such a model of a historical and cultural region can spread to territories inhabited for a long time, rather closed and relatively isolated from the influence of external socio-cultural systems. The center of such a region (city, urban-type settlement or settlement) is the bearer of cultural innovations, it is more susceptible to changes in its socio-economic and other characteristics.

The results of the research of Doctor of Architects V.P. Orfinsky and Doctor of Ethnography E. Heikinen 4 differ significantly from the model considered above. , revealing the nature of the distribution of cultural samples in the peripheral part of cultural regions. Researchers pay attention to the presence of a kind of "symbolic" borders of such territories, identified, for example, in Karelia and Finland. As we move from the center of the district to the periphery, when assessing, for example, monuments of traditional folk residential architecture, folklore traditions, various ethnographic materials, there is not a dissolution of their figurative, symbolic and iconic elements in neighboring cultures, but, on the contrary, an active strengthening of their specific expressiveness. This can be traced in decorative elements of structures, in objects of applied art, in rituals, etc. The symbolic meaning inherent in the objects under consideration acquires the most vivid forms near the boundaries of the cultural region, which is, apparently, a reflection of external mechanisms of behavior, lifestyle, national characteristics of the people 5, etc.

The mentioned works confirm the fact that the boundaries of historical and cultural zones can have a different character. Or it is a smooth, gradual "overflow" of one's own ethnic culture into a neighboring one, possibly close in its qualities. Either it is a fixation, "assertion" of its meaning in relation to neighboring national groups and territories adjacent to the border. In connection with the foregoing, the mechanisms of the formation of such borders, the peculiarities of their existence at the present time, and, thereby, their functioning in the system of developing agglomerations, giant new buildings, etc. remain unclear.Cultural processes taking place in the territories of historical and cultural regions are also unclear. falling into the zone of such active external influences. All these issues remain to be investigated, but it is obvious that such a situation affects the formation of any social, architectural and industrial projects. As well as the fact that the population living on different lands have certain types and traits of character, characteristics, traditions, etc., which should be taken into account in the process of work in certain regions and in any rural settlements.

At the heart of the internal ties of territorial communities lies production and labor activity, which has stability and relative spatial integrity. At the same time, the connection between the spatial distribution of culture within a certain territory with its economic structure is manifested in all aspects that characterize the historical and cultural zones: geographical, historical, urban planning, including the settlement system, subject-spatial, etc. There is no doubt that the climatic conditions of certain territories have a significant impact on the formation of its constituent socio-cultural elements. In this regard, when studying historical and cultural regions and establishing their boundaries, it is necessary to identify both economic and socio-cultural factors of the development of society in the past: the history of development, the settlement system, place of residence, the nature of land use and improvement of territories by various social groups of the population, history “Places” for different periods of its formation, etc. In this case, special attention should be paid to the historical period for which we are trying to define the historical and cultural regions.

To clarify the above general theoretical judgments on the problem of interest to us, we propose a private review of the research carried out to determine the historical and cultural zoning of the Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions, which, as a methodological move, can be extended to other territories.

Already from the middle of the 19th century, economic zoning of lands began to be carried out in Russia, distinguishable by geographic location, social structure, and trade specialization of the population. However, pre-revolutionary researchers 6 When studying, for example, the northern regions of the country (Pomorie), the basis was taken mainly by the geographical, administrative division of the region, and a secondary role was assigned to the socio-economic and cultural conditions. At present, not only socio-economic, but also cultural parameters, perceived primarily in the form of architectural, ethnographic, linguistic and other characteristics of the corresponding territories, began to serve as the basis for such zoning.Knowledge of the history of the development of territories becomes necessary 7 .

As a result of the development of the areas under consideration, settlers from Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal lands assimilated with the autochthonous population, forming a kind of "alloys" of cultures. Although the population that came from the north and south was Russian in origin, nevertheless, it had its own ethnocultural differences. They manifested themselves in all elements of the territories: language, dwelling, in the planning of settlements, etc. In addition, in the XVIII-XIX centuries. the culture in these lands was influenced by developing cities, which are generally in line with the development of local traditional samples, and at the same time were influenced by large centers: Moscow, St. Petersburg, etc. Such characteristics of the region explain many facts in the development and change of its culture, including folk architecture and settlement.

But with all the power of the influence of the city's culture on rural life, on art, handicraft and decorative-applied items, each historical and cultural region continued to retain its own characteristics, characteristic only of this area. This applies, first of all, to the planning features of settlements, folk architecture, decorative and other elements. Although various government decrees and decrees have sometimes made changes to the above structure.

The culture in the historical and cultural zones under consideration was influenced by the influence of various nationalities who inhabited and settled these territories in different periods of land development: Komi, Vepsians, Karelians, Nenets, Russians, Ukrainians. The latter referred to the North by the government from the southern regions of Russia during the post-reform period. In residential buildings, structural and decorative elements common in the Ukrainian and southern Russian lands are also traced.

Undoubtedly, many conditions formed, on the one hand, the basis of the historical and cultural unity of the Russian North, on the other, they were the prerequisites for their differences, traced in all regions of the listed lands. In addition to these data, the geographic conditions existing within a particular region are also important in such a consideration, since a stable geographic environment is required to form a relatively stable cultural community. There is a definite connection between the outlines of physical and geographical boundaries and the boundaries of historical and cultural regions, which is emphasized by geographers and ethnologists. The geographic environment was a significant factor in the development of agricultural, industrial, construction and other regional characteristics of the population; she played an important role in the location of villages and their layouts, in the building skills of peasant carpenters, in the architectural and artistic traditions of the people.

The determination of the territories of the historical and cultural regions of various regions and their boundaries can be carried out according to various indicators and be guided, for example, by the study of the settlement system, considered as a material embodiment of certain stages of settlement of the territories of various social groups, as well as by the structure of agricultural, commercial, etc. • activities of the population. It becomes important to take into account the planning features of rural settlements, the structure of peasant estates, farm buildings. We consider traditional residential architecture as the most striking and stable element of material culture, identifying various features of cultural territorial communities, transmitted in a traditional way over a long period of history from the moment the territories were settled. So, for example, in the monuments of residential architecture of those regions that were settled in the early stages by Novgorodians, today you can see elements of buildings of the X-XII centuries, found in the Novgorod archaeological finds of recent decades. In the residential architecture of a number of areas of lower migration there are decorative and constructive features characteristic of the architecture of the Kostroma Trans-Volga region.

Taking into account the originality and architectural features of residential buildings, in total, about one and a half thousand measured and surveyed, systematized according to constructive, typological and other signs clearly traced in various regions, we proposed a historical and architectural zoning of the territories under consideration. To confirm the expressed idea of ​​the coincidence of the boundaries of historical-cultural and historical-architectural zones, it is necessary to conduct additional, listed above, research on this topic. Analysis, in particular, of murals of residential buildings confirms this hypothesis 8 ... The study of traditional folk architecture made it possible to carry out its mapping, which revealed the following historical and cultural zones with their specific characteristics on the territory of the Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions.

1. Western zone of the Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions(former Olonets province - Kargopolsky, Plesetsky, Onega districts of the Arkhangelsk region; Vashkinsky, part of the Vologda district of the Vologda region).
2. River basin Waga (Velsky, Shenkursky, Konoshsky, Ustyansky districts of the Arkhangelsk region; partially Verkhovazhsky district, part of the Syamzhensky, Vozhegodsky, Tarnogsky Vologda regions - former Velsky and Shenkursky districts of the Vologda region)
3. River basin Northern Dvina(lower reaches - Kholmogorsky, part of Vinogradovsky district of Arkhangelsk region, former Kholmogorsky district; middle reaches - Vinogradovsky, Verkhnetoemsky districts of Arkhangelsk region; upper reaches - Krasnoborsky, Veliko-Ustyugsky districts - former Solvychegodsky district of Vologda province)
4. River basin Pinegi(Arkhangelsk region - former Pinezhsky district of Arkhangelsk province.)
5. River basin Mezen(Mezensky and Leshukonsky districts of the Arkhangelsk region, the former Mezensky district)
6. River basin Vychegdy(Lensky, Yarensky districts of the Arkhangelsk region, part of the Komi ASSR - former Yarensky and part of the Ust-Sysolsky district of the Vologda province.)
7. River basin Sukhony(Totemsky, Nyuksensky, part of Tarnogsky, Babushkinsky, Sokolsky, Mezhdurechensky districts of the Vologda region).
8. Southeastern districts of the Vologda region(Nikolsky, part of the Babushkinsky and Kich-Gorodetsky districts of the Vologda region)
9. Southwestern districts of the Vologda region.(Belozersky, Ustyuzhensky, Chagodoshchensky, Babaevsky, part of Vozhegodsky and Kirillovsky districts of the region)

Central regions of the Vologda region (Vologda, Gryazovetsky, Syamzhensky, part of Sokolsky, Kharovsky, Kubensky districts of the region)

1. Pomorie - The coastal strip of the White Sea.

Rice. 1.1 - Schematic map.

Historical and cultural zoning of the Arkhangelsk and Vologda lands

1.2. Types of settlement and planning features of rural settlements

Types of settlement and planning features of rural settlements on the considered northern lands differ from the types of settlements and settlement of the southern or eastern Slavs, as well as the types of planning. 9 Here you can find repairs, settlements, graveyards ("place" and "district"), neighborhoods, villages, villages, settlements, farms. The main type of settlement in these lands is a nesting arrangement of villages that unite several villages and form a group (nest). They, as a rule, are several kilometers behind each other and have patronomical names.

Settlement plans have been studied by ethnographers and architects, and the link between settlement planning and geographic conditions is obvious. ten ... However, the main role in their formation was played by socio-economic reasons: the economic differentiation of regions, the nature of their settlement, the arrangement of the northern rural community, etc. The spatial planning structure of the settlements took into account both the social, functional and artistic aspects of their organizations. Great importance was attached to the picturesque nature of the area, which suggested the compositional techniques for the planning of villages and the location of places of worship.

Researchers consider the free or disorderly structure of settlements in the Russian North to be the most ancient, linking its emergence with the initial seizure land tenure and the one-yard or low-yard (up to ten yards) character of the settlement (up to XYII century). In the process of evolution, one-yard villages were replaced by multi-yard villages. (In other regions of Russia, in particular, in the central regions, in the Volga region, etc., the most ancient is the circular layout). With the development of economic relations and trade, the importance of rivers as the main transport "highways" of the North increased. They then determined the row character of the settlements. V XYIII - early XIX centuries settlements of a street character appear everywhere, which by the end XIX centuries have become their main formative elements. These settlements have become widespread in watershed areas.

Rice. 1.2.1 - Layouts of rural settlements - Arkhangelsk and Vologda regions

Methodological approaches to the planning of rural settlements can be classified into five main types:

Free or random layout , characterized by a lack of regularity in the setting of residential buildings and outbuildings and their orientation. Most often, the main facades are oriented towards the sun. Such settlements are common in places remote from rivers - on watersheds. Settlements of a disorderly plan are characteristic of areas with a Finno-Ugric population, for example, Karelians and Finns, in the Kargopol district of the Arkhangelsk region, in the basin of the river. Onega, as well as on the territory of the Komi Republic. They survived in the Old Believer areas of the upper Pinega and on the river. Exit eleven . (Fig. 1.2.1, 1.2.2).

2. Closed form characterized by the isolation of villages from the environment by setting up residential buildings around a center - a square, a church, a chapel. (These types of layouts are common in watersheds.) In Kargopolye, such a planning system, which came from Novgorod, is called "Konchanskaya" 12 ... And just as “ends” (districts) were located around the center of Novgorod - “Detintsa”, so in this layout around the center of the village “ends” with their streets are located (village M. Khaluy, village Gar; partly r. Dvina, Vaga, Sukhona, village Lipovka, Velsk district). (Fig.1.2.2)

3. Ordinary layout characterized by a linear composition of villages, the pattern of which is determined by the features of the terrain. The orientation of the main facades, as a rule, is to the south (ordinary "for the summer"), to the river or lake (coastal row). The variability of layouts can be determined: one-, two- or multi-row villages (coastal-row and mudflow-row). This layout in the North is associated with the time of Slavic settlement and is most common in the places of Novgorod colonization, i.e. in the river basin Onega, in Kargopol and the lower reaches and in the middle reaches of the Dvina, partly on the Sukhona. Since most of the rivers of the North flow from south to north, sometimes the rows of houses are located perpendicular to the river, which is associated with the orientation of the main facades towards the sun 13 .

4. Street layout is determined by the location of buildings along the streets, which face their main facades. Single-row street villages are outwardly similar to ordinary ones, differing in different orientations of houses. For all villages with a street layout, excluding street ones with a one-sided layout, a certain closedness of the volumetric-spatial composition is inherent. (Fig. 1.2.1, 1.2.3).

Rice. 1.2.2 - Free layout. Der. Nikitinskaya, U. Vyya, Upper r. Pinegi, Arkhangelsk region. Rice. O. Sevan

Rice. 1.2.3 - Street layout. Zaozerye, r. Mezen, Arkhangelsk region.

Rice. O. Sevan

A variant of street planning can be villages where streets intersect with roads, although the streets themselves run parallel to the river (so-called villages - "crosses"). Street layouts are more common in places inhabited by settlers from the lower colonization from the south, since it is this form of settlements that is widespread in the Volga basin 14 ... In the late XIX - early XX centuries. street forms of settlements have become widespread throughout the territory under consideration. Many ordinary villages turned into street ones (Sukhona River, Vaga River, Dvina River, southeast of the Vologda Oblast) (Fig. 1.2.1).

5. Mixed layout combines elements of various planning structures. They were formed in the process of growing villages and spread everywhere, but mainly on the watersheds (on the river Vage, Palkino village, Simakovo village) (Fig. 1.2.1).

The stratification of the peasantry in the 19th century resulted in changes in planning. Near the peasant houses, shops, barns, taverns and other service buildings that belonged to wealthy peasants appeared. The location of peasant estates was differentiated by social indicators: closer to the public center - a shopping area or a church, houses of wealthy peasants were placed. Official decrees and projects of redevelopment of settlements in the XYII - XIX centuries. undoubtedly affected the restructuring of villages and villages. In these decrees, which were planted throughout Russia, the distances between houses were determined, the setting of barns and baths in the depths of the plots was legalized, and barns and barns were carried out to the line of courtyards. The main type of layouts was street. In the XIX century. under the influence of decrees and decrees, many villages acquired clear geometric shapes, sometimes not associated with the landscape. During the restructuring of settlements, places were allocated for public buildings (churches, rural municipality boards, schools). In those villages that received the significance of fairgrounds, trade rows were established (Soligalich, Kostroma region; Dunilovo-Goritsy, Ivanovo region, etc.). Sometimes trade shops were located in fences around churches (Vodlozersky Monastery, Karelia; in Kargopolye, Arkhangelsk Region, etc.).

Thus, in relation to the tasks set in the project "Development of models of rural settlements XXI century ”and based on the research proposed above, the following conclusions can be drawn.

Considering the huge size of the territory of Russia, its differences in natural, historical, ethnic, regional and cultural characteristics, it becomes important to identify the historical and cultural lands (regions) within the existing administrative formations (region, territory, republic). One of the possible methods of identifying historical and cultural lands (regions) and their borders across the territories of Russia is proposed in order to substantiate in the future architectural and planning solutions for rural settlements of the 21st century and peasant estates, taking into account the characteristics and traditions of local residents. It is based on an analysis of various conditions for the development of territories and the population of certain regions. In such a study, it becomes important to analyze the settlement of different groups of the population of a given area in different historical periods and their interaction with local (aboriginal) residents, as a result of such interaction, a new type of culture is formed, which manifests itself in the forms of dwellings, planning, estate complexes, in residential and economic buildings. Over time (especially during the 20th century), such cultures also change, being influenced by the development of migration flows of various ethnic groups, the media, etc. regions of the country. This is one of the indicators of the cultural identity of the region and its population.

In the work on substantiating the models of rural settlements of the XXI century, it is necessary to take into account the developed and proposed in the "Concept of sustainable development of rural areas of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020 »Types and subtypes of rural areas. But at the same time, it is also necessary to take into account the proposed approaches to identifying historical and cultural lands (regions) across the territories of Russia. It should be noted that the boundaries of historical and cultural lands (regions) quite often do not coincide with the administrative boundaries. That is why many administrative decisions made in the social, cultural or administrative spheres are not effective enough, since they do not take into account the basic structure of the population, their characteristics, traditions, etc. interests and characteristics. In this regard, it is proposed to take this approach into account when developing models of rural settlements in the 21st century. Even if within the framework of this project this method can be used only partially, to which we draw attention, it will be important to state it as an important methodological aspect of such work in the future.

When developing projects for rural settlements of a landscape-estate type, one should take into account the specific forms of historical folk architecture of dwellings in a particular region. This type of work has already been carried out in a number of regions earlier (Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov, Kostroma, etc.). The materials of researchers (architects, ethnographers, geographers, historians) can be used in the development of specific settlements, taking into account the modern needs of the population, its various social groups, since they are important elements of the cultural landscapes of rural places.

1.3. Historical preconditions for the emergence of architectural and planning traditions in the territory of the Russian North.

One of the largest researchers of the architectural tradition of the Russian North, Yu.S. Ushakov, proposed a slightly different approach to the object of his study, although his conclusions largely coincide with those of O. G. Sevan. His analysis was based on the dependence of the architectural, spatial and planning structure of settlements on the landscape features, which is quite correct in relation to historical settlements, but not always acceptable in relation to modern ones.

The development of the North began in the 11th-12th centuries. Novgorod people (the so-called Novgorod colonization) in order to expand the territories for forestry and fisheries, which provided the Novgorodians with marketable products, in exchange for which they could get bread from the south and the necessary goods from Western countries. These circumstances forced them to look for convenient trade routes to the White Sea. Of the four main routes laid by the Novgorodians, two were most used - Kenoretsky and Belozersko-Onega (Fig. 1.3.1.). Both of them started from Lake Onega, where the Novgorodians left Ladoga along the Svir River and led through the portage to the Onega River - the closest of the large rivers of the North. These paths were preferred to others due to the fact that they lay within the Novgorodian lands. According to them, from the XI to the XVI century. there was an influx of population from Novgorod to the graveyards that were formed in the Pudozh region, Kargopol on the banks and tributaries of the Onega River, in the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina and on the coast of the White Sea.

Clarification and clarification of the historical ways of developing the North for the study of the architectural heritage is especially important, since it was through them that the culture of Novgorod penetrated here. These routes determined the zones of the initial development of the North, which was not confirmed by the conducted surveys. The largest number of villages and their nests was found in areas along which trade routes passed.

Rice. 1.3.1 - Schematic map of the Russian North with the main ways of its development and indication of the surveyed villages.

1 - the territory of the Novgorodskie pyatins, according to K.A.Nevolin; 2 - territories of Rostov and Moscow development in the XIII - XIV centuries; 3 - the ways of the Novgorod development of the North; 4 - the ways of Rostov and Moscow development.

The initial settlement of the North by Novgorodians (in addition to the aboriginal population) is also confirmed by data from related sciences: anthropology, ethnography, dialectology, and toponymy. The subsequent process of settlement by immigrants from Rostov-Suzdal and later Moscow lands (the so-called Nizov colonization) brought here different architectural and planning traditions. The fusion of the traditions of these cultures in combination with the natural, geographical and climatic conditions of the North led to the birth of regional types and forms of settlements,which received their final development in the period from the 16th to the 19th centuries. and therefore of greatest interest to us.

What types of settlements developed here by the beginning of our century and what is their structure?

According to socio-economic characteristics, three main types of settlements can be distinguished on the territory of the Russian North: churchyard, village and village.All of them are of Russian origin, and the beginning of the formation of these types in the North should be associated with the Novgorod development 15 ... One of the earliest and most peculiar types of settlements characteristic of the North was churchyard. The term "churchyard" was already mentioned in the 12th century. in the scribes of the Obonezhskaya pyatina and has two meanings: the central settlement and the administrative district. In view of this, it is customary in the literature to distinguish between these two concepts terminologically by using the expression "grave-place" in the first case and "grave-volost" - in the second.

Initially, the population of the pogost-volost, apparently, was a rural community, later the boundaries of the community narrowed, and several communities already functioned within one graveyard 16 ... Usually, a church or a temple complex was built on a graveyard (that is, in the central village of a graveyard), while a parish constituted a parish. In the churchyards, in the meaning of "place", worldly gatherings and conventions took place, merchants - "trade guests" (hence - "churchyard") came here. In the township-volosts, the account of residents, lands and property - private and state - was kept.

The territory of the graveyards depended on the concentration of the population. So, for example, the Zaonezhskaya part of the Obonezhskaya pyatina was divided in the 17th century. for 17 graveyards. The greatest concentration of the population and, consequently, the smallest graveyards in the territory were formed along the shores of Lake Onega near the districts along which the main waterways passed. For example, the territory of the sparsely populated Vygozersky churchyard, which was not adjacent to Lake Onega, was 26 times larger than the territory of the densely populated Tolvuisky churchyard, located on the Zaonezhsky peninsula, near waterways 17.

The term "village" appeared on the pages of Russian chronicles in the 10th century. and denoted a princely country estate. Later, the village was understood as the central village, to which the villages gravitate. In the XIX-XX centuries. in most cases it means a relatively large rural settlement, in which there is (or was) a church. Thus, the village was the administrative, commercial and social center of a group of villages gravitating towards it. And finally village - the main type of settlement of Russian peasant farmers, initially in 1-3, later in 10-15 households.

In addition to these three types of settlements in the Russian North, one more can be called - repairs, an exhibition, or about. Pochinok is a one-yard settlement. During the Novgorodian development of the North, this term was used to mean the foundation of a new settlement ("initiative", "to begin"). Often this initial cell, with a good choice of location, became the first link in the future village or village. Later in the XVIII-XIX centuries. A repair or an exhibition in the North was called a small settlement that spun off from a village or village in search of better lands. In essence, it was this process that gradually led to the formation in the North nests (groups) of villages.So, the socio-economic ties of the three main types of settlements (graveyard, village, village) were the primary basis for the formation of the structural system of the habitat characteristic of the Russian North.

For the study of folk traditions in the architectural and spatial organization of the living environment, the most interesting are the 17th-19th centuries. - the period of the formation of multiyear villages and their groups with a developed system of subordination and visual connections. Let us consider how the geographical and physical conditions in the territory of the Russian North influenced the nature of the location of villages (types of settlement). The first who proposed to classify the settlements of the East European Plain based on the peculiarities of their location on the ground was the famous geographer P.P.Semenov-Tyan-Shansky 18. He based his classification on the geographical factor and, proceeding from it, tried to understand the nature of settlements. He rightly noted the predominance in European Russia of waterway communication due to the flatness (in contrast to Western Europe, where rivers originate in the mountains), which led to the laying of unpaved roads. During the development of the Russian North, they used waterways (on boats in summer, on ice in winter).

Later, the urge to find convenient land led to watersheds. But good soils on the watersheds are available only in the middle zone, in the North the best lands lie along the banks of rivers and lakes, while the interfluves are occupied by taiga and swamps ("taibola"). The large employment of the northern population in the fishing industry also forced them to "snuggle" to the waterways as the only means of communication. Based on this, Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky identifies three main types of settlement in the East European Plain:

1. Central non-chernozem and northwestern agricultural,due to the location of the most convenient lands.

2. Northern, fishing predominantlyand only to a weak degree agricultural and corresponding to the most developed network of floating rivers.

3. Southern, black earth,exclusively agricultural, tending to river valleys as the only reliable sources of drinking water.

“In a word, the Russian person in this case became like a forest, which in the Far North and in the extreme south of the East European Plain hugs the river valleys, and occupies watersheds in the middle zone,” notes Semyonov-Tyan-Shanskiy 19 ... Correctly defining the northern type of settlement as a whole, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky does not analyze it and does not distinguish subtypes in it. This gap was partially filled in 1946 by ethnographer I.I.Sorochinskaya-Goryunova 20 , which adopted the classification of Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky and in the territory of the Eastern Ladoga area, which revealed several subtypes. The greatest concentration of the population is noted by it along the banks of rivers (river type - up to 40%), along which it is possible to penetrate into the interior of the mainland, as well as along the shores of large lakes and lake groups (lake type - up to 35%), the rest of the villages - on the watersheds between lakes and rivers and are connected with the hills (selgami).

Due to the diverse natural situation in the lake regions, Sorochinskaya-Goryunova identified three subtypes: coastal lake villages, lake navolok villages(capes) and villages of lake isthmuses.The remaining 25% of the settlements in the Eastern Ladoga area are divided between three types of settlements:mudflow-lake,in which the villages are located in groups of selga among the system of small lakes and channels, mudflow, when villages are located on watersheds away from open water bodies, "on wells", andvillages on the hills.The latter type includes groups of settlements on the crests of the indigenous uplands of the Eastern Ladoga area. The listed types of settlement, noted by Sorochinskaya-Goryunova based on the analysis of the Eastern Ladoga area, are also typical for the entire territory of the Russian North, but at the same time, due to the wide variety of natural and geographical conditions of this vast territory, the above classification requires further development and addition.

Surveys carried out by Yu.S. Ushakov showed that the presence in the territory of the Russian North of such large rivers as Onega, Northern Dvina with Sukhona, Vychegda, Vaga and Pinega, Mezen and Pechora makes it possible to distinguish two subtypes in the river type of settlement: river village by a large river,when villages are predominantly located on one side of the river, andriver village by a small river,when villages are located on both banks of the river. The presence of such large lakes lying on the settlement routes and having indented contours of the shores and groups of islands, such as Onega, Vodlozero, Kenozero, Pochozero, Syam-lake, Sandal, Lizhmozero, etc., gives grounds to add two more subtypes of the lake type to those considered earlier settlement:lacustrine peninsular and lake island villages.Finally, the characteristic natural features that contributed to the choice of a place for villages on the shores of the White Sea make it possible to speak of an independentseaside type of settlement.In view of the fact that settlements in Pomorie from ancient times were based not only on the coast itself, but also at the mouths of rivers flowing into the sea (the possibility of penetration into the interior of the mainland, the availability of fresh water, river fishing, etc.), two subtype:seaside-coastal andseaside-riverside.

How were the settlements distributed throughout the territory of the Russian North? Due to the fact that the population, both in the initial period of the development of the North, and in the subsequent ones gravitated towards the banks of rivers, lakes and the White Sea, its greatest concentration (up to 90%) fell on river, lake and coastal types of settlement. This was facilitated primarily by economic reasons: for example, rivers and lakes - "the economic nerves of the region", as Vitov put it, are the only convenient roads (with almost complete absence of land roads), as well as sources of fisheries.

The further to the North, the more and more the role of crafts increased, the fertility of the land decreased and the climatic conditions for agriculture worsened. Most of the land convenient for cultivation in the North is located along the banks in a narrow strip. Often 100-300 m from the river begins a "suzem" - a watershed covered with swamps or impassable forest, while near rivers, thanks to natural drainage, there are no swamps. It is also important that the overwhelming majority of rivers in northern Russia flow from south to north, and therefore the soil in the river valleys is somewhat warmer than on the watersheds. In the floodplains of the rivers, there are floodplains, which served as a base for animal husbandry. We must not forget that the Russians came to the North with a fairly highly developed agricultural technique and well-established traditions in animal husbandry, therefore good soil for arable land and the presence of nearby hayfields were of decisive importance when choosing a place for a settlement. Finally, the formation of large settlements on the shores of the White Sea, where agriculture was unprofitable due to the harsh climate, was facilitated by the fishing of fish and sea animals, which provided by exchange everything necessary for the Pomors. The ancient origin and stability of river and lake types of settlement in the territory of the Russian North are confirmed by written sources. Thus, A.V. Uspenskaya and M.V. Fechner, who studied the settlements of Ancient Rus, in the north-west and north-east note a large number of settlements (65%) along the banks of rivers and lakes, and especially in the basins of large rivers 21 ... Vitov, who studied the villages of Zaonezhie in the 16th-17th centuries from sources, attributed 40% to the river type, and about 25% to the lake type. 22 ... This ratio can be traced in the rest of the relatively densely populated areas of the Russian North with a large number of rivers and lakes. The predominance of these types of settlement here is also confirmed by the maps of the General Survey, compiled in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Modern large-scale maps and long-term observations by Yu. S. Ushakov indicate the predominant development of coastal types of settlement at the present time. The mudflow, or watershed, type of settlement in the initial period of the development of the North was only 3-5%, and only by the 19th century. increased to 10-12% 23.

Summarizing all that has been said, it is possible to present a consolidated classification by types of settlement for the Russian North in the following form (Table 1.3.1.). The above classification can be used as the basis for the analysis of North Russian villages by compositional characteristics relative to the natural environment as a kind architectural and natural ensembles.

Table 1.3.1.

Classification by type of settlement of the Russian north

Types and subtypes of settlement	Approximate distribution of villages,%	Areas for which this type is most typical
River: a) river villages with large rivers; b) river villages with small rivers. Ozerny: a) coastal lake villages; b) villages of lake pillow; c) villages of lake isthmuses; d) peninsular lake villages; e) island lake villages. Seige-lake. Selezhniy. Highland villages. Seaside: a) coastal villages; b) coastal-riverside villages.		The basins of the Svir, Onega, Northern Dvina, Pinega, Mezen, etc. Eastern Ladoga region, South Karelia, Zaonezhie, Pudozh region, Kargopolye. Eastern Ladoga area, South Karelia, river basin. Onega. Winter, Summer, Onega, Pomorsky, Karelian, Kandalaksha and Tersky shores of the Bever Sea.

This term, which most accurately defines the high harmony in the relationship of North Russian villages with nature, Yu. S. Ushakov proposes to introduce it into use, despite the fact that the concept of "ensemble" provides for the organic fusion of architectural and natural principles.

1. Choosing a place in the natural environment. Grouping of villages and planning techniques

Folk traditions in the field of grouping villages on the territory of the Russian North have not been fully studied, and the architectural and artistic aspects and patterns of the formation of groups of villages have not been analyzed at all. The issues of grouping settlements (or types of settlement) were considered until recently only in the works of ethnographers, among whom the greatest attention was paid to this problem by M.V. Vitov. He created a classification of the main types of settlement. Describing this concept, M. V. Vitov notes that "the mutual grouping of settlements reflects different stages of the development of society in specific geographic conditions" 24. Introducing the concept of "type of settlement", MV Vitov was the first ethnographer to draw attention to the importance of studying the characteristics of the grouping of settlements. He writes: "When studying a settlement, in our opinion, one should not be limited to individual settlements, but take a complex, a group of settlements that form an organic historically formed unity, in other words, serious attention should be paid to considering the peculiarities of the mutual grouping of settlements." 25 . MV Vitov's words, addressed to the ethnographic aspects of studying the types of settlement, can rightfully be attributed to the architectural-spatial organization of groups of settlements.

Of the three main types of settlement identified by M.V. Vitov for the entire territory of the East European Plain (crowded, nesting and scattered farms), nesting is the most characteristic of the Russian North. ... This specific type of settlement, in which villages are located not alone, but in groups, developed here in the 16th-17th centuries. and by the XVIII-XIX centuries. received its final development and completion. In the initial period, the population of such nests had family ties and were distinguished by the unity of economic and public interests. Later, despite the violation of these connections, the nesting character remained for a long time, becoming the dominant type of settlement in the North. MV Vitov even makes the assumption that the nesting type of settlement in the past was much wider than it is now, and went beyond the North, being one of the main types of settlement throughout the East European Plain. Favorable natural and economic conditions in the south, as well as a significant population density, contributed to the fact that the nests of the settlement there merged into large villages, while in the North the nest type has survived to this day. Surveys have established a relatively good preservation of the nesting group in all areas of the Russian North, with the exception of some areas of northwestern Karelia, where a different type of settlement is common. 27 .

The preservation of the nesting grouping of villages on the territory of the Russian North seems to be especially important for studying the folk approach to the architectural and spatial organization of the habitat, since the nest type, which is most closely related to the natural base, gives us examples of the most interesting architectural and natural ensembles, because the natural beginning of the chosen place dictates and the originality of the grouping (composition) of the nests of the villages. This circumstance allows us to consider in detail the interaction of two closely related spheres - nature and architecture, which form the basis of the living environment. It is the nesting form of grouping of settlements that is most characteristic of structure, subordination and internal organization (near-village-village, subordinate to the center - graveyard). The data of the surveys carried out by Yu. S. Ushakov resolutely refute the opinion, repeatedly expressed by ethnographers, that there is no order in the nesting group of villages.

All surveyed nests of villages are united by some natural element: bend or mouth of a river, lake or lake group, peninsula, island or group of islands. The characteristic recurring features of the nests of the village, which developed in various natural and geographical conditions of the vast territory of the Russian North, allowed Yu.S. Ushakov to introduce the division of the nesting group into three subtypes: 1) d Neighborhood of villages at the small riverwhen villages are located on both banks of the river (Fig. 1.3.2-1); 2)nests of villages by the big riverwhen villages occupy one of the banks (Fig. 1.3.2- 2 and -3)nests of villages by a lake or lake group(fig. 1.3.2-4).

Rice. 1.3.2 - Examples of the main types of nests in villages

1 - at a small river: the village of Verkhovye (V. Mudyug), Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region; 2 - at a large river: the village of Zaostrovye, Bereznikovsky district of the Arkhangelsk region; 3 - by the lake: Kolodozero village, Pudozhsky district of the Republic of Karelia; 4 - seaside fishing: the village of Maloshuyka, Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region.

I. V. Makovetskiy in his work on the architecture of the Russian folk dwelling, disagreeing with the predominance of the nesting type of settlement for the North, points to another type characteristic of coastal regions, which took shape and developed in the form of large fishing and trading villages that did not directly villages gravitating towards them 28 ... This type, indeed, is most characteristic of the coastal zone of the White Sea. It includes such large villages as Nyonoksa, Purnema, Varzogory, Maloshuyka, Kushereka, Shueretskoe, Kovda, Varzuga. The population of these villages, located near the river mouths, was engaged in river and sea fishing, hunting for sea animals and salt production.

Agreeing with I.V. Makovetskiy in the originality of the reasons for this type of settlement, it can be pointed out that each of the named villages still consists of groups of compactly located villages,and one should speak, in fact, about a kind of nesting type of settlement -seaside fishing, highlighting it in fourth subtype(fig. 1.3.2-4).

Finally, it is necessary to focus on planning forms of settlements,developed in the natural and climatic conditions of the Russian North. In the works devoted to the typological analysis of the structures of wooden architecture in the Russian North, planning issues are touched upon only incidentally, using a small number of examples. An in-depth analysis involving a wide range of measurements in different regions of the North has not yet been carried out. The exception is the already mentioned work of A.V. Ikonnikov 29 , but it is built on the material of the survey of the settlements of the Volga-Oka interfluve and is indirectly related to the study of the planning traditions of the Russian North.

Until the XVI century. On the territory of the Russian North, one-yard and low-yard settlements prevailed; various forms of settlements appeared only in the 16th century. thirty ... But this process was uneven. On the shores of the White Sea, developed multi-yard settlements appeared in an earlier period - in the XIV-XV centuries. Thus, the addition of the traditions of the architectural and spatial organization of multiyard villages is an earlier phenomenon than was previously thought.

The concept of "form of settlement" includes the layout of the settlement and the orientation of residential buildings. When considering the main forms of settlements that have developed on the territory of the Russian North, one has to rely mainly on the study of villages in nature, since neither the maps of the General Land Survey, let alone the scribe books, provide an answer to these questions. In this regard, all field observations of researchers of Russian wooden architecture acquire great value, no matter how brief they are (M. B. Edemsky, K. K. Romanov, N. II. Kharuzin, R. M. Gabe, M. V. Vitov, S. Ya.Zabello, V. N. Ivanov, P. N. Maksimov, I. V. Makovetskpy, V. P. Orfinskiy, G. V. Alferova).

In the work of M. B. Edemsky 31 , the best among the pre-revolutionary studies on northern dwellings, the layout of villages has been devoted to several pages. The most specific form of settlements in the Vologda and Arkhangelsk provinces, MB Edemsky, rightly considers the coastal-row, on the river bank, with the front facades of the houses facing east. "The condition" to the east and to the river ", - the author notes, - is easily feasible, since most of the rivers of Pomorie flow from south to north. houses are oriented towards the road (street form). M. B. Edemsky notes an increase in street villages to the south, to the basin of the Sukhona River. He does not explain the reasons for this circumstance, but today it is clear to us: this is due to the fact that the watershed between Vaga and Sukhona is border between Novgorod and Nizovskaya colonization.

The difference in material cultures was reflected not only in the forms of settlements, but also in the types of estates and houses. K. K. Romanov 32 notes several forms of settlement and considers the most ancient one with houses facing the sun. By the definition of "facing the sun" KK Romanov understands the orientation to the south, southeast and southwest. Later, with the appearance of the second order, in the coastal villages, houses are often rebuilt according to the street principle. Sometimes both of these forms are observed in the same village.

Ethnographer N.I. Kharuzin established among the Finno-Ugric peoples who lived in the vicinity of the Russians, the spread of a disorderly form of settlements 33 (it is also called formless "," wrong ", and more recently -" free "). This was also noted by R. M. Gabe, who surveyed the villages of Karelia. However, arguing with Kharuzin, Gabe wrote: “Settlements, in the layout of which it would be impossible to find any order or aspirationto him in relation to the location of the houses, I have not seen ... " 34 ... He also stated the complete absence of published measurements of villages, which made it very difficult to draw generalizing conclusions, since patterns in the location of houses in villages are often found only on plans. Gabe noted that it would be dangerous and premature to draw conclusions about the haphazardness of the villages in terms of their appearance. The validity of this remark has been repeatedly verified when measuring villages in variousregions of the North by Yu. S. Ushakov.

For the Russian villages of Karelia, R.M. Gabe noted great correctness of the layout with a predominance of ordinary and street forms, and only the lack of a sufficient number of measurements did not allow him to give a wider systematization of the forms of settlements in Karelia, this gap was filled by V.P. Orfinsky, who continued the study of Karelian wooden architecture. He also notes the predominance in the Finnish and Karelian regions of disorderly (free) planning, and in the Russian regions of Karelia - regular, ordinary, while noting less and less deviations from the regularity in the planning of villages when moving from west to east and not only in villages on watersheds. but also in coastal villages 35 .

MV Vitov, who ethnographically explored the southern coast of the White Sea, the middle course of the river. Onega, Kenozero and Korbozero, notes the following forms of settlements: along the course of large floating rivers, an ordinary coastal layout dominates, more often single-row, less often - multi-row, in remote watershed areas - disorderly, in places ordinary, oriented to the south, and, finally, in the most economically developed areas where land transport plays an important role, street layout prevails 36 ... The historical evolution of the forms of settlements in the Russian North is also traced in these three main forms. The coastal-row layout of villages is associated with the initial period of the development of the North, when waterways prevailed. With the increase in the population and in connection with this intensive development of the watersheds, various forms of watershed settlements arose. And, finally, the appearance of land roads in the North caused a street form of planning.

At the same time, M.V. Vitov records a large number of mixed forms of settlements, which are transitional forms (from an ordinary, oriented to the south - "for the summer", and a coastal ordinary - to street, from disorderly - to an ordinary), rightly noting at the same time, the study of mixed forms is important in establishing the antiquity of a particular type of layout 37 ... As a result of his work, M.V. Vitov made an attempt to revise the classification of settlement forms that existed in ethnographic literature for all territories of the East European Plain, putting forward five main ones:disorderly, private, closed, street and villages of late origin (post-reform).

For the Russian North, this classification requires clarification. We have already spoken about the controversy of the definition "disorderly", which has recently been justly replaced by the term of I. V. Makovetskiy, who proposed to call such a form "free" 38 , and about the exclusion of the last, fifth, group, as having nothing to do with folk art. In addition, on the territory of the Russian North of the villages,rebuilt under the influence of the state administration (after the reforms of the first half of the 18th century), are almost not observed. At the same time, the surveys carried out by Yu. S. Ushakov revealed settlements with a form of planning, apparently of Novgorodian origin, with street-ends diverging from the public center. This system was first noted by I.I.Rudometov 39 ... G.V. Alferova, who surveyed the villages of Kargopolya, also notes a number of villages that have retained this form, suggesting to name it Konchanskaya 40. One can agree with this term and single out the Konchan form into an independent subgroup. 41 .

A large number of villages with various forms of planning, which have developed in the process of their evolution under the influence of various reasons, makes it necessary to distinguish into a separate subgroup mixed forms of settlements.

Based on the analysis of literary sources, as well as on field surveys and measurements, it is possible to distinguish on the territory of the Russian North two groups of forms of settlement: near the water and on the watersheds.Then the classification of the main forms of settlements for the Russian North can be presented in the following form.Forms of settlements near the water:

1) free;

2) coastal private;

3) an ordinary "for the summer" (with an orientation to the south and southeast);

4) Konchanskaya;

5) street;

6) mixed.

Forms of settlements on watersheds:

1) free;

2) an ordinary "for the summer";

3) street;

4) mixed.

Let us consider these forms in more detail along the way during the analysis of the architectural and spatial organization of villages and their nests.

Analysis of ethnographic and architectural surveys of North Russian settlements in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, as well as surveys conducted by Yu.S. Ushakov, indicate a significant predominance of forms of settlements near the water, especially in areas of Russian development and in areas with a mixed population. The presence of various planning techniques in such large residential formations as the nests of villages not only helps to clarify the process of their formation in terms of history, but also helps in identifying folk traditions in the architectural, spatial and compositional organization of the living environment of various settlements.

1. Architectural-spatial and compositional organization

Surveys and measurements carried out by Yu.S. Ushakov on the territory of the Russian North, and the reconstruction of the village and their nests, which had formed here by the 18th-19th centuries, carried out on this basis, allow us to speak of the high compositional skill of folk architects in organizing the environment, skill, which gave birth to villages as diverse and individual as nature itself.

And yet, despite the infinite variety of compositional techniques, with a certain degree of conventionality, inevitable in any systematization of works of art, Yu. S. Ushakov proposes to carry out classification of methods of architectural and spatial organization of North Russian villages and their nests in relation to external visual perception and natural and geographical characteristics.

The basis of the classification regarding visual perception,to which, as the study showed, great attention was paid in folk architecture, the degree of opening of a settlement or a nest of settlements to the main routes (water and land) is laid. In this regard, it is proposed to distinguishfour main types of compositions (or techniques of spatial organization). To the first type - centric compositions- attributed villages and nests of villages that have a center that organizes the living environment and perceivedfrom many directions.Depending on the width of the opening, settlements with a centric composition can be divided into two types. The first type includes centric compositions with circular perception, to the second - centric compositions with a predominant semicircular perception (Table A.1.) 42 ... The second type includes settlements perceived mainly from two sides. They got the name linear with predominant bilateral perception. To the third type - frontal compositions- the settlements are classified, the composition of which is designed for frontal perception. And finallyto the fourth type— multicenter compositions- attributed to villages that have equivalent compositional acceptance, perceived mutually. Two types are considered here: paired compositions withmutual perception and multi-accent compositions with mutual perception, subordinate to a single center.

In turn by natural and geographical characteristicsarchitectural and natural complexes are subdivided into groups and subgroups. This classification is based on the main (prevailing) types of settlement in the Russian North:

1. Riverside villages:a) with a small river; b) with a large river.

2. Lakeside villages:a) lakeside-coastal; b) peninsular open; c) closed peninsular; d) island open.

3. Seaside villages:a) seaside-coastal; b) seaside riverside.

In each subgroup, based on the analysis of three or four villages, a model of visual perception is built.

Let's consider examples of settlements in each type and type of composition, starting with centric ones. Settlements or their nests, organized in the chosen natural situation in such a way that they are perceived practically fromall directions, attributed to centric compositions with circular perception.This technique is most widespread in the natural and geographical conditions of the Russian North and is often used as the basis for the organization of riverside, lakeside and coastal villages. The largest number of settlements in the Russian North (about 40%) were based on the banks of the rivers along which the trade routes went. The survey revealed certain features of the compositions of the village, formed along the banks of large or small rivers.

As an example of a riverside village near a small river consider the village of Verkhovye (Verkhniy Mudyug) of the Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region. The settlements of the former Verkhnemudyugsky parish were formed in a steep bend in the middle course of the Mudyuga River, the right tributary of the Onega River, which was apparently developed during the settling of the Onega Basin. Over time, after the once navigable river Mudyuga was shallowed, the village of Verkhovye was cut off from the waterways and remained unexplored for a long time. This is also the reason that the Upper reaches are well preserved, unlike the group of villages Nizhniy Mudyug (Grihnovo) at the confluence of the river with Onega. 43 .

A characteristic feature of villages near small rivers is the location of villages that make up a single group on both banks. The village of Verkhovye consists of three villages. Two of them are the most ancient: Ryakhkovskaya - on the left bank, bearing traces of a free layout (the oldest houses and barns are recorded here), and Mitinskaya with a coastal row layout - on the right bank.

Later, along the road to Nizhny Mudyug, the village of Shutova was formed with a street layout. By the end of the XIX century. the village consisted of 128 households with a population of 778 people 44 (Fig. 1.3.3).

The most important component of any village is its community center. In large villages, this role was played by the temple complex. The general composition of the village and its perception from the main external directions largely depended on the choice of a place for its placement. Here, in the Upper River, the temple complex was located on a peninsula formed by a steep bend of the river, so that all three of its elements (the tent-roofed Church of the Entry into Jerusalem in 1754, the five-domed Tikhvin church of the 18th century and the bell tower in 1787) 45 clearly visible from all sides: from the upper and lower reaches of the river and from two roads to the village (from the west and southeast). Skillful mutual placement of the ensemble's structures also contributes to good perception. 46 .

The small width of the river and the closed nature of the surrounding space affected here and the commensurately low heights of the buildings of the temple ensemble (up to 28 m). Thus, the natural conditions of the valley of a relatively small river set the appropriate scale for the centric architectural-spatial composition of the village.

Rice. 1.3.3 - The village of Verkhovye (V. Mudyug), Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region. Plan and panorama along A and B.

In order to understand how the same type of village composition varies in a different natural situation, let us consider another example. Settlement b. The Ust-Kozhsky churchyard was located near the confluence of the Kozha river into Onega (the village of Ust-Kozha, Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region). The place for the central village of the churchyard, Makaryino, was chosen on a promontory bounded on one side by the Kozha River, and on the other by Kuzhruchye (Fig. 1.3.4). Both of these waterways led to the west to the lakes (Kozhozero and Kuzhozero), and merged together near the village, a kilometer from Onega.

Rice. 1.3.4 - The village of Ust-Kozha (Makaryino), Onega district of the Arkhangelsk region. Plan and section.

The center of the churchyard was located on the left high (10 m) bank of the Kozhi - the five-domed Church of Clement (1695), the tent-roofed Church of the Exaltation of the Cross (1769) and the bell tower (18th century). Two orders of houses in the village of Makaryino are facing south and towards the churchyard, but gravitate towards Kuzhruch. On the right bank of the Kozha, opposite the churchyard, stood the village of Glotovo (Semenovskaya), whose houses face two sides - to the northwest and southeast. Thus, the community center, located between two villages, is visible from each house and served as a landmark from the west - from the waterways along Kozha and Kuzhruch. Earlier, when the tip of the cape was not forested, the village could be seen from the Onega River, thus completing its circular perception.

Each village or nest of villages, attributed to one type of composition, has a pronounced individual face - it cannot be otherwise with such a close relationship with the landscape. The natural environment here is a tuning fork that sets the general mood of the entire composition, the measure of space and the scale of the main architectural elements. And every time you are amazed at the accuracy of the solution, the proportionality of the elements and the correctness of the perception of the composition. All this was done without drawings, based only on intuition developed by centuries of communication with nature, intuition that contributed to the emergence of true works of art.

Rice. 1.3.5 - Zaostrovye village, Bereznikovsky district of the Arkhangelsk region. Reconstruction. Plan and panoramas A-B.

Centric compositions with a circular perception include such dissimilar villages and nests as the village of Ratonavolok on the Yomtse River (Yemetsky District of the Arkhangelsk Region), Kuliga Drakovanaya in the Shoksha River Valley - a tributary of the Northern Dvina (Krasnoborsky District), e in the bend of the Ustya River (Oktyabrsky District), etc.

Villages or nests of settlements that have developed at large riversRussian North, are located mainly on one of the shores, usually on the one that is more convenient in terms of relief and orientation. One of these villages is the village of Zaostrovye on the left bank of the Northern Dvina (Bereznikovsky district of the Arkhangelsk region). Zaostrovye is mentioned in the Book of the Big Drawing as the Zaostrovsky churchyard on the left bank of the Dvina at the mouth of the Nisa River. It is mentioned in the Dvina charter of 1471. This is one of the largest estates on the Dvina, for the possession of which there was a long struggle between the Novgorod and Rostov princes. Zaostrovye village 47 , consisting of four now almost merged villages, is no longer located on the banks of the Northern Dvina, as it once was, but on its oxbow, into which the river Nisa flows (Fig. 1.3.5).

Over the past centuries, Dvina "moved" from the village for almost a kilometer, leaving vast flooded meadows. But the same circumstance had a positive effect on the safety of the village. Time changed the planning structure of the village: the coastal-row form remained only in one northern village of the village - Malakhino, but large ("two-core") houses were replaced here by small one-story houses.

In other villages, with the departure of the channel of the Northern Dvina, a street form of planning took shape. The riverine order of the houses of the village of Yakovlevskaya was torn approximately in the middle, and here, on the bank of the river (and now - the old woman), there is a temple ensemble: two hipped-roof churches - the Mother of God (1726) on the site of an older, early 17th century, Mikhail the Archangel with the refectory (1776) and the bell tower (1785). Three verticals, contrasting with the horizontal lines of the bank and the order of residential buildings, were visible from afar from the upper and lower reaches of the river as a kind of identification marks of the village. Due to the smooth bend of the streets and the order of houses following the coast, the ensemble is clearly visible from the villages of Podvolochye and Malakhino and from the road to the village of Seltso, as well as from both ends of the village of Yakovlevskaya. The third ray is also oriented towards the Mother of God Church - the street of the village of Gogara.

And in this type of composition of villages that have developed on the banks of large rivers, we observe a variety of options dictated by the natural environment. A bush of villages under the general name Seltso and the village of Rakuly on the same bank of the North has a centric composition. Dviny (Yemetsky district), Sura village on Pinega (Pinezhsky district). A peculiar exception is the village of Turchasovo, already considered by us, where, due to the change in the channel of the Onega River, the nest of villages occupied both banks.

An interesting variant of the centric composition is the village of Konetsdvor'e on the Kononechny Island in the delta of the Northern Dvina 48 ... Natural conditions - the low marks of an open, unforested island with winds - gave rise to a clear and compact centric planning technique. Houses clustered in a small space in a relatively higher part of the island around the square with the tent-roofed St. Nicholas Church (transported from Arkhangelsk in 1769) and a bell tower (XVIII-XIX centuries). At the first cursory glance, it seems that the houses here are in complete chaotic disorder, but it is worth taking a closer look and, having walked around the village, put its planning scheme on paper, as a clearly readable system emerges (Fig. 1.3.6).

Fig. 1.3.6 - The village of Konetsdvorie at the mouth of the Severnaya Dvina River, Primorsky District, Arkhangelsk Region. Plan.

So, analyzing folk traditions in rural architecture, which led to brilliant ensemble solutions, one cannot fail to note the striking their exact coincidence with the conclusions and laws of modern experimental psychology and the theory of perception.This circumstance is another convincing confirmation of the value of folk experience, undoubtedly deserving close attention from the modern theory and practice of architecture. It should be noted that in folk architecture, in contrast to professional architecture, harmony between the functional and aesthetic sides was observed during all periods of its development.

All the aforementioned provisions and principles, which, in fact, constitute the basis of folk traditions, give us the right to apply to every North Russian village the concept of "ensemble", the concept in which the highest achievements of architectural thought are embodied. Despite the fact that the villages arose without a pre-drawn up plan, developed traditions, vast construction experience, and most importantly, a highly developed sense of nature allowed folk architects to successfully implement an architectural concept, very accurately find a place for each structure and, when solving any practical problems, never leave in side requests are aesthetic.

1.4. Development of a socio-cultural typology of rural settlements, based on the historical and modern aspects of their development

In this section, within the framework of the topic "Conducting scientific research and developing models of rural settlements XXI century ”offers an analysis of the historical and modern socio-cultural typology of rural settlements, taking into account the historical and cultural lands, which becomes important in connection with attempts to restore them (restoration), reconstruction or new construction. This approach is becoming relevant, since in recent decades in many countries there have been discussions about the preservation and development of regional, cultural identity, about the search for ways to preserve the diversity of cultures, the search for alternatives to turn the world into “one big village”: with one language, similar traditions, architecture and NS. 49 And the process of urbanization, in turn, causes active movements of the population and specialists in a number of countries for the preservation of historical cities, the "spirit of the place", including rural settlements 50 .

In recent decades, as today, projects have been developed for the preservation and development of historical villages 51 , their planning features are being investigated for different lands and regions of different countries 52 53 , museums are created in a rural environment where people live and agricultural activities are preserved 54 , or museums of the transported type, of which there are more than two thousand in Europe alone 55 ... The analysis and experience of such work deserves research and application in our country. 56 .

In connection with the development of a socio-cultural typology focused on the preservation of historical settlements that are significant for the development of the country and regions, we will make several comments on the subject of analysis.

Modern land transformation and economic relations in the countryside of our country, associated with the redistribution of property, become detrimental for the development of a number of historical settlements, since they are carried out outside their village boundaries and are not focused, unfortunately, at their preservation and development. On the contrary, there is an obvious spontaneous process of land diversion for various kinds of objects that are not associated with purposeful activities in agriculture and with specific territories and their populations. This is the construction of summer cottages, "second housing" for townspeople, industrial enterprises in the immediate vicinity of populated areas. And since in many cases the issues of social and engineering infrastructure are not resolved, they place a burden on various villages and villages, including historical 57 .

And the current rapidly changing situation does not allow, unfortunately, to exercise reliable control over the territorial, in many cases spontaneous development of settlements. Local authorities, in order to resolve the issues of partial filling of the budget, as well as for the purpose of their own profit, at their own discretion decide the priorities of land distribution within the boundaries of municipal territories. Basically, historical villages (and not only) do not have master plans and development programs (which can be noticed in other countries, for example, in Germany or Austria) 58 ... Villages and villages are often included in the city boundaries in order to expand the development area of ​​a small town (for example, Zvenigorod, Moscow region). 59 At the same time, rural residents acquire, along with a number of advantages, noticeable disadvantages.

"Preservation and use of cultural heritage" - this is a section of the Spatial Planning Schemes, both at the oblast and rayon levels. However, the formation of different types of historical settlements and their development within the framework of these projects is not specifically envisaged, since modern analysis and territorial design is practically removed from the presence in them of individual architectural monuments or the history of the settlements themselves. Various types of historical villages and villages are not taken into account, which for the most part are simply not identified, their own significance is not determined: history, spatial characteristics, landscape, lifestyle of the population, etc. Therefore, in the future, at the district level, as well as the region, when discussing programs development of the territory, such settlements are not given importance, programs and projects specific only for them are not offered, or of an alternative nature (craft centers, open-air museums - “ in situ », Places of trade (fairs) and the revival of national holidays, tourist villages, etc.). Obviously, this approach is becoming new within the framework of these projects, but necessary for the development of historical and cultural lands and settlements.

Architectural and spatial problems the formation of the appearance of rural settlements is especially evident in the suburban areas of the country. This is expressed either in faceless residential buildings or very pompous residential buildings, in terms of size, quality of construction and the style of the surrounding landscape that falls out of them. Obviously, the desire of the wealthy townspeople to invest their funds in property, in housing, planning the development of families, although their destruction is everywhere observed, not to mention the maintenance of buildings in the future.

But one cannot blame only villagers or townspeople for the tasteless decoration and construction of dwellings. Criticism, apparently, should be heads of regions, districts, settlements(unfortunately, not having education in the field of architecture), but responsible for control in this field of activity, as well as architects, offering as standard projects that turn Russian villages into settlements of the same type, or into silly castle settlements.

Method of restoration, reconstruction and new construction today deserves attention, since it is support for the idea of ​​preserving the traditional regional (national) features of significant villages and their surroundings, taking into account the local style, materials and lifestyle of the population. With this approach, the issues of restoration and reconstruction of various types of heritage, including cultural landscapes and villages, are quite obvious, but not yet feasible, since there is still no full-fledged List of Historical Villages of the Russian Federation. And for those of them that accidentally ended up in it (see Appendix B), the situation also remains uncertain due to the lack of real practice of their reconstruction (in the presence of methodological approaches to research and socio-cultural design) 60 , media, information, etc. All this leads to the neglect of such historical sites, both at various levels of management, architectural design, and by local residents, busy with their own problems and / or not aware of the value of their own "small homeland" and its heritage.

Reconstruction (renovation) of the village and renovation of peasant houses is part of the differentiated policy of many European countries, which involves residents in the process of understanding not only their own home, but also the entire settlement. For example, in Austria twenty years ago there were 2,304 rural areas and more than 17,000 villages. Only about 100 of them had official or public development programs. In Upper Austria, where there were 6,500 villages, 2,400 farms were in need of repair and reconstruction. It was obvious to specialists that such a large number of settlements and structures needed both a special analysis and the development of priorities for their preservation and development on the part of experts and local residents in many villages at the regional level. Therefore, these issues were constantly discussed, and are still being worked out at different levels of government. 61 .

Preserving and supporting the development of the cultural landscape as a place where people live, it is important in many European countries. The issue of not only restoration and reconstruction, but also the construction of high-quality housing, the formation of an environment for work, and especially as recreation areas with significant social aspects, is constantly being discussed. The European Landscape Convention (Florence, October 20, 2000), signed by many European countries, has not been ratified by our country, which indicates the attitude of the authorities to this subject of consideration. 62 Although such landscapes are also of economic value, enabling the development of tourism, construction of holiday homes, hotels, clubs, restaurants, etc.

Peasant estate, their group , residential houses, outbuildings, religious buildings, as well as the settlement as a whole, are also constituent elements of cultural landscapes, cultural identity of the population of any state. It is not just a living, but also a cultural environment for work, including ecological and socio-cultural functions. Any decisions in the field of construction or reconstruction directly or indirectly affect, including on economic functions. Therefore, today it is necessary to think over: where and when during the reconstruction of estates it is necessary to take into account the main directions of agricultural, industrial or other policies at the regional or local levels. Its goal is to preserve the local identity not only of buildings, including wooden ones, but of the entire settlement, and, consequently, the image of the region and the country as a whole. “Tree culture” is gaining special significance all over the world today. 63

Cultural and rural tourism, as a capital-intensive region, it requires attracting foreign capital, reconstruction of structures, trade, entertainment, which is difficult to develop in Russia due to poorly developed infrastructure, etc. 64 Although in recent years there has been some progress in this area. But for the development of rural tourism, it is importantis there a state policy to support real subjects of the socio-cultural environment on the basis of which they are going to produce a tourist product?. 65 Since rural or agro-tourism is a derivative element of state social policy, closely related to such spheres as local government, the development of self-regulatory public organizations, systemic support for small and medium-sized businesses, etc., with the obligatory consideration of socio-cultural factors

Technological map of the geography lesson
	Where people live: cities and countryside
The purpose of the lesson	achieve educational results: Personal outcome - to be aware of the practical and personal significance of the educational material Metasubject result - be able to analyze text, graphic and audiovisual information, independently formulate and solve cognitive tasks based on information analysis, establish logical connections. Subject result - know the main types of settlements: cities and rural settlements
Lesson Objectives	1) To form knowledge about settlements, about the ratio of the urban and rural population of the world, about the leading role of cities in the economic, cultural and political life of the population; 2) Continue work on teaching students how to work with text and pictures of a textbook as sources of new knowledge; 3) To form the experience of independent overcoming of cognitive difficulties on the basis of the reflective method; 4) To practice the ability to analyze, compare and reason, the ability to evaluate their activities, communication skills to listen to each other, express their point of view and argue for it, work in a group.
Planned results:	Subject Compare city ​​and rural settlements in appearance, size and occupation of the population. Drive examples of different types of rural settlements in the world. Analyze changes in the urban population over time. Analyze a diagram of the ratio of the urban and rural population of the world. Define according to different sources of information functions of cities.		UUD Cognitive UUD 1. Analyze, compare and summarize facts. Identify the reasons. 2. Subtract all levels of text information. 3. Convert information from one type to another. Draw up different types of plans. 4. Be able to identify possible sources of necessary information, search for information, analyze and evaluate its reliability. Communicative UUD 1. Defending your point of view, give arguments, confirming them with facts. 2. To be able to look at the situation from a different position and negotiate with people of other positions. 3. Understanding the position of the other, to distinguish in his speech: opinion (point of view), proof (arguments), facts. Regulatory UUD 1. To independently detect and formulate an educational problem, to determine the goal of educational activity. 2. To put forward versions of the solution to the problem, to be aware of the final result, to choose from the proposed ones and to search independently for the means of achieving the goal. 3. Check your actions against the goal and, if necessary, correct mistakes yourself. 4. In dialogue with the teacher, improve independently developed assessment criteria. Personal UUD 1. Assess your own actions and the actions of other people from the standpoint of social norms. 2. Show an emotional value attitude towards the environment, the need for its conservation and rational use.
Lesson type	General methodological lesson
Forms of work	Individual, group
Basic concepts	Cities, rural settlements. Their differences from each other
Sources of information	A.P. Kuznetsov, L.E. Saveliev, V.P. Dronov Geography. Land and people. 7th grade Atlas Geography. Land and people. 7th grade
	Worksheet, multimedia presentation or presentation in the programSmartNotebook
Organizational stage
Include students in educational activities	Good afternoon friends! I am glad to see you, and really want to start working with you! Smile at each other, and now to me.
Updating knowledge and fixing difficulties in individual activities
Update educational content necessary and sufficient for the perception of new material	Frontal poll: We have begun to study a large section. What is it called? (Man on Earth) What question we have already studied (students' answers) What do you think is all the material in this section? What else do you need to learn? (students' answers) And so we continue to study the section "Man on Earth"
Preparing students for work at the main stage
Organize communicative interaction, during which formulate the topic of the lesson, the purpose of the lesson and the lesson plan, as well as bring the students to the problematic issue	Look, I brought a black box with me. What do you think it might contain? ( children's answers ) I hint, these items are related to the topic of our lesson ( children's answers ) (I take a tram, a horse and a cow out of a box ). Why did I bring them to our lesson. How can they be related to the topic of the lesson? What associations do they evoke in you? ( children's answers ) And what will the topic of our lesson be called? And read what I have written. EYNNELESAN YTKNUP (populated areas) Write to your worksheet What is our goal? ( children's answers ) Write to your worksheet To reach the goal of the lesson, we need to outline an action plan. What is a settlement? What are the cities and rural settlements? How different types of settlements differ
The stage of assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action
Provide the perception, comprehension and primary consolidation of the studied material by students		We are starting to implement our plan. How do we always work with what? ( children's answers ) Using the text of the textbook, give the definition of "settlement" or "settlement" (Places where people live are called settlements or settlements) How are they spread over the surface of the Earth? (they meet between 78 0 s.sh and 54 0 south latitude and at altitudes up to 5300 m above sea level) What types of settlements are there? (cities and rural settlements) Make notes on your worksheet. And so, we found out what settlements are. What do we need to know next ? (What is the difference between different types of settlements?). Problematic question: Tell me, is there a place on Earth where everyone would like to live? Now we are working in groups. First group works with rural settlements, second group with the city. Your task: to find the characteristic features of each type of settlement. The result of your work is a completed table. Questions - tips to help you. The difference between an urban lifestyle and a rural lifestyle Sphere of life		Rural settlements	Cities
Living conditions Which houses are prevalent?	One-story houses with stove heating prevail	Multi-storey buildings with all conveniences prevail
Classes What is the majority of the population doing?	Agriculture	I work in industrial enterprises, in trade, in transport
The rhythm of life What is the rhythm of life: calm or fast? Is it related to natural rhythms?	Calm, associated with natural rhythms	Intense, artificial (on a tight schedule)
Movement How does the majority of the population travel?	Most of the population walks	Most of the population travels by bus, tram, etc.
Communication	Everyone knows everything about each other; external control over the behavior of everyone	Ignorance of the life of others
Nutrition What foods are prevalent in the diet?	Products grown on our own site	Store-bought products

And now I ask you to present the results of your work, the opposite group makes entries in the worksheet (group report on the work done)

Well done! All have coped with the task. (physical minute)

Now, let's make a conclusion? So which settlement is called a city? (children's answers) ... Let's make an entry in the worksheet.

Where and when did the first cities appear? Are there cities in our region? Name them.

In terms of population, cities are: small up to 50 thousand, medium 50-100 thousand, large more than 100 thousand, millionaires over 1 million people. What group do you think our cities belong to? ( children's answers )

What is called an urban agglomeration? Where is the largest one located? Are there urban agglomerations in Russia? What are their names? ( children's answers )

What functions can cities perform? Make notes on the worksheet.

We are now working well with rural settlements. Let's first define what a countryside is? (territory outside the city). And what settlements will we call rural? Write your definition on a worksheet.

Now let's see what types of rural populations there are in different parts of the world. To do this, we will perform the following task: the worksheet contains drawings of rural settlements. I will read to you the definition of the item, and you should guess what it is about.

Settlement located outside the city limits. Can be a worker, resort, country house (village)

Detached homestead, which is located on a separate plot of land, which is in the use of this owner (farm)

Large Cossack settlement (page)

Large estate in Brazil. Also called the program on 1 channel (hacienda)

Settlement in the mountains. From the Turkic language - "village" (aul)

Small peasant settlement with no church (village)

Homestead, cattle farm in the USA (ranch)

A village in Central Asia. From the Turkic language - "winter quarters" (village)

One of the oldest types of settlements among the Slavs (settlement with a church) (village).

And we live with you, in what locality? What features of the city can be noted? What features of the countryside do we show? Do you know that in 2011 we held a referendum, where most of the population expressed their desire that the urban-type settlement of Seryshevo should become a village. What do you think?(children's answers).

And so, we have done a great job. Tell me, have we achieved our goal?

Summarize what you learned in class today(children's answers).

The stage of the initial verification of the understanding of what has been learned

1. Establish the correctness and awareness of the material studied.

2. Identify gaps in the primary comprehension of the studied material, misconceptions of students

Well done! Now I suggest you complete the next task. A well-known proverb is encrypted in front of you. Read it?

ABVGVSYAKYEDI

KULIKNOPROMS

VARTYFSVOEBD

TOBOLOTORVSK

DLHACHVALITSI

Every sandpiper praises his swamp. How do you understand this proverb? Good. And now I suggest that you praise the settlements. Now we are changing: the first group praises the city, the second the village.

The stage of consolidating new knowledge and methods of action

Ensure, in the course of consolidation, an increase in the level of comprehension of the studied material, the depth of its understanding

And so, we have done a great job. Tell me, have we achieved our goal? Have we reached our goal?

What did we do in the lesson today to achieve this goal?

Summarize what you learned in class today (children's answers).

Let's get back to our problematic question: Tell me, is there a place on Earth where everyone would like to live?

What can you say now about this (Probably not. All people are different: one likes the frantic pace of life among skyscrapers, another is a quiet life in a small town, the third cannot live anywhere except in his native village in the mountains. For some, the most important thing is interesting work, for others clean air , for the third - friendly neighbors, for the fourth - a warm climate, etc. therefore for society as a whole and for each individual person, a variety of cities and villages are important and necessary)

Homework Information Stage

Provide learners with an understanding of the purpose, content and way of doing homework

Paragraph 15

Choice task:

Create a presentation or brochure on Unusual Cities

Debriefing stage

Give a qualitative assessment of the work of the class and individual students

Let's summarize the lesson and rate our work. Who can be distinguished in the lesson today?

Reflection stage

Ensure learners learn the principles of self-regulation and cooperation

Guys, I want to draw your attention to the walls, the statements of great people on them. Think 5 seconds and tell me which phrase best reflectsyour activity in the lesson, what suits you best:

Knowledge begins with surprise

Aristotle

I know that I know nothing .

Socrates

Tell me and I will forget.

Show me and I will understand

Let me do it myself

And I will learn

Confucius

• • The subject of historical geography
    • The subject of historical geography - page 2
  • The history of the emergence and development of historical geography
  • Geographic environment and development of society in the feudal era
    • Geographic environment and development of society in the feudal era - page 2
  • Physico-geographical zoning of Western Europe
    • Physico-geographical zoning of Western Europe - page 2
    • Physico-geographical zoning of Western Europe - page 3
    • Physico-geographical zoning of Western Europe - page 4
  • Distinctive features of the physical geography of the Middle Ages
    • Distinctive features of medieval physical geography - page 2
    • Distinctive features of medieval physical geography - page 3
• Population geography and political geography
  • Ethnic map of medieval Europe
    • Ethnic map of medieval Europe - page 2
  • Political map of Europe during the early Middle Ages
    • Political map of Europe during the early middle ages - page 2
    • Political map of Europe during the early middle ages - page 3
  • Political geography of Western Europe during the period of advanced feudalism
    • Political geography of Western Europe during the period of developed feudalism - page 2
    • Political geography of Western Europe in the period of developed feudalism - page 3
  • Social geography
    • Social geography - page 2
  • Population size, composition and distribution
    • Population size, its composition and distribution - page 2
    • Population size, composition and distribution - page 3
  • Types of rural settlements
  • Medieval cities of Western Europe
    • Medieval cities of Western Europe - page 2
    • Medieval cities of Western Europe - page 3
  • Ecclesiastical geography of medieval Europe
  • Some features of the geography of medieval culture
• Economical geography
  • The development of agriculture in the early and advanced Middle Ages
  • Farming and land use systems
    • Crop and land use systems - page 2
  • Features of the agrarian system of various countries of Western Europe
    • Features of the agrarian system of various countries of Western Europe - page 2
• Geography of craft and trade
  • Features of the placement of medieval handicraft production
  • Woolen production
  • Mining, metalworking shipbuilding
  • Geography of handicrafts in individual countries of Western Europe
    • Geography of handicrafts in individual countries of Western Europe - page 2
  • Medieval trade
  • Mediterranean trade area
    • Mediterranean trade area - page 2
  • Northern Region of European Trade
  • Areas of coin systems
  • Transport and communication routes
    • Transport and ways of communication - page 2
• Geographical representations and discoveries of the early and advanced Middle Ages
  • Geographical representations of the early Middle Ages
    • Geographical representations of the early middle ages - page 2
  • Geographical representations and discoveries of the developed Middle Ages
  • Early and advanced medieval cartography
• Historical geography of Western Europe in the late Middle Ages (XVI - first half of the XVII century)
  • Political Map
    • Political map - page 2
  • Social geography
  • Demographics of the Late Middle Ages
    • Demographics of the late middle ages - page 2
    • Demographics of the late middle ages - page 3
  • Church geography
  • Geography of agriculture
    • Geography of agriculture - page 2
  • Industry geography
    • Industry geography - page 2
    • Geography of industry - page 3
  • Late feudal trade
    • Trade of late feudalism - page 2
    • Late feudal trade - page 3
  • Transport and communication routes
  • Travels and discoveries of the XVI-XVII centuries.
    • Travels and discoveries of the XVI-XVII centuries. - page 2
    • Travels and discoveries of the XVI-XVII centuries. - page 3

Types of rural settlements

There are dozens of options for the classification of rural settlements in medieval Western Europe. Of all their diversity, two main types of settlements can be distinguished - these are large compact (villages, villages, semi-agricultural towns) and small scattered (farms, settlements, separately located farm houses). Compact settlements, villages differ greatly from each other in their layouts; so, for example, distinguish between "nuclear", cumulus, linear and other types of villages.

In the first type, the “core” of the settlement is the square with the church, market, etc. located on it, from which streets and lanes depart in a radial direction. In a street village, the basis of the layout is usually several streets, intersecting with each other at different angles. Houses in such a village are located on both sides of the street and face each other.

In a linear village, houses are located on one line — along a road, river, or some fold in the terrain — and often only along one side of the road; sometimes there could be several such streets in a village: for example, in mountainous areas, courtyards often consisted of two rows, one of which goes at the foot of the slope, the other parallel to it, but slightly higher. In a cumulus village, houses are randomly scattered and linked by alleys and driveways.

The options for small settlements are no less varied. Usually, settlements with 10-15 households (in Scandinavia - up to 4-6 households) are considered farms. However, these courtyards can either be concentrated around some center (square, street), or lie quite far from each other, being connected only by common pasture, plowing, management, etc. Even individual buildings require their own classification: after all, large , several floors of the farms of the flat places are incomparable with the small huts of the mountain dwellers.

The many-sided picture of settlements of the medieval era has survived to this day: the overwhelming majority of settlements on the continent are believed to have arisen before the 15th century. At the same time, certain patterns can be noticed in their occurrence. Thus, the system of open fields was most often combined with compact settlements. The Mediterranean economic system allowed for the existence of different types of settlements, but starting from the 15th century. in places of the greatest development of agrarian relations (Central Italy, Lombardy), individual farmhouses became dominant. Geographical factors also influenced the spread of this or that type of settlement: in the lowland areas, as a rule, large villages prevailed, in the mountainous - small farms.

Finally, the decisive role in many cases was played by the historical features of the development of each area and, first of all, the nature of its settlement. For example, military colonization explains the predominance of large settlements in East Germany and in the central regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The development of the former forest, swamps, low-lying coastal territories led to the spread of small forms of settlements - farms, settlements, settlements with individual buildings. The character of the settlements was also influenced by the order inherent in the former population of this area (Celts, Slavs, etc.).

However, all these patterns were not always manifested; for example, in Friule, the relief of which represents the entire gamut of landscapes from the Alpine mountains to the lagoon lowland, the distribution of the types of settlements was the opposite of that indicated above: in the mountains there were compact multi-courtyard villages, on the plains - isolated houses. It should also be taken into account that the nature of the dominant type of settlement during the Middle Ages could change repeatedly. So, in England in the Celtic era, small settlements prevailed, but already the first wave of the Anglo-Saxon invasion led to an increase in the proportion of large villages, since the conquerors preferred to settle in large clan groups.

In general, in the early Middle Ages, compact villa communities in Central, South and East Anglia were predominant. Further resettlement of the population proceeded by branching off small settlements from large settlements; their number increased even more during the period of internal colonization. As a result, in many rural areas of the country by the 15th century. small scattered settlements became the dominant type of settlements. Later, as a result of fencing, many villages were abandoned and the number of small farms and individual farms increased even more.

In Germany, the Elbe was the border between the different types of settlements. To the west of it, cumulus villages, small irregular settlements, farmsteads and individual buildings, sometimes having a common center or, conversely, located around the arable massif, dominated. Small villages and hamlets were also common in the eastern lands (Lausitz, Brandenburg, Silesia, Czech territories); here their presence is often explained by the form of the previous Slavic settlements.

Basically, East Germany is an area dominated by large villages of the street or linear type, as well as smaller settlements that have grown up in forest clearing sites or in mountainous areas, but have the same orderly nature.

In the north and north-east of France, large villages were the overwhelming type; here the line between a small town and such a village was not large. In the rest of the country (Massif Central, Maine, Poitou, Brittany, the eastern part of the Ile-de-France), small settlements and farms dominated. In Aquitaine, the Toulouse region, Languedoc, since the time of developed feudalism, the picture has become somewhat different: centuries-old wars have brought about a different type of settlements - bastids, fortified centers built according to a certain plan; the inhabitants of the former settlements began to flock to them.

The landscape of Spanish settlements also changed as the Reconquista progressed. For a long time, the north and north-west of the peninsula was a territory occupied by small farms and buildings scattered one by one, but by the beginning of the Reconquista in the lands bordering with the Arabs of Leon and Old Castile, there was a process of enlargement of settlements. On the conquered lands of New Castile, the dominant type of settlements became rare, but large-sized villages or, in the north of the region, small farms, grouped around a fortified castle. Similar large villages dominated Portugal south of the Tagus; however, to the north of it, farmsteads remained the most widespread type of settlement.

The picture of Italian settlements is no less varied. Most of the south of the peninsula was occupied by large villages, in places mixed with small settlements and farms; only in Apulia and Calabria scattered small farms dominated. Large villages and semi-agricultural towns also dominated southern Central Italy. In the northern part of Lazio, the Marche, Tuscany, Emilia, a large part of Lombardy, Veneto and Piedmont, the most common type of settlement were small villages, farms and individual farms - podere.

The presence of a dominant type of settlements in each of the regions of the continent did not at all deny the existence of settlements of a different type in it. As a rule, in almost every locality there were both large village centers and small settlements, or even individual houses - farms. We are talking only about the predominant type of settlement that determines the face of a given territory.

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

State educational institution of higher professional education

AMUR STATE UNIVERSITY

(GOUVPO "AmSU")

TEST

by discipline

Territorial organization of the population

Typology of settlements: urban and rural settlements, their types

Blagoveshchensk 2011

Introduction

Typology of settlements: urban and rural settlements

2. Classification of urban settlements

3. Classification of rural settlements

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

INTRODUCTION

The term "resettlement" characterizes the historical process of settlement of the territory, the distribution of the population in the territory and its spatial organization. Resettlement follows a more dynamically changing geography of production, which is one of its main regularities, but at the same time the orientation of production towards the established settlement systems is also increasing, with which the location of the main production force - the working people - is also associated.

1.TYPOLOGY OF LOCATIONS: URBAN AND RURAL

The development of the social division of labor led to the emergence in the history of society of two main types of settlements - urban and rural.

Cities, while remaining the main places of concentration of industrial production, centers of various economic ties, play a leading and organizing role.

These are the nodal points in the entire settlement network.

This understanding of the city is the basis for the legislative practice of classifying settlements as urban or rural. Certain quantitative criteria (qualifications) have also been introduced. Thus, the category of cities can include localities with a population of at least 12 thousand.

residents with 85% of workers, employees and their families. At the same time, the administrative significance of this point, the prospects for its development, improvement, the development of communal services and the network of social and cultural institutions should also be taken into account.

Workers' settlements or urban-type settlements must number 3 thousand.

residents, if they include up to 85% of workers, employees and members of their families (in some cases, they can also be points with less than 3 thousand inhabitants, for example, at especially important construction sites, in the regions of the Far North and the Far East).

All settlements that do not meet the qualifications of urban settlements are classified as rural (in our country and abroad). The main and predominant part of them are villages, villages, settlements of agricultural enterprises.

This also includes a special group of small industrial, transport, forestry settlements that are not related to agriculture, which, however, cannot be classified as urban, since they have few inhabitants. Finally, there are many rural settlements of a mixed type, occupying an intermediate place between urban and rural settlements in terms of their functions and national economic significance. Some of them are gradually turning into cities due to the development of industry or transport services (for example, villages at railway stations).

Agrarian-industrial settlements that produce and process agricultural products are becoming widespread.

In a number of districts, seasonal inhabited sites are being created - field camps in distant fields of arable land and hayfields, used during periods of the most intense agricultural work, "summer roads" and "winter roads" in districts of pasture cattle breeding, single buildings for hunters and fishermen, small forestry settlement.

When developing minerals in areas with extreme conditions, shift camps are built, to which shift personnel are delivered by air or all-terrain ground transport.

With the development of industrial and transport construction in sparsely populated areas, mobile settlements appeared for temporary accommodation of builders, drilling crews and exploration expeditions.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Despite the wide variety of urban settlements in Russia, numerous groups stand out among them, united by a number of common features, which makes it possible to develop uniform principles for solving scientific and practical problems for cities of a certain type.

The economic and geographical classification of cities is carried out both by individual characteristics and by their totality.

Population classification is widely used not only in economic geography. For the latter, it is of no small importance, despite the fact that it gives only a statistical characteristic.

The rate of its growth, some elements of the demographic and functional structure, and planning depend on the size of the city. When developing a typology of cities, the population is taken into account as an integral feature.

In statistical sources and urban planning practice, the following groups of cities are distinguished: small - up to 50 thousand people, medium - 50-100 thousand, large - 100-250 thousand, large - 250-500 thousand, the largest - from 500 thousand to 1 million people,

Classification by economic and geographical location allows you to determine the general features of the economic structure and directions of further development based on the potential opportunities that are embedded in the area or some of its focal point.

Depending on the geographic location, cities can be identified, located, for example: at the intersection of transport routes - Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Nizhny Novgorod; in large mining areas - Novokuznetsk, Kemerovo, Magnitogorsk, Shakhty; in areas of large manufacturing industry - Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Serpukhov; in areas of intensive agriculture - Krasnodar, Stavropol, etc.

The classification according to national economic functions, which reveals their most important features, is essentially synthetic. Based functional city classification(Fig. 1) is divided into:

Polyfunctional - combining administrative-political, cultural and economic activities (industry and transport).

Such cities include capitals, all regional and regional centers, as well as many large cities of the country, in which each of the listed functions has a city-forming significance;

With a pronounced predominance of industrial and transport functions of interdistrict importance. All cities can be roughly divided into industrial, transport and industrial transport.

Industrial ones are very diverse, among them there are cities of narrow industrial specialization, for example, centers of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical industry, timber and timber processing industries. There are many types of specialized cities;

Performing administrative and organizational functions of "local centers" in the lower regions, national districts, along with industrial and transport, are mainly small urban-type settlements;

A special group is made up of resort cities.

In recent years, scientific and research and production centers have been developing rapidly.

Figure 1 - Functional typology of cities

Classification according to the degree of their participation in the territorial division of social labor, which depends on the size of the city, functions, connections that they support - local or interdistrict.

Some serve small territories, being local centers, others - a large area along the line of the interdistrict division of labor, the significance of the third goes beyond the borders of the country, since they participate in international economic and cultural relations.

Genetic classification... Objective patterns of development and qualitative transformations of economic functions have a great influence on the type of a modern city.

The mine settlement, founded in a large iron ore basin, in the process of development turns into a metallurgical city, the latter can also become a center of mechanical engineering. The oil field settlement has reasons to turn into a city with oil refining and non-required types of energy, labor, water, sales market, etc.

e. All this should be taken into account when selecting genetic traits.

The genetic type of a city is a concept that includes a set of features that form its certain qualities. The selection of such features is subordinate to the task for which the classification is carried out.

When forecasting the economic development of a city, it is important to know the genesis of its economic functions and their qualitative transformations. To solve planning problems, it is necessary to take into account the evolution of their planning structure.

Classification by types of prospective development is developed in district planning based on the analysis of the main factors of urban growth.

It makes it possible to comprehensively and interconnected assess the conditions and prospects for their development over a vast territory, take into account the design value, changes in the functional structure, and the creation of new cities. A promising typology of cities contributes to the purposeful development and transformation of settlement systems.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF RURAL LOCATIONS

Population of settlements (i.e., their size by the number of inhabitants) is associated with the production functions of the settlement, with the form of settlement, with the history of the given settlement.

This indicator objectively reflects the total effect of a number of factors on the development of a settlement, but does not in itself reveal these factors. At the same time, the size of settlements creates certain conditions for their life, for the organization of cultural and consumer services for their residents, therefore, the identification of a number of characteristic types of rural settlements on this basis has scientific and practical significance. "Typology of population size of settlements" can be considered as one of the types of typology, but can be most effectively used in conjunction with other typological lines - functional, morphological, genetic.

Types of rural settlements

There are dozens of options for the classification of rural settlements in medieval Western Europe. Of all their diversity, two main types of settlements can be distinguished - these are large compact (villages, villages, semi-agricultural towns) and small scattered (farms, settlements, separately located farm houses).

Compact settlements and villages differ greatly from each other in their layouts; so, for example, distinguish between "nuclear", cumulus, linear and other types of villages.

In the first type, the “core” of the settlement is the square with the church, market, etc. located on it, from which streets and lanes depart in a radial direction.

In a street village, the basis of the layout is usually several streets, intersecting with each other at different angles. Houses in such a village are located on both sides of the street and face each other.

In a linear village, houses are located on one line — along a road, river, or some fold in the terrain — and often only along one side of the road; sometimes there could be several such streets in a village: for example, in mountainous areas, courtyards often consisted of two rows, one of which goes at the foot of the slope, the other parallel to it, but slightly higher.

In a cumulus village, houses are randomly scattered and linked by alleys and driveways.

The variants of small settlements are no less varied. Usually, settlements with 10-15 households (in Scandinavia - up to 4-6 households) are considered farms. However, these yards can either be concentrated around some center (square, street), or lie quite far from each other, being connected only by common pasture, plowing, management, etc.

Even individual buildings require their own classification: after all, large, several-storey farms in flat areas are incomparable with small huts of mountain dwellers.

The many-sided picture of settlements of the medieval era has survived to this day: the overwhelming majority of settlements on the continent are believed to have arisen before the 15th century.

At the same time, certain patterns can be noticed in their occurrence. Thus, the system of open fields was most often combined with compact settlements.

The Mediterranean economic system allowed for the existence of different types of settlements, but starting from the 15th century. in places of the greatest development of agrarian relations (Central Italy, Lombardy), individual farmhouses became dominant. Geographical factors also influenced the spread of this or that type of settlement: in the lowland areas, as a rule, large villages prevailed, in the mountainous - small farms.

Finally, the decisive role in many cases was played by the historical features of the development of each area and, first of all, the nature of its settlement.

For example, military colonization explains the predominance of large settlements in East Germany and in the central regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The development of the former forest, swamps, low-lying coastal territories led to the spread of small forms of settlements - farms, settlements, settlements with individual buildings.

The character of the settlements was also influenced by the order inherent in the former population of this area (Celts, Slavs, etc.).

However, all these patterns were not always manifested; for example, in Friule, the relief of which represents the entire gamut of landscapes from the Alpine mountains to the lagoon lowland, the distribution of the types of settlements was the opposite of that indicated above: in the mountains there were compact multi-courtyard villages, on the plains - isolated houses.

It should also be taken into account that the nature of the dominant type of settlement during the Middle Ages could change repeatedly. So, in England in the Celtic era, small settlements prevailed, but already the first wave of the Anglo-Saxon invasion led to an increase in the proportion of large villages, since the conquerors preferred to settle in large clan groups.

In general, in the early Middle Ages, compact villa communities in Central, South and East Anglia were predominant. Further resettlement of the population proceeded by branching off small settlements from large settlements; their number increased even more during the period of internal colonization. As a result, in many rural areas of the country by the 15th century. small scattered settlements became the dominant type of settlements. Later, as a result of fencing, many villages were abandoned and the number of small farms and individual farms increased even more.

In Germany, the Elbe was the border between the different types of settlements.

To the west of it, cumulus villages, small irregular settlements, farmsteads and individual buildings, sometimes having a common center or, conversely, located around the arable massif, dominated. Small villages and hamlets were also common in the eastern lands (Lausitz, Brandenburg, Silesia, Czech territories); here their presence is often explained by the form of the previous Slavic settlements.

Basically, East Germany is an area dominated by large villages of the street or linear type, as well as smaller settlements that have grown up in forest clearing sites or in mountainous areas, but have the same orderly nature.

In the north and north-east of France, large villages were the overwhelming type; here the line between a small town and such a village was not large.

In the rest of the country (Massif Central, Maine, Poitou, Brittany, the eastern part of the Ile-de-France), small settlements and farms dominated. In Aquitaine, the Toulouse region, Languedoc, since the time of developed feudalism, the picture has become somewhat different: centuries-old wars have brought about a different type of settlements - bastids, fortified centers built according to a certain plan; the inhabitants of the former settlements began to flock to them.

The landscape of Spanish settlements also changed as the Reconquista progressed.

For a long time, the north and north-west of the peninsula was a territory occupied by small farms and buildings scattered one by one, but by the beginning of the Reconquista in the lands bordering with the Arabs of Leon and Old Castile, there was a process of enlargement of settlements.

On the conquered lands of New Castile, the dominant type of settlements became rare, but large-sized villages or, in the north of the region, small farms, grouped around a fortified castle. Similar large villages dominated Portugal south of the Tagus; however, to the north, farms remained the most widespread type of settlement.

The picture of Italian settlements is no less varied.

Most of the south of the peninsula was occupied by large villages, in places mixed with small settlements and farms; only in Apulia and Calabria scattered small farms dominated.

Developing a Viable Rural Settlement Model for the 21st Century

Large villages and semi-agricultural towns also dominated southern Central Italy. In the northern part of Lazio, the Marche, Tuscany, Emilia, a large part of Lombardy, Veneto and Piedmont, the most common type of settlement were small villages, farms and individual farms - podere.

The presence of a dominant type of settlements in each of the regions of the continent did not at all deny the existence of settlements of a different type in it. As a rule, in almost every locality there were both large village centers and small settlements, or even individual houses - farms.

We are talking only about the predominant type of settlement that determines the face of a given territory.

Search Lectures

V. OTHER CONCEPTS AND TERMS OF TRAFFIC. (8 points p. 15-16 / 20 min.)

№	DEFINITIONS and TERMS OF TRAFFIC	CONTENT	Time
5.1.	"Daytime running lights" - external lighting devices designed to improve the visibility of a moving vehicle from the front during daylight hours.	“These are LED lamps of the vehicle, which are installed in its front part, not lower than 25 centimeters above the ground and not higher than 1.5 meters. The distance between them must be at least 60 centimeters, and the distance from them to the extreme point of the vehicle must not be more than 40 centimeters. They are directed straight ahead, turn on simultaneously with the ignition on and turn off when switching to low beam headlights. " If the design of DRLs are not provided for, the dipped beam or fog lights must be constantly on - at any time of the year during daylight hours (clause 19.5 of the SDA)	19:10-19:30
5.2.	When conditions of insufficient visibility occur, in the dark, as well as in tunnels, drivers must turn on the MIDDLE or HIGH headlights, and, if necessary, fog lights and taillights.
5.3.	"Settlement" - a built-up area, the entrances to which and exits from which are indicated and 5.25-5.26. "Beginning and end of the settlement", Note: for us. p-in, marked with signs 5.23.1-5.23.2, 5.24.1-5.24.2, there are traffic rules that establish the order of movement in populated areas. - for us. p-in, marked with signs 5.24.1-5.24.2 (blue background) on this road there are no traffic rules that establish the order of movement in populated areas. For example, a parking stop on the left side of the road, a speed limit of 60 km / h (if no speed limit signs are installed), the advantage of moving Marshr. Vehicle when leaving stops)

The main differences in traffic rules operating in populated and outside populated areas.

Traffic rules	For "Inhabited areas" Signs: 5.23.1-5.24.2 - with a WHITE background, establishing the order of movement for the "Inhabited areas"	For "Out of populated areas" Signs 5.25-5.26- with blue background , establishing the order of movement for "Outside populated areas" ON THE ROAD marked with this sign
Location of the vehicle on the carriageway clauses 9.4., 9.5.	A.9.4. Vehicle location drive the vehicle as close as possible to the right edge of the carriageway. (And also in the area of ​​the signs 5.1., "Highway" and 5.3. "Road for cars")
In other places of the inhabited p-ta The lane that is most convenient for them can be used. But with heavy traffic- when all lanes are occupied, you can change only for turning, turning, avoiding obstacles.	Drive the vehicle as close as possible to the right edge of the carriageway. (can only be changed for turning, reversing, avoiding obstacles and during heavy traffic - when others. lanes are occupied). A Gr. Cars with PMM> 2.5 tons. and slow-moving -(on roads with three or more lanes in one direction) - only for turning left, making a U-turn, avoiding an obstacle) (Section 9.4)
High-speed mode p.10.	p.10.2 before 60 km / h., unless otherwise specified by signs 3.24. Make schematic drawings of different types of rural settlements ... "Maximum speed limit") or signs of signs 5.1., "Highway" and 5.3. "Road for cars"),	p. 10.3 St. 60 km / h(for different categories of vehicles, unless a different mode is set by signs 3.24. "Maximum speed limit", 5.1., "Motorway", or by the decision of the owners or owners)
Parking stop rules ON THE LEFT SIDE roads p.12.1.	ALLOWED - on roads single lane for each direction without trams. paths in the middle - and on the roads one way(sign 5.5.), except for vehicles with RMM> 3.5 tn (only for loading-unloading)	NOT ALLOWED Section 12.3. Parking for the purpose of long rest, overnight stay, etc. outside the settlement is permitted only on designated sites or outside the road (shoulder). Parking is NOT ALLOWED on Ave. the part marked with the sign 2.1. Main road (only possible on the side of the road (see clause 12.5)
Using sound signals. Use of external lighting devices at night.	in areas with lighting - only dipped headlights sound signals- (for accident prevention only).	Low / high beam headlights ( switch over 150m or closer when dazzled)Sound signal - to prevent road accidents, to attract the attention of other drivers when overtaking, etc.).
The use of an emergency stop sign, clause 7.2.	At a distance that provides timely warning to dr. drivers about the danger, BUT not less than 15 m.	At a distance that provides a timely warning of other drivers about the danger in a specific situation, but not less than 30 m
Installation of warning signs (Appendix 1, item 1) 1.1., 1.2.	50 -100 m to the dangerous area if there is no table. 8.1.1. Object distance	100 -150 m to the dangerous area if there is no table. 8.1.1. Object distance
Rules for the movement of pedestrians and pedestrian columns p.4.1.	When driving along the sides or the edge of the carriageway at night or in conditions of insufficient visibility, pedestrians are advised to carry objects with reflective elements and ensure the visibility of these objects by vehicle drivers.	When driving along the side of the road or the edge of the carriageway at night or in conditions of insufficient visibility, pedestrians MUST carry objects with reflective elements and ensure the visibility of these objects by vehicle drivers.

5.4.	"Insufficient visibility" - road visibility less than 300 m in fog, rain, snow and the like, and also at dusk.	See clause 19.1. (Using external lights)
5.5.	"Dark time of the day" - the period of time from the end of the evening twilight to the beginning of the morning twilight.	Turns on Bl. Or high beam headlights "The use of lighting devices" - headlights of near and far colors, switching at least 150 m or less in case of dazzle). See clause 19.1
5.5.	"Limited visibility" - the driver's visibility of the road in the direction of travel, limited by the terrain, geometric parameters of the road, vegetation, buildings, structures or other objects, including vehicles.	DO NOT BE CONFUSED with Insufficient Visibility! (in tickets, a distance of at least 100 m in at least one direction is used - it is prohibited to TURN and REVERSE clause 8.11)
5.6.	"Dangerous cargo" - substances, products made from them, waste from industrial and other economic activities, which, due to their inherent properties, can pose a threat to human life and health during transportation, harm the environment, damage or destroy material values.	It is indicated by special signs installed in front and behind, and, if necessary, on the side of the vehicle ( for m / public transport- orange with black border, with other- the right part is orange, the left is white with a black border (see. clause 8 "Basic provisions for the admission of the vehicle")
5.7.	"Permitted maximum mass" - the mass of the equipped vehicle with 1) cargo, 2) by driver 3) and passengers installed by the manufacturer as the maximum allowed. Permitted maximum weight composition of vehicles, that is, linked and moving as one, is accepted sum of permitted maximum masses vehicles included in the composition.	NOTE: 1. The movement of a vehicle with different RMM is regulated by signs: 3.4. The movement of trucks is prohibited "(as well as tractors and self-propelled vehicles). Except with RMM<3,5 тн, если на знаке не указана масса и грузовиков перевозящих людей).3.12. Restriction of mass on the vehicle axle sign 3.12.3.22. Overtaking by trucks is prohibited (except with RMM<3,5, если на знаке не указана масса). ЗАПРЕЩАЕТСЯ · !!! p.9.4. by truck PMM> 2.5 tons. n on roads with three and> lanes in one direction, occupy the leftmost lane (only for turning left or making a U-turn). A.12.1. Vehicle with RMM> 3.5 t. STOP on the left lane (only allowed to stop for loading and unloading) · PARKING with a drive to the edge of the sidewalk and in the parking area marked with the Parking sign from the table. 8.6.2-8.6.9 .. · On the highway - vehicle traffic with RMM> 3.5 tons. further on the second strip 1. Maximum SPEED Outside inhabited n-x for Cargo Vehicles with GVW> 3.5 tons, no more than 70 km / h (no more than 90 km / h. on HIGHWAYS) for Trucks with PMM<3.5 тн.не более 90 км/час (не более 110 км/час. на АВТОМАГИСТРАЛЯХ)
5.8.	KNOW A.2 General duties of drivers A.4 Responsibilities of pedestrians. Clause 5 Obligations of passengers. P.7 Application of alarms P.8. Beginning of maneuvering. P.10 Movement speed. A.14. Pedestrian crossings and places of stops for route vehicles. A.17. Movement in residential areas, clause 19.1. Use of external lighting devices) p.24. MOVEMENT OF BIKES AND MOPEDS	Tasks for fixing topics: 1.1-1.27, 2.1.-2.13, 7.1.-7.9., 8.1-8.56, 8.72, 8.74-8.78 10.1-10.16, 14.1-14.4 17.1-17.6 19.1-19.24 24.1

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The city as a habitat

A city is a large settlement, the inhabitants of which are involved in various activities, excluding agriculture.

The city forms qualitatively new ties between the people living in it.

If in the countryside the relationship between people is built mainly on the basis of family ties, then in the city people come together on the basis of common labor.

Living in the city is fraught with a significant disadvantage: remoteness from nature.

Geography lesson on the topic "Settlements", grade 7

A person is forced to live in conditions that are biologically alien to him.

That is why today the government is developing special programs for urban greening, which will create the most comfortable living conditions for citizens.

Distinctive features of the urban environment

The city as a human habitat has the following special characteristics:

- the presence of different types of transport, which generates traffic intensity;

- the totality of a group of manufacturing enterprises;

- concentration on a small area of ​​a large number of communications - telephone lines, gas pipelines, power grids;

- a large number of people permanently residing in a unit of area;

- housing shortage.

The village as a habitat

The village is a small settlement, the inhabitants of which are predominantly engaged in agricultural production.

The biggest advantage of living in a village is environmental safety.

The absence of industrial centers and proximity to nature have a beneficial effect on the environment.

The main disadvantage is that communications in some villages are not sufficiently developed: there are no gas pipelines, sewerage systems, water pipelines, which significantly complicates the life of the villagers.

The good standard of living of the villagers is directly related to the level of agricultural development.

A decline in agricultural production creates unemployment, which in turn leads to problems such as drunkenness and an increase in crime.

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Each natural zone has its own types of rural settlements and their distribution across the territory. In addition, dwellings differ in different natural conditions. Highly urbanized rural settlements are being formed near the cities.

Rice. 2. Hut in the zone of mixed forests ()

The best conditions for farming are in natural zones of steppes, forest-steppes, deciduous forests and subtropics. It is within these natural zones that most of the rural residents of Russia live.

There are 150 thousand rural settlements in Russia. But over time, the number of rural settlements and rural residents in Russia is decreasing. This is due to the development of industry, restructuring of the economy, the absence of schools, hospitals and other socially important institutions in rural areas, and often poor and difficult living conditions.

The main types of rural settlements in Russia:

1. Village (fig. 3)
2. Stanitsa
3. Village
4. Khutor
5. Nomadic settlements, etc.

Rice. 3. A village in the Kaluga region ()

Types of rural settlements by population:

1. Small (up to 100 people)
2. Medium (from 100 to 1000 people)
3. Large (over 1000 people)

Residents of rural settlements are employed in agriculture, forestry, and industry. Rural settlements are used for recreation of both rural residents and tired townspeople (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Rest in the village ()

Buranovo

Buranovo is a village in Udmurtia. It was from this village that the Buranovskie Babushki collective took the honorable 2nd place at Eurovision in 2012 (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. "Buranovskie grandmothers" at Eurovision ()

John Kopiski

John Kopiski is a successful entrepreneur who came to Russia and became a farmer.

Elk farm

Elk farms - farms for raising elk at home (in the countryside).

Lykovs

The Lykovs are a family that lived without urban and modern amenities in the taiga.

Bibliography

The main

1. Geography of Russia: Textbook. for 8-9 cl. general education. institutions / Ed. A.I. Alekseeva: In 2 books. Book. 1: Nature and people. 8 cl. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, 2009 .-- 320 p.
2. Geography of Russia. Nature. 8th grade: textbook. for general education. institutions / I.I. Barinov. - M .: Bustard; Moscow textbooks, 2011 .-- 303 p.
3. Geography. 8th grade: atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, DIK, 2013 .-- 48 p.
4. Geography. Russia. Nature and people. 8th grade: Atlas - 7th ed., Revision. - M .: Bustard; DIK Publishing House, 2010 - 56 p.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography. Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin - M .: Rosmen-Press, 2006 .-- 624 p.

Literature for preparing for the State Examination and the Unified State Exam

1. Thematic control. Geography. The nature of Russia. Grade 8: study guide. - Moscow: Intellect-Center, 2010 .-- 144 p.
2. Tests in the geography of Russia: grades 8-9: k textbooks, ed. V.P. Dronov “Geography of Russia. 8-9 grades: textbook. for general education. institutions "/ V.I. Evdokimov. - M .: Publishing house "Examination", 2009. - 109 p.
3. Getting ready for the GIA. Geography. 8th grade. Final testing in the format of an exam. / Auth.-comp. T.V. Abramov. - Yaroslavl: LLC "Academy of Development", 2011. - 64 p.
4. Tests. Geography. 6-10 grades: Teaching aid / A.A. Letyagin. - M .: OOO "Agency" KRPA "Olymp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.

1. Federal Institute for Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Russian Geographical Society ().
3. Geografia.ru ().
4. Federal State Statistics Service ().

Homework

Clause 57.

1. What are the main types of rural settlements.